Linear Algebra by A.R. Vasishtha Pdfnotes - Co

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Krishna's
TEXT BOOK on
Linear Algebra
(For B.A. and B.Sc. V th Semester students of Kumaun University)
Kumaun University Semester Syllabus w.e.f. 2018-19
By
A.R. Vasishtha A.K. Vasishtha

Retired Head, Dept. of Mathematics M.Sc., Ph.D.
Meerut College, Meerut C.C.S. University, Meerut
Kumaun
KRISHNA Prakashan Media (P) Ltd.

KRISHNA HOUSE, 11, Shivaji Road, Meerut-250001 (U.P.), India
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Jai Shri Radhey Shyam
Dedicated
to
Lord
Krishna
Authors & Publishers
P reface
This book on Linear Algebra has been specially written according to the latest
Syllabus to meet the requirements of B.A. and B.Sc. Semester-V Students of all
colleges affiliated to Kumaun University.
The subject matter has been discussed in such a simple way that the students will find
no difficulty to understand it. The proofs of various theorems and examples have been
given with minute details. Each chapter of this book contains complete theory and a fairly
large number of solved examples. Sufficient problems have also been selected from various
university examination papers. At the end of each chapter an exercise containing objective
questions has been given.
We have tried our best to keep the book free from misprints. The authors shall be
grateful to the readers who point out errors and omissions which, inspite of all care, might
have been there.
The authors, in general, hope that the present book will be warmly received by the
students and teachers. We shall indeed be very thankful to our colleagues for their
recommending this book to their students.
The authors wish to express their thanks to Mr. S.K. Rastogi, M.D., Mr. Sugam Rastogi,
Executive Director, Mrs. Kanupriya Rastogi, Director and entire team of KRISHNA
Prakashan Media (P) Ltd., Meerut for bringing out this book in the present nice form.
The authors will feel amply rewarded if the book serves the purpose for which it is
meant. Suggestions for the improvement of the book are always welcome.
— Authors
Syllabus
Linear Algebra
B.A./B.Sc. V Semester
Kumaun University
Fifth Semester – First Paper
B.A./B.Sc. Paper-I M.M.-60
Linear Transformations: Linear transformations, rank and nullity, Linear operators,

Algebra of linear transformations, Invertible linear transformations, isomorphism; Matrix of
a linear transformation, Matrix of the sum and product of linear transformations, Change of
basis, similarity of matrices.
Linear Functionals: Linear functional, Dual space and dual basis, Double dual space,
Annihilators, hyperspace; Transpose of a linear transformation.
Eigen vectors and Eigen values: Eigen vectors and Eigen values of a matrix, product of
characteristic roots of a matrix and basic results on characteristic roots, nature of the
characteristic roots of Hermitian, skew-Hermitian, unitary and orthogonal matrices,
characteristic equation of a matrix, Cayley-Hamilton theorem and its use in finding inverse of
a matrix.
Bilinear forms: Bilinear forms, symmetric and skew-symmetric bilinear forms, quadratic
form associated with a bilinear form.
B rief C ontents
Dedication.........................................................................(v)
Preface............................................................................(vi)
Syllabus (Kumaun University)............................................(vii)
Brief Contents ................................................................(viii)
Chapter 1: Linear Transformations.................................................L-01—L-50
Chapter 2: Matrices and Linear Transformations.............................L-51—L-84
Chapter 3: Linear Functionals and Dual Space..............................L-85—L-128
Chapter 4: Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors...................................L-129—L-166
Chapter 5: Bilinear and Quadratic Forms....................................L-167—L-192

Krishna’s
LINEAR ALGEBRA
C hapters
1. Linear Transformations
1.
2. Matrices and Linear Transformations
3. Linear Functionals and Dual Space
4. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
1.
5. Bilinear and Quadratic Forms
L-3
1
L inear T ransformations
1 Linear Transformation or Vector Space Homomorphism

(Garhwal 2010)
efinition: Let U ( F ) and V ( F ) be two vector spaces over the same field F. A linear
D transformation from U into V is a function T from U into V such that
T (aα + bβ) = aT (α) + bT ( β) …(1)
for all α, β in U and for all a, b in F.
The condition (1) is also called linearity property. It can be easily seen that the
condition (1) is equivalent to the condition
T (aα + β) = aT (α) + T ( β)
for all α, β in U and all scalars a in F.
Linear Operator: Definition: Let V ( F ) be a vector space. A linear operator on V is a
function T from V into V such that
T (aα + bβ) = aT (α) + bT ( β)
for all α, β in V and for all a, b in F. (Kumaun 2014)
Thus T is a linear operator on V if T is a linear transformation from V into V itself.
L-4
Illustration 1: The function

T : V3 (R) → V2 (R)
defined by T (a, b, c ) = (a, b) V a, b, c ∈ R is a linear transformation from V3 (R) into V2 (R).
Let α = (a1, b1, c1), β = (a2 , b2 , c2 ) ∈ V3 (R).
If a, b ∈ R , then
T (aα + bβ) = T [a (a1, b1, c1) + b (a2 , b2 , c2 )]
= T (aa1 + ba2 , ab1 + bb2 , ac1 + bc2 )
= (aa1 + ba2 , ab1 + bb2 ) [ By def. of T ]
= (aa1, ab1) + (ba2 , bb2 )
= a (a1, b1) + b (a2 , b2 )
= aT (a1, b1, c1) + bT (a2 , b2 , c2 )
= aT (α) + bT ( β).
∴ T is a linear transformation from V3 (R) into V2 (R).
Illustration 2: Let V ( F ) be the vector space of all m × n matrices over the field F. Let P be a
fixed m × m matrix over F, and let Q be a fixed n × n matrix over F. The correspondence T from V
into V defined by
T ( A) = PAQ V A ∈ V
is a linear operator on V.
If A is an m × n matrix over the field F, then PAQ is also an m × n matrix over the field F.
Therefore T is a function from V into V. Now let A, B ∈ V and a, b ∈ F . Then
T (aA + bB) = P (aA + bB ) Q [ By def. of T ]
= (aPA + bPB) Q = a PAQ + b PBQ
= aT ( A) + bT ( B ).
∴ T is a linear transformation from V into V. Thus T is a linear operator on V.
Illustration 3: Let V ( F ) be the vector space of all polynomials over the field F. Let
f ( x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + … + an x n ∈ V be a polynomial of degree n in the indeterminate x.
Let us define
D f ( x) = a1 + 2 a2 x + … + nan x n − 1 if n > 1
and D f ( x) = 0 if f ( x) is a constant polynomial.
Then the correspondence D from V into V is a linear operator on V.
If f ( x) is a polynomial over the field F, then Df ( x) as defined above is also a polynomial
over the field F. Thus if f ( x) ∈ V , then Df ( x) ∈ V . Therefore D is a function from V into
V.
Also if f ( x), g ( x) ∈ V and a, b ∈ F , then
D [a f ( x) + bg ( x)] = a Df ( x) + b Dg ( x).
∴ D is a linear transformation from V into V.
The operator D on V is called the differentiation operator. It should be noted that for
polynomials the definition of differentiation can be given purely algebraically, and
does not require the usual theory of limiting processes.
L-5
Illustration 4: Let V (R) be the vector space of all continuous functions from R into R. If
f ∈ V and we define T by
x
(Tf ) ( x) = ∫0 f (t) dt V x ∈ R ,
then T is a linear transformation from V into V.

If f is real valued continuous function, then Tf , as defined above, is also a real valued
continuous function. Thus
f ∈ V ⇒ Tf ∈ V .
Also the operation of integration satisfies the linearity property. Therefore T is a linear
transformation from V into V.
2 Some Particular Transformations

1. Zero Transformation: Let U ( F ) and V ( F ) be two vector spaces. The function T , from
U into V defined by
T (α) = 0 (zero vector of V ) V α ∈U
is a linear transformation from U into V.
Let α, β ∈U and a, b ∈ F . Then aα + bβ ∈ U .
We have T (aα + bβ) = 0 [By def. of T ]
= a 0 + b 0 = aT (α) + bT ( β).
∴ T is a linear transformation from U into V. It is called zero transformation and
^
we shall in future denote it by 0.
2. Identity Operator: Let V ( F ) be a vector space. The function I from V into V defined by
I (α) = α V α ∈ V is a linear transformation from V into V.
If α, β ∈V and a, b ∈ F , then aα + bβ ∈ V and we have
I (aα + bβ) = aα + bβ [By def. of I ]
= aI (α) + bI ( β).
∴ I is a linear transformation from V into V. The transformation I is called identity
operator on V and we shall always denote it by I.
3. Negative of a Linear Transformation: Let U ( F ) and V ( F ) be two vector spaces.
Let T be a linear transformation from U into V. The correspondence − T defined by
(− T ) (α) = − [T (α)] V α ∈ U
is a linear transformation from U into V. (Garhwal 2008)
Since T (α) ∈ V ⇒ − T (α) ∈ V , therefore − T is a function from U into V.
Let α, β ∈U and a, b ∈ F . Then aα + bβ ∈ U and we have
(− T ) (aα + bβ) = − [T (aα + bβ)] [ By def. of − T ]
= − [aT (α) + bT ( β)]
[∵ T is a linear transformation]
= a [− T (α)] + b [− T ( β)]
= a [(− T ) α] + b [(− T ) β].
L-6
∴ − T is a linear transformation from U into V. The linear transformation − T is called

the negative of the linear transformation T .
3 Properties of Linear Transformations.

Theorem: Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space U ( F ) into a vector space
V ( F ).. Then
(i) T (0) = 0 where 0 on the left hand side is zero vector of U and 0 on the right hand side is
zero vector of V.
(ii) T (− α) = − T (α) V α ∈ U .
(iii) T (α − β) = T (α) − T ( β) V α, β ∈ U .
(iv) T (a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n) = a1T (α1) + a2T (α2 ) + … + anT (α n)
where α1, α2 ,… α n ∈ U and a1, a2 , … , an ∈ F .
Proof: (i) Let α ∈U. Then T (α) ∈ V . We have
T (α) + 0 = T (α) [∵ 0 is zero vector of V and T (α) ∈ V ]
= T (α + 0) [∵ 0 is zero vector of U ]
= T (α) + T (0) [∵ T is a linear transformation]
Now in the vector space V, we have
T (α) + 0 = T (α) + T (0)
⇒ 0 = T (0), by left cancellation law for addition in V.
Note: When we write T (0) = 0, there should be no confusion about the vector 0. Here
T is a function from U into V. Therefore if 0 ∈U, then its image under T i. e., T (0) ∈ V .
Thus in T (0) = 0, the zero on the right hand side is zero vector of V.
(ii) We have T [α + (− α)] = T (α) + T (− α) [∵ T is a linear transformation]
But T [α + (− α)] = T (0) = 0 ∈ V . [By (i)]
Thus in V, we have
T (α) + T (− α) = 0 ⇒ T (− α) = − T (α).
(iii) We have T (α − β) = T [α + (− β)] = T (α) + T (− β) [∵ T is linear]
= T (α) + [− T ( β)] [By (ii)]
= T (α) − T ( β).
(iv) We shall prove the result by induction on n, the number of vectors in the linear
combination a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n .
Suppose T (a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an − 1 α n − 1) = a1 T (α1) + a2 T (α2 )
+ … + an − 1 T (α n − 1). …(1)
Then T (a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n)
= [T (a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an − 1 α n − 1) + an α n]
= T (a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an − 1 α n − 1) + an T (α n)
= [a1 T (α1) + a2 T (α2 ) + … + an − 1 T (α n − 1)] + an T (α n) [By (1)]
= a1 T (α1) + a2 T (α2 ) + … + an − 1 T (α n − 1) + an T (α n).
L-7
Now the proof is complete by induction since the result is true when the number of
vectors in the linear combination is 1.
Note: On account of this property sometimes we say that a linear transformation
preserves linear combinations.
4 Range and Null Space of a Linear Transformation

Range of a Linear Transformation: (Kumaun 2007, 14; Gorakhpur 15)
Definition: Let U ( F ) and V ( F ) be two vector spaces and let T be a linear transformation
from U into V. Then the range of T written as R (T ) is the set of all vectors β in V such that
β = T (α) for some α in U.
Thus the range of T is the image set of U under T i. e.,
Range ( T ) = {T (α) ∈ V : α ∈ U }.
Theorem 1: If U ( F ) and V ( F ) are two vector spaces and T is a linear transformation from
U into V, then range of T is a subspace of V. (Kumaun 2009; Gorakhpur 14)
Proof: Obviously R ( T ) is a non-empty subset of V.
Let β1, β2 ∈ R ( T ). Then there exist vectors α1, α2 in U such that
T (α1) = β1, T (α2 ) = β2 .
Let a, b be any elements of the field F. We have
aβ1 + bβ2 = a T (α1) + b T (α2 )
= T (aα1 + bα2 ) [∵ T is a linear transformation]
Now U is a vector space. Therefore α1, α2 ∈U and
a, b ∈ F ⇒ aα1 + bα2 ∈ U .
Consequently T (aα1 + bα2 ) = aβ1 + bβ2 ∈ R (T ).
Thus a, b ∈ F and β1, β2 ∈ R (T ) ⇒ aβ1 + bβ2 ∈ R (T ).
Therefore R (T ) is a subspace of V.
Null space of Linear Transformation: (Kumaun 2007, 14; Gorakhpur 15)
Definition: Let U ( F ) and V ( F ) be two vector spaces and let T be a linear transformation
from U into V. Then the null space of T written as N ( T ) is the set of all vectors α in U such that
T (α) = 0 (zero vector of V). Thus
N ( T ) = {α ∈ U : T (α) = 0 ∈ V }.
If we regard the linear transformation T from U into V as a vector space homomorphism
of U into V, then the null space of T is also called the kernel of T .
Theorem 2: If U ( F ) and V ( F ) are two vector spaces and T is a linear transformation from
U into V, then the kernel of T or the null space of T is a subspace of U.
(Gorakhpur 2014)
Proof: Let N ( T ) = {α ∈ U : T (α) = 0 ∈ V }.
Since T (0) = 0 ∈ V , therefore at least 0 ∈ N ( T ).
Thus N ( T ) is a non-empty subset of U.
Let α1, α2 ∈ N ( T ). Then T (α1) = 0 and T (α2 ) = 0.
L-8
Let a, b ∈ F . Then aα1 + bα2 ∈ U and

T (aα1 + bα2 ) = a T (α1) + b T (α2 ) [∵ T is a linear transformation]
= a0 + b 0 = 0 + 0 = 0 ∈ V .
∴ aα1 + bα2 ∈ N (T ).
Thus a, b ∈ F and α1, α2 ∈ N ( T ) ⇒ aα1 + bα2 ∈ N ( T ). Therefore N ( T ) is a subspace
of U.
5 Rank and Nullity of a Linear Transformation

(Gorakhpur 2010; Garhwal 10B)
Theorem 1: Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space U ( F ) into a vector space
V ( F ). If U is finite dimensional, then the range of T is a finite dimensional subspace of V.
Proof: Since U is finite dimensional, therefore there exists a finite subset of U, say
{α1, α2 , … , α n} which spans U.
Let β ∈ range of T . Then there exists α in U such that T (α) = β.
Now α ∈ U ⇒ ∃ a1, a2 , … , an ∈ F such that
α = a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n
⇒ T (α) = T (a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n)
⇒ β = a1 T (α1) + a2 T (α2 ) + … + an T (α n). …(1)
Now the vectors T (α1), T (α2 ), … , T (α n) are in the range of T . If β is any vector in the
range of T , then from (1), we see that β can be expressed as a linear combination of
T (α1), T (α2 ), … , T (α n).
Therefore range of T is spanned by the vectors
T (α1), T (α2 ), … , T (α n).
Hence range of T is finite dimensional.
Now we are in a position to define rank and nullity of a linear transformation.
Rank and Nullity of a Linear Transformation:
(Garhwal 2007, 10; Gorakhpur 2012)
Definition: Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space U ( F ) into a vector space
V ( F ) with U as finite dimensional. The rank of T denoted by ρ ( T ) is the dimension of the range
of T i. e.,
ρ ( T ) = dim R ( T ).
The nullity of T denoted by ν ( T ) is the dimension of the null space of T i. e.,
ν ( T ) = dim N ( T ).
Theorem 2: Let U and V be vector spaces over the field F and let T be a linear transformation
from U into V. Suppose that U is finite dimensional. Then
rank ( T ) + nullity ( T ) = dim U .
(Gorakhpur 2010, 12; Kumaun 13, 14)
Proof: Let N be the null space of T . Then N is a subspace of U. Since U is finite
dimensional, therefore N is finite dimensional. Let dim N = nullity ( T ) = k and let
{α1, α2 , … , α k} be a basis for N.
L-9
Since {α1, α2 , … , α k} is a linearly independent subset of U, therefore we can extend it to

form a basis of U. Let dim U = n and let
{α1, α2 , … , α k , α k + 1 , … , α n }
be a basis for U.
The vectors T (α1), T (α2 ), … , T (α k ), T (α k + 1), … , T (α n) are in the range of T . We
claim that {T (α k + 1), T (α k + 2 ), … , T (α n)} is a basis for the range of T .
(i) First we shall prove that the vectors
T (α k + 1), T (α k + 2 ), … , T (α n) span the range of T .
Let β ∈ range of T . Then there exists α ∈U such that
T (α) = β.
Now α ∈ U ⇒ ∃ a1, a2 , … , an ∈ F such that
α = a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n
⇒ T (α) = T (a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n)
⇒ β = a1T (α1) + … + ak T (α k ) + ak + 1 T (α k + 1) + … + an T (α n)
⇒ β = ak + 1 T (α k + 1) + ak +2 T (α k + 2 ) + … + an T (α n)
[ ∵ α1, α2 , … , α k ∈ N ⇒ T (α1) = 0, … , T (α k ) = 0]
∴ the vectors T (α k + 1), … , T (α n) span the range of T .
(ii) Now we shall show that the vectors T (α k + 1), … , T (α n) are linearly
independent.
Let c k + 1, … , c n ∈ F be such that
c k + 1 T (α k + 1) + … + c n T (α n) = 0
⇒ T (c k + 1 α k + 1 + … + c n α n) = 0
⇒ c k + 1 α k + 1 + … + c n α n ∈ null space of T i. e., N
⇒ c k + 1 α k + 1 + … + c n α n = b1α1 + b2 α2 + … + bk α k
for some b1, b2 , … , bk ∈ F
[∵ Each vector in N can be expressed as a linear
combination of the vectors α1, … , α k forming a basis of N ]
⇒ b1α1 + … + bkα k − c k + 1 α k + 1 − … − c n α n = 0
⇒ b1 = … = bk = c k +1 = … = c n = 0
[ ∵ α1, α2 , … , α k , α k + 1, … , α n are linearly
independent, being a basis for U ]
⇒ the vectors T (α k + 1), … , T (α n) are linearly independent.
∴ The vectors T (α k + 1), … , T (α n) form a basis of range of T .
∴ rank T = dim of range of T = n − k .
∴ rank (T ) + nullity (T ) = (n − k ) + k = n = dim U .
Note:If in place of the vector space V, we take the vector space U i. e., if T is a linear
transformation on an n-dimensional vector space U, even then as a special case of the
above theorem,
ρ ( T ) + ν ( T ) = n.
L-10
Example 1: Show that the mapping T : V3 (R) → V2 (R) defined as

T (a1, a2 , a3 ) = (3 a1 − 2 a2 + a3 , a1 − 3 a2 − 2 a3 ) (Kumaun 2015)
is a linear transformation from V3 (R) into V2 (R).
Solution: Let α = (a1, a2 , a3 ), β = (b1, b2 , b3 ) ∈ V3 (R).
Then T (α) = T (a1, a2 , a3 ) = (3 a1 − 2 a2 + a3 , a1 − 3 a2 − 2 a3 )
and T ( β) = (3 b1 − 2 b2 + b3 , b1 − 3 b2 − 2 b3 ).
Also let a, b ∈ R. Then aα + bβ ∈ V3 (R). We have
T (aα + bβ) = T [a (a1, a2 , a3 ) + b (b1, b2 , b3 )]
= T (aa1 + bb1, aa2 + bb2 , aa3 + bb3 )
= (3 (aa1 + bb1) − 2 (aa2 + bb2 ) + aa3 + bb3 ,
aa1 + bb1 − 3 (aa2 + bb2 ) − 2 (aa3 + bb3 ))
= (a (3 a1 − 2 a2 + a3 ) + b (3 b1 − 2 b2 + b3 ),
a (a1 − 3 a2 − 2 a3 ) + b (b1 − 3 b2 − 2 b3 ))
= a (3 a1 − 2 a2 + a3 , a1 − 3 a2 − 2 a3 )
+ b (3 b1 − 2 b2 + b3 , b1 − 3 b2 − 2 b3 )
= aT (α) + bT (β).
Hence T is a linear transformation from V3 (R) into V2 (R).
Example 2: Show that the mapping T : V2 (R) → V3 (R) defined as
T (a, b) = (a + b, a − b, b)
is a linear transformation from V2 (R) into V3 (R). Find the range, rank, null-space and nullity
of T . (Kumaun 2009, 13; Gorakhpur 12, 14)
Solution: Let α = (a1, b1), β = (a2 , b2 ) ∈ V2 (R).
Then T (α) = T (a1, b1) = (a1 + b1, a1 − b1, b1)
and T ( β) = (a2 + b2 , a2 − b2 , b2 ).
Also let a, b ∈ R.
Then aα + bβ ∈ V2 (R)
and T (aα + bβ) = T [a (a1, b1) + b (a2 , b2 )]
= T (aa1 + ba2 , ab1 + bb2 )
= (aa1 + ba2 + ab1 + bb2 , aa1 + ba2 − ab1 − bb2 , ab1 + bb2 )
= (a [a1 + b1] + b [a2 + b2 ], a [a1 − b1] + b [a2 − b2 ], ab1 + bb2 )
= a (a1 + b1, a1 − b1, b1) + b (a2 + b2 , a2 − b2 , b2 )
= aT (α) + bT ( β).
Now {(1, 0 ), (0 , 1)} is a basis for V2 (R).
We have T (1, 0 ) = (1 + 0 , 1 − 0 , 0 ) = (1, 1, 0 )
and T (0 , 1) = (0 + 1, 0 − 1, 1) = (1, − 1, 1).
L-11
The vectors T (1, 0 ), T (0 , 1) span the range of T .

Thus the range of T is the subspace of V3 (R) spanned by the vectors (1, 1, 0 ), (1, − 1, 1).
Now the vectors (1, 1, 0 ), (1, − 1, 1) ∈V3 (R) are linearly independent because if x, y ∈ R,
then
x (1, 1, 0 ) + y (1, − 1, 1) = (0 , 0 , 0 )
⇒ ( x + y, x − y, y) = (0 , 0 , 0 )
⇒ x + y = 0, x − y = 0, y = 0 ⇒ x = 0, y = 0.
∴ The vectors (1, 1, 0 ), (1, − 1, 1) form a basis for the range of T .
Hence, rank T = dim of range of T = 2.
Nullity of T = dim of V2 (R) − rank T = 2 − 2 = 0.
∴ Null space of T must be the zero subspace of V2 (R).
Otherwise, (a, b) ∈ null space of T
⇒ T (a, b) = (0 , 0 , 0 ) ⇒ (a + b, a − b, b) = (0 , 0 , 0 )
⇒ a + b = 0, a − b = 0, b = 0 ⇒ a = 0, b = 0.
∴ (0 , 0 ) is the only element of V2 (R) which belongs to the null space of T .
∴ Null space of T is the zero subspace of V2 (R).
Example 3: Let V be the vector space of all n × n matrices over the field F and let B be a fixed
n × n matrix. If T ( A) = AB − BA V A ∈ V , verify that T is a linear transformation from V
into V. (Kumaun 2013)
Solution: If A ∈ V , then T ( A) = AB − BA ∈ V because AB − BA is also an n × n
matrix over the field F. Thus T is a function from V into V.
Let A1, A2 ∈ V and a, b ∈ F .
Then aA1 + bA2 ∈ V
and T (aA1 + bA2 ) = (aA1 + bA2 ) B − B (aA1 + bA2 )
= aA1 B + bA2 B − aBA1 − bBA2
= a ( A1 B − BA1) + b ( A2 B − BA2 )
= aT ( A1) + bT ( A2 ).
∴ T is a linear transformation from V into V.
Example 4: Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F and let T be a linear
transformation from V into V such that the range and null space of T are identical. Prove that n is
even. Give an example of such a linear transformation.
Solution: Let N be the null space of T . Then N is also the range of T .
Now ρ ( T ) + ν ( T ) = dim V
i. e., dim of range of T + dim of null space of T = dim V = n
i. e., 2 dim N = n [∵ range of T = null space of T = N ]
i. e., n is even.
Example of such a transformation:
Let T : V2 (R) → V2 (R) be defined by
T (a, b) = (b, 0 ) V a, b ∈ R.
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Let α = (a1, b1), β = (a2 , b2 ) ∈ V2 (R) and let x, y ∈ R.

Then T ( xα + yβ) = T ( x (a1, b1) + y (a2 , b2 ))
= T ( xa1 + ya2 , xb1 + yb2 ) = ( xb1 + yb2 , 0 )
= ( xb1, 0 ) + ( yb2 , 0 ) = x (b1, 0 ) + y (b2 , 0 )
= xT (a1, b1) + yT (a2 , b2 ) = xT (α) + yT ( β).
Now {(1, 0 ), (0 , 1)} is a basis of V2 (R).
We have T (1, 0 ) = (0 , 0 ) and T (0 , 1) = (1, 0 ).
Thus the range of T is the subspace of V2 (R) spanned by the vectors (0 , 0 ) and (1, 0 ). The
vector (0 , 0 ) can be omitted from this spanning set because it is zero vector. Therefore
the range of T is the subspace of V2 (R) spanned by the vector (1, 0 ). Thus the range of
T = { a (1, 0 ) : a ∈ R} = {(a, 0 ) : a ∈ R}.
Now let (a, b) ∈ N (the null space of T ).
Then (a, b) ∈ N ⇒ T (a, b) = (0 , 0 ) ⇒ (b, 0 ) = (0 , 0 ) ⇒ b = 0 .
∴ Null space of T = {(a, 0 ) : a ∈ R}.
Thus range of T = null space of T .
Also we observe that dim V2 (R) = 2 which is even.
Example 5: Let V be a vector space and T a linear transformation from V into V. Prove that
the following two statements about T are equivalent :
(i) The intersection of the range of T and the null space of T is the zero subspace of
V i. e., R ( T ) ∩ N ( T ) = {0}.
(ii) T [T (α)] = 0 ⇒ T (α) = 0.
Solution: First we shall show that (i) ⇒ (ii).
We have T [T (α)] = 0 ⇒ T (α) ∈ N (T )
⇒ T (α) ∈ R ( T ) ∩ N ( T ) [ ∵ α ∈ V ⇒ T (α) ∈ R (T )]
⇒ T (α) = 0 because R (T ) ∩ N (T ) = {0}.
Now we shall show that (ii) ⇒ (i).
Let α ≠ 0 and α ∈ R ( T ) ∩ N ( T ).
Then α ∈ R ( T ) and α ∈ N ( T ).
Since α ∈ N ( T ), therefore T (α) = 0. …(1)
Also α ∈ R ( T ) ⇒ ∃ β ∈ V such that T ( β) = α.
Now T ( β) = α ⇒ T [T ( β)] = T (α) = 0 [From (1)]
Thus ∃ β ∈ V such that T [T ( β)] = 0 but T ( β) = α ≠ 0 .
This contradicts the given hypothesis (ii).
Therefore there exists no α ∈ R ( T ) ∩ N ( T ) such that α ≠ 0.
Hence R ( T ) ∩ N ( T ) = {0}.
Example 6: Consider the basis S = {α1, α2 , α3 } of R3 where
α1 = (1, 1, 1), α2 = (1, 1, 0 ), α3 = (1, 0 , 0 ).
Express (2 , − 3, 5) in terms of the basis α1, α2 , α3 .
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Let T : R 3 → R 2 be defined as T (α1) = (1, 0 ), T (α2 ) = (2 , − 1), T (α3 ) = (4, 3).

Find T (2 , − 3, 5). (Meerut 2003)
Solution: Let (2 , − 3, 5) = aα1 + bα2 + cα3
= a (1, 1, 1) + b (1, 1, 0 ) + c (1, 0 , 0 ).
Then a + b + c = 2 , a + b = − 3, a = 5.
Solving these equations, we get
a = 5, b = − 8, c = 5.
∴ (2 , − 3, 5) = 5α1 − 8α2 + 5α3 .
Now T (2 , − 3, 5) = T (5α1 − 8α2 + 5α3 )
= 5T (α1) − 8T (α2 ) + 5T (α3 )
[∵ T is a linear transformation]
= 5 (1, 0 ) − 8 (2 , − 1) + 5 (4, 3)
= (5, 0 ) − (16, − 8) + (20 , 15)
= (9, 23).
Comprehensive Exercise 1
1. Show that the mapping T : V3 (R) → V2 (R) defined as

T (a1, a2 , a3 ) = (a1 − a2 , a1 − a3 )
is a linear transformation.
2. Show that the mapping T : R 3 → R 2 defined as T ( x, y, z ) = (z , x + y) is linear.
(Gorakhpur 2013)
3. Show that the following functions are linear :
(i) T : R 2 → R 2 defined by T (a, b) = (b, a)
(ii) T : R 2 → R 2 defined by T (a, b) = (a + b, a)
(iii) T : R 3 → R defined by T (a, b, c ) = 2 a − 3 b + 4 c .
4. Show that the following mappings T are not linear :
(i) T : R 2 → R defined by T ( x, y) = xy ;
(ii) T : R 2 → R 2 defined by T ( x, y) = (1 + x, y); (Kumaun 2008)
(iii) T : R 3 → R 2 defined by T ( x, y, z ) = (| x |, 0 ) ;
(iv) T : R 2 → R defined by T ( x, y) = | x − y |. (Kumaun 2010)
2 3
5. Show that the mapping T : R → R defined as
T (a, b) = (a − b, b − a, − a)
is a linear transformation from R 2 into R 3 . Find the range, rank, null space and
nullity of T . (Gorakhpur 2010, 11)
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6. Let F be the field of complex numbers and let T be the function from F 3 into F 3
defined by
T ( x1, x2 , x3 ) = ( x1 − x2 + 2 x3 , 2 x1 + x2 − x3 , − x1 − 2 x2 ).
Verify that T is a linear transformation. Describe the null space of T .
(Meerut 2002; Garhwal 07; Kumaun 09)
7. Let F be the field of complex numbers and let T be the function from F 3 into F 3
defined by
T (a, b, c ) = (a − b + 2 c , 2 a + b, − a − 2 b + 2 c ).
Show that T is a linear transformation. Find also the rank and the nullity of T .
8. Let T : R 3 → R 3 be the linear transformation defined by :
T ( x, y, z ) = ( x + 2 y − z , y + z , x + y − 2 z ).
Find a basis and the dimension of (i) the range of T (ii) the null space of T .
(Garhwal 2011)
9. Let T : V4 (R) → V3 (R) be a linear transformation defined by
T (a, b, c , d) = (a − b + c + d, a + 2 c − d, a + b + 3 c − 3 d).
Then obtain the basis and dimension of the range space of T and null space of T .
10. Let V be the vector space of polynomials in x over R . Let D : V → V be the
df
differential operator : D ( f ) = ⋅ Find the image (i. e. range) and kernel of D.
dx
11. Let V be the vector space of n × n matrices over the field F and let E be an arbitrary
matrix in V. Let T : V → V be defined as
T ( A) = AE + EA, A ∈ V .
Show that T is linear.
 1 −1 
12. Let V be the vector space of 2 × 2 matrices over R and let M =   ⋅ Let
 −2 2 
T : V → V be the linear function defined by T ( A) = MA for A ∈ V . Find a basis
and the dimension of
(i) the kernel of T and (ii) the range of T .
 1 2
13. Let V be the vector space of 2 × 2 matrices over R and let M =   ⋅ Let
0 3
T : V → V be the linear transformation defined by T ( A) = AM − MA. Find a
basis and the dimension of the kernel of T .
14. Let V be the space of n × 1 matrices over a field F and let W be the space of m × 1
matrices over F. Let A be a fixed m × n matrix over F and let T be the linear
transformation from V into W defined by T ( X ) = AX .
Prove that T is the zero transformation if and only if A is the zero matrix.
15. Let U ( F ) and V ( F ) be two vector spaces and let T1, T2 be two linear
transformations from U to V. Let x, y be two given elements of F. Then the
mapping T defined as
T (α) = x T1 (α) + y T2 (α) V α ∈ U
is a linear transformation from U into V.
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A nswers 1
5. Null space of T = {0} ; nullity of T = 0, rank T = 2
The set {(1, − 1, − 1), (− 1, 1, 0 )} is a basis set for R (T )
6. Null space of T = {0}
7. Rank T = 2 ; nullity of T = 1
8. (i) {(1, 0 , 1), (2, 1, 1)} is a basis of R (T ) and dim. R (T ) = 2
(ii) {(3, − 1, 1)} is a basis of N (T ) and dim N (T ) = 1
9. {(1, 1, 1), (0 , 1, 2)} is a basis of R (T ) and dim. R (T ) = 2
{(1, 2, 0 , 1), (2, 1, − 1, 0 )} is a basis of N (T ) and dim. N (T ) = 2
10. The image of D is the whole space V
The kernel of D is the set of constant polynomials
  1 0   0 1 
12.   ,  is a basis of the kernel T and dim (kernel T ) = 2
  1 0   0 1 
 1 0   0 1 
 ,   is a basis for R (T ) and dim R (T ) = 2
  −2 0   0 −2 
  1 −1   1 0 
13.  ,   is a basis of the kernel of T and dim (kernel T ) = 2
  0 0   0 1 
6 Linear Transformations as Vectors

Let L (U , V ) be the set of all linear transformations from a vector space U ( F ) into a
vector space V ( F ). Sometimes we denote this set by Hom (U , V ). Now we want to
impose a vector space structure on the set L (U , V ) over the same field F. For this
purpose we shall have to suitably define addition in L (U , V ) and scalar multiplication
in L (U , V ) over F.
Algebra of Linear Transformations:
Theorem 1: Let U and V be vector spaces over the field F. Let T1 and T2 be linear
transformations from U into V. The function T1 + T2 defined by
(T1 + T2 ) (α) = T1 (α) + T2 (α) V α ∈ U
is a linear transformation from U into V. If c is any element of F, the function (cT ) defined by
(cT ) (α) = cT (α) V α ∈ U
is a linear transformation from U into V. The set L (U , V ) of all linear transformations from U
into V, together with the addition and scalar multiplication defined above is a vector space over the
field F.
Proof: Suppose T1 and T2 are linear transformations from U into V and we define
T1 + T2 as follows :
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(T1 + T2 ) (α) = T1 (α) + T2 (α) V α ∈ U . …(1)

Since T1 (α) + T2 (α) ∈ V , therefore T1 + T2 is a function from U into V.
Let a, b ∈ F and α, β ∈U . Then
(T1 + T2 ) (aα + bβ) = T1 (aα + bβ) + T2 (aα + bβ) [By (1)]
= [aT1 (α) + bT1 ( β)] + [aT2 (α) + bT2 ( β)]
[ ∵ T1 and T2 are linear transformations]
= a [T1 (α) + T2 (α)] + b [T1 ( β) + T2 ( β)] [∵ V is a vector space]
= a (T1 + T2 ) (α) + b (T1 + T2 ) ( β) [By (1)]
∴ T1 + T2 is a linear transformation from U into V. Thus
T1, T2 ∈ L (U , V ) ⇒ T1 + T2 ∈ L (U , V ).
Therefore L (U , V ) is closed with respect to addition defined in it.
Again let T ∈ L (U , V ) and c ∈ F . Let us define cT as follows :
(cT ) (α) = cT (α) V α ∈ U . …(2)
Since cT (α) ∈ V , therefore cT is a function from U into V.
Let a, b ∈ F and α, β ∈U . Then
(cT ) (aα + b β) = cT (aα + bβ) [By (2)]
= c [aT (α) + bT ( β)] [∵ T is a linear transformation]
= c [aT (α)] + c [bT ( β)] = (ca) T (α) + (cb) T ( β)
= (ac ) T (α) + (bc ) T ( β) = a [cT (α)] + b [cT ( β)]
= a [(cT ) (α)] + b [(cT ) ( β)].
∴ cT is a linear transformation from U into V. Thus
T ∈ L (U , V ) and c ∈ F ⇒ cT ∈ L (U , V ).
Therefore L (U , V ) is closed with respect to scalar multiplication defined in it.
Associativity of addition in L (U , V ):
Let T1, T2 , T3 ∈ L (U , V ). If α ∈U, then
[T1 + (T2 + T3 )] (α) = T1 (α) + (T2 + T3 ) (α)
[By (1) i. e., by def. of addition in L (U , V )]
= T1 (α) + [T2 (α) + T3 (α)] [By (1)]
= [T1 (α) + T2 (α)] + T3 (α)\
[∵ Addition in V is associative]
= (T1 + T2 ) (α) + T3 (α) [By (1)]
= [(T1 + T2 ) + T3 ] (α) [By (1)]
∴ T1 + (T2 + T3 ) = (T1 + T2 ) + T3
[By def. of equality of two functions]
Commutativity of addition in L (U , V ): Let T1, T2 ∈ L (U , V ). If α is any element of
U, then
(T1 + T2 ) (α) = T1 (α) + T2 (α) [By (1)]
= T2 (α) + T1 (α) [∵ Addition in V is commutative]
= (T2 + T1) (α) [By (1)]
∴ T1 + T2 = T2 + T1 [By def. of equality of two functions]
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^
Existence of additive identity in L (U , V ): Let 0 be the zero function from U into
V i. e.,
^
0 (α) = 0 ∈ V V α ∈ U .
^
Then 0 ∈ L (U , V ). If T ∈ L (U , V ) and α ∈U, we have
^ ^
(0 + T ) (α) = 0 (α) + T (α) [By (1)]
^
= 0 + T (α) [By def. of 0 ]
= T (α) [0 being additive identity in V ]
^
∴ 0 + T = T V T ∈ L (U , V ).
^
∴ 0 is the additive identity in L (U , V ).
Existence of additive inverse of each element in L (U , V ):
Let T ∈ L (U , V ). Let us define − T as follows :
(− T ) (α) = − T (α) V α ∈ U .
Then − T ∈ L (U , V ).
If α ∈U, we have
(− T + T ) (α) = (− T ) (α) + T (α) [By def. of addition in L (U , V )]
= − T (α) + T (α) [By def. of − T ]
= 0 ∈V
^ ^
= 0 (α) [By def. of 0 ]
^
∴ − T + T = 0 for every T ∈ L (U , V ).
Thus each element in L (U , V ) possesses additive inverse.
Therefore L (U , V ) is an abelian group with respect to addition defined in it.
Further we make the following observations :
(i) Let c ∈ F and T1, T2 ∈ L (U , V ). If α is any element in U, we have
[c (T1 + T2 )] (α) = c [(T1 + T2 ) (α)] [By (2) i. e., by def. of scalar
multiplication in L (U , V )]
= c [T1 (α) + T2 (α)] [By (1)]
= cT1 (α) + cT2 (α) [ ∵ c ∈ F and T1 (α), T2 (α) ∈ V
which is a vector space]
= (cT1) (α) + (cT2 ) (α) [By (2)]
= (cT1 + cT2 ) (α) [By (1)]
∴ c (T1 + T2 ) = cT1 + cT2 .
(ii) Let a, b ∈ F and T ∈ L (U , V ). If α ∈U, we have
[(a + b) T ] (α) = (a + b) T (α) [By (2)]
= aT (α) + bT (α) [∵ V is a vector space]
= (aT ) (α) + (bT ) (α) [By (2)]
= (aT + bT ) (α) [By (1)]
∴ (a + b) T = aT + bT .
(iii) Let a, b ∈ F and T ∈ L (U , V ). If α ∈U, we have
L-18
[(ab) T ] (α) = (ab) T (α) [By (2)]

= a [bT (α)] [∵ V is a vector space]
= a [(bT ) (α)] [By (2)]
= [a (bT )] (α) [By (2)]
∴ (ab) T = a (bT ).
(iv) Let 1∈ F and T ∈ L (U , V ). If α ∈U, we have
(1T ) (α) = 1T (α) [By (2)]
= T (α) [∵V is a vector space]
∴ 1T = T .
Hence L (U , V ) is a vector space over the field F.
Note: If in place of the vector space V, we take U, then we observe that the set of all
linear operators on U forms a vector space with respect to addition and scalar
multiplication defined as above.
Dimension of L (U , V ): Now we shall prove that if U ( F ) and V ( F ) are finite
dimensional, then the vector space of linear transformations from U into V is also finite
dimensional. For this purpose we shall require an important result which we prove in
the following theorem :
Theorem 2: Let U be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F and let
B = {α1, α2 , … , α n}be an ordered basis for U. Let V be a vector space over the same field F and let
β1, … , β n be any vectors in V. Then there exists a unique linear transformation T from U into V
such that
T (α i) = β i , i = 1, 2 , … , n.
Proof: Existence of T:
Let α ∈U.
Since B = {α1, α2 , … , α n} is a basis for U, therefore there exist unique scalars x1, x2 , … , xn
such that
α = x1α1 + x2 α2 + … + xn α n .
For this vector α, let us define
T (α) = x1β1 + x2 β2 + … + xn β n .
Obviously T (α) as defined above is a unique element of V. Therefore T is a
well-defined rule for associating with each vector α in U a unique vector T (α) in V.
Thus T is a function from U into V.
The unique representation of α i ∈ U as a linear combination of the vectors belonging
to the basis B is
α i = 0 α1 + 0 α2 + … + 1α i + 0 α i + 1 + … + 0 α n .
Therefore according to our definition of T , we have
T (α i) = 0 β1 + 0 β2 + … + 1β i + 0 β i + 1 + … + 0 β n
i. e., T (α i) = β i , i = 1, 2 , … , n.
Now to show that T is a linear transformation.
Let a, b ∈ F and α, β ∈U . Let
L-19
α = x1α1 + … + xn α n and β = y1α1 + … + yn α n .

Then T (aα + bβ) = T [a ( x1α1 + … + xn α n) + b ( y1α1 + … + yn α n)]
= T [(ax1 + by1) α1 + … + (axn + byn) α n]
= (ax1 + by1) β1 + … + (axn + byn) β n [By def. of T ]
= a ( x1 β1 + … + xn β n) + b ( y1 β1 + … + yn β n)
= aT (α) + bT ( β) [By def. of T ]
∴ T is a linear transformation from U into V. Thus there exists a linear transformation
T from U into V such that
T (α i) = β i , i = 1, 2 , … , n.
Uniqueness of T: Let T ′ be a linear transformation from U into V such that

T ′ (α i) = β i , i = 1, 2 , … , n.
For the vector α = x1α1 + … + xn α n ∈ U , we have
T ′ (α) = T ′ ( x1α1 + … + xn α n)
= x1T ′ (α1) + … + xn T ′ (α n)
[∵ T ′ is a linear transformation]
= x1 β1 + … + xn β n [By def. of T ′]
= T (α). [By def. of T ]
Thus T ′ (α) = T (α) V α ∈ U .
∴ T ′ = T.
This shows the uniqueness of T .
Note: From this theorem we conclude that if T is a linear transformation from a finite
dimensional vector space U ( F ) into a vector space V ( F ), then T is completely defined
if we mention under T the images of the elements of a basis set of U. If S and T are two
linear transformations from U into V such that
S (α i) = T (α i) V α i belonging to a basis of U, then
S (α) = T (α) V α ∈ U , i. e., S = T .
Thus two linear transformations from U into V are equal if they agree on a basis of U.
Theorem 3: Let U be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F, and let V be an
m-dimensional vector space over F. Then the vector space L (U , V ) of all linear transformations
from U into V is finite dimensional and is of dimension mn.
Proof: Let B = { α1, α2 , … , α n} and B ′ = { β1, β2 , … , β m } be ordered bases for U and
V respectively. By theorem 2, there exists a unique linear transformation T11 from U
into V such that
T11 (α1) = β1, T11 (α2 ) = 0, … , T11 (α n) = 0
where β1, 0, … , 0 are vectors in V.
In fact, for each pair of integers ( p, q) with 1≤ p ≤ m and 1≤ q ≤ n, there exists a unique
linear transformation Tpq from U into V such that
 0, if i ≠ q
Tpq (α i) = 
β ,
 p if i = q
L-20
i. e., Tpq (α i) = δ iq β p , …(1)

where δ iq ∈ F is Kronecker delta i. e., δ iq = 1 if i = q and δ iq = 0 if i ≠ q.
Since p can be any of 1, 2 , … , m and q any of 1, 2 , … , n, there are mn such Tpq ’s. Let B1
denote the set of these mn transformations Tpq ’s. We shall show that B1 is a basis for
L (U , V ).
(i) First we shall show that L (U , V ) is a linear span of B1.
Let T ∈ L (U , V ). Since T (α1) ∈ V and any element in V is a linear combination of
β1, β2 , … , β m , therefore
T (α1) = a11 β1 + a21 β2 + … + am1 β m ,
for some a11, a21, … , am1 ∈ F . In fact for each i, 1≤ i ≤ n,
m
T (α i) = a1i β1 + a2 i β2 + … + ami β m = Σ api β p …(2)
p =1
m n
Now consider S = Σ Σ apq Tpq .
p =1 q =1
Obviously S is a linear combination of elements of B1 which is a subset of L (U , V ).

Since L (U , V ) is a vector space, therefore S ∈ L (U , V ) i. e., S is also a linear
transformation from U into V. We shall show that S = T .
Let us compute S (α i) where α i is any vector in the basis B of U. We have
 m n  m n
S (α i) =  Σ Σ apq Tpq  (α i) = Σ Σ apq Tpq (α i)
p = 1 q = 1  p =1 q =1
m n
= Σ Σ apq δ iq β p [From (1)]
p =1 q =1
m
= Σ api β p
p =1 [On summing with respect to q. Remember
that δ iq = 1 when q = i and δ iq = 0 when q ≠ i ]
= T (α i). [From (2)]
Thus S (α i) = T (α i) V α i ∈ B. Therefore S and T agree on a basis of U. So we must
have S = T . Thus T is also a linear combination of the elements of B1. Therefore
L (U , V ) is a linear span of B1.
(ii) Now we shall show that B1 is linearly independent. For bpq ’s ∈ F, let
m n ^
Σ Σ bpq Tpq = 0 i. e., zero vector of L (U , V )
p =1 q =1
 m n  ^
⇒  Σ Σ bpq Tpq  (α i) = 0 (α i) V α i ∈ B
 p =1 q =1 
m n ^
⇒ Σ Σ bpq Tpq (α i) = 0 ∈ V [ ∵ 0 is zero transformation]
p =1 q =1
m n m
⇒ Σ Σ bpq δ iq β p = 0 ⇒ Σ bpi β p = 0
p =1 q =1 p =1
⇒ b1i β1 + b2 i β2 + … + bmi β m = 0, 1 ≤ i ≤ n
⇒ b1i = 0 , b2 i = 0 , … , bmi = 0 , 1 ≤ i ≤ n
[∵ β1, β2 , … , β m are linearly independent]
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⇒ bpq = 0 where 1≤ p ≤ m and 1≤ q ≤ n

⇒ B1 is linearly independent. Therefore B1 is a basis of L (U , V ).
∴ dim L (U , V ) = number of elements in B1 = mn.
Corollary: The vector space L (U , U ) of all linear operators on an n-dimensional vector space
U is of dimension n2 .
Note: Suppose U ( F ) is an n-dimensional vector space and V ( F ) is an m-dimensional
vector space. If U ≠ {0} and V ≠ {0}, then n ≥ 1and m ≥ 1. Therefore L (U , V ) does not just
^
consist of the element 0, because dimension of L (U , V ) is mn ≥ 1.
7 Product of Linear Transformations

Theorem 1: Let U , V and W be vector spaces over the field F. Let T be a linear transformation
from U into V and S a linear transformation from V into W. Then the composite function ST
(called product of linear transformations) defined by
(ST ) (α) = S [T (α)] V α ∈ U
is a linear transformation from U into W. (Kumaun 2007)
Proof:T is a function from U into V and S is a function from V into W.
So α ∈ U ⇒ T (α) ∈ V .
Further T (α) ∈ V ⇒ S [T (α)] ∈ W .
Thus (ST ) (α) ∈ W .
Therefore ST is a function from U into W. Now to show that ST is a linear
transformation from U into W.
Let a , b ∈ F and α , β ∈U . Then
(ST ) (aα + bβ) = S [T (aα + bβ)] [By def. of product of two functions]
= S [aT (α) + bT ( β)] [∵ T is a linear transformation]
= aS [T (α)] + bS [T ( β)] [∵ S is a linear transformation]
= a (ST ) (α) + b (ST ) ( β).
Hence ST is a linear transformation from U into W.
Note: If T and S are linear operators on a vector space V ( F ), then both the products
ST as well as TS exist and each is a linear operator on V. However, in general TS ≠ ST as
is obvious from the following examples.
Theorem 2: Let V ( F ) be a vector space and A, B, C be linear transformations on V.Then

^ ^ ^
(i) A0 = 0 = 0 A (ii) AI = A = IA
(iii) A ( BC ) = ( AB ) C (iv) A ( B + C ) = AB + AC
(v) ( A + B) C = AC + BC (Kumaun 2011)
(vi) c ( AB ) = (cA ) B = A (cB ) where c is any element of F. (Kumaun 2008, 11)
Proof: Just for the sake of convenience we first mention here our definitions of
addition, scalar multiplication and product of linear transformations :
L-22
( A + B ) (α) = A (α) + B (α) …(1)

(c A ) (α) = c A (α) …(2)
( AB ) (α) = A [ B (α)] …(3)
V α ∈V and V c ∈ F .
Now we shall prove the above results.
^ ^
(i) We have V α ∈V, ( A 0) (α) = A [ 0 (α)] [By (3)]
= A (0) ^
[ ∵ 0 is zero transformation]
^
= 0 = 0 (α).
^ ^
∴ A 0 = 0. [By def. of equality of two functions]
^ ^
Similarly we can show that 0 A = 0.
(ii) We have V α ∈V, ( AI ) (α) = A [I (α)]
= A (α) [∵ I is identity transformation]
∴ AI = A.
Similarly we can show that I A = A.
(iii) We have V α ∈V, [ A ( BC )] (α) = A [( BC ) (α)] [By (3)]
= A [ B (C (α))] [By (3)]
= ( AB ) [C (α)] [By (3)]
= [( AB ) C ] (α). [By (3)]
∴ A ( BC ) = ( AB ) C.
(iv) We have V α ∈V, [ A ( B + C )] (α) = A [( B + C ) (α)] [By (3)]
= A [ B (α) + C (α)] [By (1)]
= A [ B (α)] + A [C (α)] [∵ A is a linear
transformation and B (α), C (α) ∈ V ]
= ( AB ) (α) + ( AC ) (α) [By (3)]
= ( AB + AC ) (α) [By (1)]
∴ A ( B + C ) = AB + AC.
(v) We have V α ∈V, [( A + B) C ] (α) = ( A + B ) [C (α)] [By (3)]
= A [C (α)] + B [C (α)] [By (1) since C (α) ∈ V ]
= ( AC ) (α) + ( BC ) (α) [By (3)]
= ( AC + BC ) (α) [By (1)]
∴ ( A + B ) C = AC + BC.
(vi) We have V α ∈V, [c ( AB )] (α) = c [( AB ) (α)] [By (2)]
= c [ A ( B (α))] [By (3)]
= (c A ) [ B (α)] [By (2) since B (α) ∈ V ]
= [(c A) B ] (α) [By (3)]
∴ c ( AB ) = (c A ) B.
Again [c ( AB )] (α) = c [( AB ) (α)] [By (2)]
L-23
= c [ A ( B (α))] [By (3)]

= A [c B (α)]
[∵ A is a linear transformation and B (α) ∈ V ]
= A [(c B ) (α)] [By (2)]
= [ A (c B )] (α). [By (3)]
∴ c ( AB ) = A (c B ).
Example 7: Let T1 and T2 be linear operators on R2 defined as follows :

T1 ( x1, x2 ) = ( x2 , x1) and T2 ( x1, x2 ) = ( x1, 0 ).
Show that T1T2 ≠ T2T1. (Kumaun 2013)
Solution: We have
(T1T2 ) ( x1, x2 ) = T1 [T2 ( x1, x2 )]
= T1 ( x1, 0 ), [By def. of T2 ]
= (0 , x1). [By def. of T1]
Also (T2 T1) ( x1, x2 ) = T2 [T1 ( x1, x2 )], [By def. of T2T1]
= T2 ( x2 , x1), [By def. of T1]
= ( x2 , 0 ). [By def. of T2 ]
Thus we see that (T1T2 ) ( x1, x2 ) ≠ (T2T1) ( x1, x2 ) V ( x1, x2 ) ∈ R2 .
Hence by the definition of equality of two mappings, we have T1T2 ≠ T2T1.
Example 8:Let S (R) be the vector space of all polynomial functions in x with coefficients as
elements of the field R of real numbers. Let D and T be two linear operators on V defined by
d
D ( f ( x)) = f ( x) …(1)
dx
x
and T ( f ( x)) = ∫0 f ( x) dx …(2)
for every f ( x) ∈ V .
Then show that DT = I (identity operator) and TD ≠ I .
Solution: Let f ( x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + … ∈ V .
We have ( DT ) ( f ( x)) = D [T ( f ( x))]
 x   x 
= D ∫ f ( x) dx = D ∫ (a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + ...) dx
 0   0 
x
a a d a x + a1 x2 + …
= D a0 x + 1 x2 + 2 x3 + … =
 2 3 
 0 dx  0 2 
= a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + … = f ( x) = I [ f ( x)].
Thus we have ( DT ) [ f ( x)] = I [ f ( x)] V f ( x) ∈ V . Therefore DT = I .
Now (TD ) f ( x) = T [ D f ( x)]
L-24
d
= T  (a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + …) = T (a1 + 2 a2 x + …)
 dx 
x 2
= ∫ 0 (a1 + 2a2 x + ...) dx = [a1 x + a2 x + …]0x
= a1 x + a2 x2 + …
≠ f ( x) unless a0 = 0 .
Thus ∃ f ( x) ∈ V such that (TD ) [ f ( x)] ≠ I [ f ( x)].
∴ TD ≠ I .
Hence TD ≠ DT ,
showing that product of linear operators is not in general commutative.
Example 9: Let V (R) be the vector space of all polynomials in x with coefficients in the field R.
Let D and T be two linear transformations on V defined as
d
D [ f ( x)] = f ( x) V f ( x) ∈ V and T [ f ( x)] = x f ( x) V f ( x) ∈ V .
dx
Then show that DT ≠ TD.
Solution: We have
( DT ) [ f ( x)] = D [T ( f ( x))]
d
= D [ x f ( x)] = [ x f ( x)]
dx
d
= f ( x) + x f ( x). …(1)
dx
d
Also (TD ) [ f ( x)] = T [ D ( f ( x))] = T  ( f ( x))
 dx 
d
=x f ( x). …(2)
dx
From (1) and (2), we see that ∃ f ( x) ∈ V such that
( DT ) ( f ( x)) ≠ (TD ) ( f ( x)) ⇒ DT ≠ TD.
Also we see that
( DT − TD ) ( f ( x)) = ( DT ) ( f ( x)) − (TD ) ( f ( x))
= f ( x) = I ( f ( x)).
∴ DT − TD = I .
8 Ring of Linear Operators on a Vector Space

Ring: Definition: A non-empty set R with two binary operations, to be denoted additively
and multiplicatively, is called a ring if the following postulates are satisfied :
R1. R is closed with respect to addition i. e.,
a + b ∈ R V a, b ∈ R.
R2 . (a + b) + c = a + (b + c ) V a, b, c ∈ R.
R3 . a + b = b + a V a, b ∈ R.
R4 . ∃ an element 0 (called zero element) in R such that
0 + a = a V a ∈ R.
L-25
R5 . a ∈ R ⇒ ∃ − a ∈ R such that
(− a) + a = 0 .
R6 . R is closed with respect to multiplication i. e.,
ab ∈ R , V a, b ∈ R
R7. (ab) c = a (bc ) V a, b, c ∈ R.
R8 . Multiplication is distributive with respect to addition, i. e.,
a (b + c ) = ab + ac and (a + b) c = ac + bc V a, b, c ∈ R.
Ring with unity element: Definition:
If in a ring R there exists an element 1∈ R such that
1 a = a = a1 V a ∈ R,
then R is called a ring with unity element. The element 1 is called the unity element of the
ring.
Theorem: The set L (V , V ) of all linear transformations from a vector space V ( F ) into itself
is a ring with unity element with respect to addition and multiplication of linear transformations
defined as below :
(S + T ) (α) = S (α) + T (α)
and (ST ) (α) = S [T (α)] V S, T ∈ L (V , V ) and V α ∈V.
Proof: The students should themselves write the complete proof of this theorem. We
have proved all the steps here and there. They should show here that all the ring
^
postulates are satisfied in the set L (V , V ). The transformation 0 will act as the zero
element and the identity transformation I will act as the unity element of this ring.
9 Algebra or Linear Algebra

(Garhwal 2006, 12)
Definition: Let F be a field. A vector space V over F is called a linear algebra over F if there is
defined an additional operation in V called multiplication of vectors and satisfying the
following postulates :
1. αβ ∈ V V α, β ∈ V
2. α ( β γ ) = (αβ) γ V α, β, γ ∈ V
3. α ( β + γ ) = α β + α γ and (α + β) γ = α γ + β γ V α, β, γ ∈ V .
4. c (α β) = (c α) β = α (c β) V α, β ∈ V and c ∈ F .
If there is an element 1 in V such that
1α = α = α1 V α ∈ V,
then we call V a linear algebra with identity over F. Also 1 is then called the identity
of V. The algebra V is Commutative if
αβ = βα V α , β ∈ V .
Theorem: Let V ( F ) be a vector space. The vector space L (V , V ) over F of all linear
transformations from V into V is a linear algebra with identity with respect to the product of linear
transformations as the multiplication composition in L (V , V ).
Proof: The students should write the complete proof here. All the necessary steps
have been proved here and there.
L-26
10 Polynomials
Let T be a linear transformation on a vector space V ( F ). Then T T is also a linear
transformation on V. We shall write T 1 = T and T 2 = T T . Since the product of linear
transformations is an associative operation, therefore if m is a positive integer, we shall
define
T m = T T T … upto m times.
Obviously T m is a linear transformation on V.
Also we define T 0 = I (identity transformation).
If m and n are non-negative integers, it can be easily seen that
T mT n = T m + n and (T m )n = T mn.
The set L (V , V ) of all linear transformations on V is a vector space over the field F. If
a0 , a1, … , an ∈ F , then
p (T ) = a0 I + a1T + a2 T 2 + … + an T n ∈ L (V , V )
i. e., p (T ) is also a linear transformation on V because it is a linear combination over F of
elements of L (V , V ). We call p (T ) as a polynomial in linear transformation T . The
polynomials in a linear transformation behave like ordinary polynomials.
11 Invertible Linear Transformations

(Garhwal 2006)
Definition: Let U and V be vector spaces over the field F. Let T be a linear transformation from
U into V such that T is one-one onto. Then T is called invertible.
If T is a function from U into V, then T is said to be 1-1 if
α1, α2 ∈U and α1 ≠ α2 ⇒ T (α1) ≠ T (α2 ).
In other words T is said to be 1-1 if
α1, α2 ∈U and T (α1) = T (α2 ) ⇒ α1 = α2 .
Further T is said to be onto if
β ∈ V ⇒ ∃ α ∈ U such that T (α) = β.
If T is one-one and onto, then we define a function from V into U, called the inverse of T
and denoted by T −1 as follows :
Let β be any vector in V. Since T is onto, therefore
β ∈ V ⇒ ∃ α ∈ U such that T (α) = β.
Also α determined in this way is a unique element of U because T is one-one and
therefore
α0 , α ∈U and α0 ≠ α ⇒ β = T (α) ≠ T (α0 ).
−1
We define T ( β) to be α . Thus
T −1 : V ⇒ U such that
T −1 ( β) = α ⇔ T (α) = β.
L-27
The function T −1 is itself one-one and onto. In the following theorem, we shall prove
that T −1 is a linear transformation from V into U.
Theorem 1:Let U and V be vector spaces over the field F and let T be a linear transformation
from U into V. If T is one-one and onto, then the inverse function T −1 is a linear transformation
from V into U.
Proof: Let β1, β2 ∈V and a, b ∈ F .
Since T is one-one and onto, therefore there exist unique vectors α1, α2 ∈U such that
T (α1) = β1, T (α2 ) = β2 .
By definition of T −1, we have
T −1 ( β1) = α1, T −1 ( β2 ) = α2 .
Now aα1 + bα2 ∈ U and we have by linearity of T ,
T (aα1 + bα2 ) = aT (α1) + bT (α2 )
= aβ1 + bβ2 ∈ V .
−1
∴ by def. of T , we have
−1
T (aβ1 + bβ2 ) = aα1 + bα2
= aT −1 ( β1) + bT −1 ( β2 ).
∴ T −1 is a linear transformation from V into U.
Theorem 2: Let T be an invertible linear transformation on a vector space V ( F ). Then
T − 1 T = I = T T − 1. (Kumaun 2013)
Proof: Let α be any element of V and let T (α) = β. Then
T − 1 ( β ) = α.
We have T (α) = β ⇒ T −1 [T (α)] = T −1
( β)
⇒ (T −1 T ) (α) = α ⇒ (T −1 T ) (α) = I (α)
⇒ T −1 T = I .
Let β be any element of V. Since T is onto, therefore β ∈ V ⇒ ∃ α ∈ V such that
T (α) = β. Then T −1 ( β) = α.
Now T − 1 ( β) = α ⇒ T [T −1 ( β)] = T (α)
⇒ (T T −1) ( β) = β ⇒ (T T −1) ( β) = β = I ( β)
⇒ T T −1 = I .
Theorem 3: If A, B and C are linear transformations on a vector space V ( F ) such that
AB = CA = I ,
then A is invertible and A−1 = B = C. (Kumaun 2011)
Proof: In order to show that A is invertible, we are to show that A is one-one and
onto.
(i) A is one-one:
Let α1, α2 ∈V . Then
A (α1) = A (α2 )
L-28
⇒ C [ A (α1)] = C [ A (α2 )] ⇒ (CA ) (α1) = (CA ) (α2 )

⇒ I (α1) = I (α2 ) ⇒ α1 = α2 .
∴ A is one-one.
(ii) A is onto:
Let β be any element of V. Since B is a linear transformation on V, therefore B ( β) ∈ V .
Let B ( β) = α. Then
B ( β) = α ⇒ A [ B ( β)] = A (α)
⇒ ( AB ) ( β) = A (α) ⇒ I ( β) = A (α) [ ∵ AB = I ]
⇒ β = A (α).
Thus β ∈ V ⇒ ∃ α ∈ V such that A (α) = β.
∴ A is onto.
Since A is one-one and onto therefore A is invertible i. e., A−1 exists.
(iii) Now we shall show that A−1 = B = C.
We have AB = I ⇒ A−1 ( AB ) = A−1 I
⇒ ( A − 1 A ) B = A− 1 ⇒ IB = A−1
⇒ B = A−1.
Again CA = I ⇒ (CA) A−1 = IA−1
⇒ C ( AA−1) = A−1 ⇒ CI = A−1
⇒ C = A−1.
Hence the theorem.
Theorem 4: The necessary and sufficient condition for a linear transformation A on a vector
space V ( F ) to be invertible is that there exists a linear transformation B on V such that
AB = I = BA.
Proof: The condition is necessary. For proof see theorem 2.
The condition is sufficient: For proof see theorem 3. Take B in place of C.
Also we note that B = A−1 and A = B−1.
Theorem 5: Uniqueness of inverse: Let A be an invertible linear transformation on a

vector space V ( F ). Then A possesses unique inverse.
Proof: Let B and C be two inverses of A. Then
AB = I = BA
and AC = I = CA.
We have C ( AB) = CI = C. …(1)
Also (CA) B = IB = B. …(2)
Since product of linear transformations is associative, therefore from (1) and (2), we
get
C ( AB) = (CA) B
⇒ C = B.
Hence the inverse of A is unique.
L-29
Theorem 6: Let V ( F ) be a vector space and let A, B be linear transformations on V. Then

show that
(i) If A and B are invertible, then AB is invertible and
( AB)−1 = B −1 A−1. (Kumaun 2007)
(ii) If A is invertible and a ≠ 0 ∈ F , then aA is invertible and
1
(aA)−1 = A−1.
a
(iii) If A is invertible, then A−1 is invertible and ( A−1)−1 = A.
Proof: (i) We have
( B−1 A−1) ( AB) = B−1 [ A−1 ( AB)] = B −1 [( A−1 A) B]
= B −1 (IB) = B −1 B = I .
Also ( AB) ( B −1 A−1) = A [ B ( B −1 A−1)] = A [( BB −1) A−1]
= A (IA−1) = AA−1 = I .
Thus ( AB) ( B −1 A−1) = I = ( B −1 A−1) ( AB).
∴ By theorem 3, AB is invertible and ( AB)−1 = B −1 A−1.
1  1  1
(ii) We have (aA)  A−1 = a  A  A−1  = a  ( AA−1)
a   a   a 
1
=  a  ( AA−1) = 1I = I .
 a
Also  1 A−1 (aA) = 1 [ A−1 (aA)] = 1 [a ( A−1 A)]

 
a  a a
1
=  a ( A−1 A) = 1I = I.
a 
1 1
Thus (aA)  A−1 = I =  A−1 (aA).
a  a 
1
∴ by theorem 3, aA is invertible and (aA)−1 = A−1.
a
(iii) Since A is invertible, therefore
AA−1 = I = A−1 A.
∴ By theorem 3, A−1 is invertible and A = ( A−1)−1.
12 Singular and Non-singular Transformations

(Garhwal 2006, 07; Kumaun 07, 09)
Definition: Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space U ( F ) into a vector space
V ( F ). Then T is said to be non-singular if the null space of T (i. e., ker T ) consists of the zero
vector alone i. e., if
α ∈U and T (α) = 0 ⇒ α = 0.
If there exists a vector 0 ≠ α ∈ U such that T (α) = 0, then T is said to be singular.
L-30
Theorem 1: Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space U ( F ) into a vector space
V ( F ). Then T is non-singular if and only if T is one-one. (Kumaun 2007, 09)
Proof: Given that T is non-singular. Then to prove that T is one-one.
Let α1, α2 ∈U . Then
T (α1) = T (α2 )
⇒ T (α1) − T (α2 ) = 0
⇒ T (α1 − α2 ) = 0
⇒ α1 − α2 = 0 [∵ T is non-singular]
⇒ α1 = α2 .
∴ T is one-one.
Conversely let T be one-one. We know that T (0) = 0. Since T is one-one, therefore
α ∈U and T (α) = 0 = T (0) ⇒ α = 0.
Thus the null space of T consists of zero vector alone. Therefore T is non-singular.
Theorem 2: Let T be a linear transformation from U into V. Then T is non-singular if and

only if T carries each linearly independent subset of U onto a linearly independent subset of V.
Proof: First suppose that T is non-singular.
Let B = {α1, α 2 , … , α n}
be a linearly independent subset of U. Then image of B under T is the subset B ′ of V
given by
B ′ = {T (α1), T (α 2 ), … , T (α n)} .
To prove that B ′ is linearly independent.

Let a1, a2 , … , an ∈ F
and let a1T (α1) + … + an T (α n) = 0
⇒ T (a1α1 + … + an α n) = 0 [∵ T is linear]
⇒ a1α1 + … + an α n = 0 [∵ T is non-singular]
⇒ ai = 0 , i = 1, 2 , … , n [ ∵ α1, … , α n are linearly independent]
Thus the image of B under T is linearly independent.

Conversely suppose that T carries independent subsets onto independent subsets.
Then to prove that T is non-singular.
Let α ≠ 0 ∈ U. Then the set S = {α} consisting of the one non-zero vector α is linearly
independent. The image of S under T is the set
S ′ = {T (α)} .
It is given that S ′ is also linearly independent. Therefore T (α) ≠ 0 because the set
consisting of zero vector alone is linearly dependent. Thus
0 ≠ α ∈ U ⇒ T (α) ≠ 0.
This shows that the null space of T consists of the zero vector alone.
Therefore T is non-singular.
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Theorem 3: Let U and V be finite dimensional vector spaces over the field F such that dim
U = dim V. If T is a linear transformation from U into V, the following are equivalent.
(i) T is invertible.
(ii) T is non-singular.
(iii) The range of T is V.
(iv) If {α1, … , α n} is any basis for U, then
{T (α1), … , T (α n)} is a basis for V.
(v) There is some basis {α1, … , α n} for U such that
{T (α1), … , T (α n)} is a basis for V.
Proof: (i) ⇒ (ii).
If T is invertible, then T is one-one. Therefore T is non-singular.
(ii) ⇒ (iii).
Let T be non-singular. Let {α1, … , α n} be a basis for U. Then {α1, … , α n} is a linearly
independent subset of U. Since T is non-singular therefore {T (α1), … , T (α n)} is a
linearly independent subset of V and it contains n vectors. Since dim V is also n,
therefore this set of vectors is a basis for V. Now let β be any vector in V. Then there
exist scalars a1, … , an ∈ F such that
β = a1T (α1) + … + an T (α n) = T (a1 α1 + … + an α n)
which shows that β is in the range of T because
a1α1 + … + an α n ∈ U .
Thus every vector in V is in the range of T .
Hence range of T is V.
(iii) ⇒ (iv).
Now suppose that range of T is V i. e., T is onto. If {α1, … , α n} is any basis for U, then
the vectors T (α1), … , T (α n) span the range of T which is equal to V. Thus the vectors
T (α1), … , T (α n) which are n in number span V whose dimension is also n.
Therefore {T (α1), … , T (α n)} must be a basis set for V.
(iv) ⇒ (v).
Since U is finite dimensional, therefore there exists a basis for U. Let {α1, … , α n} be a
basis for U. Then {T (α1), … , T (α n)} is a basis for V as it is given in (iv).
(v) ⇒ (i).
Suppose there is some basis {α1, … , α n} for U such that {T (α1), … , T (α n) } is a basis for
V. The vectors {T (α1), … , T (α n) } span the range of T . Also they span V. Therefore the
range of T must be all of V i. e., T is onto.
If α = c1 α1 + … + c n α n is in the null space of T , then
T (c1 α1 + … + c n α n) = 0
⇒ c1T (α1) + … + c n T (α n) = 0
⇒ c i = 0 , 1 ≤ i ≤ n because T (α1), … , T (α n) are linearly independent
⇒ α = 0.
∴ T is non-singular and consequently T is one-one. Hence T is invertible.
L-32
Example 10: Describe explicitly the linear transformation T : R 2 → R 2 such that

T (2, 3) = (4, 5) and T (1, 0 ) = (0 , 0 ).
Solution: First we shall show that the set {(2, 3), (1, 0 )} is a basis of R2 . For linear
independence of this set let
a (2, 3) + b (1, 0 ) = (0 , 0 ), where a, b ∈ R.
Then (2 a + b, 3 a) = (0 , 0 )
⇒ 2a + b = 0, 3a = 0
⇒ a = 0, b = 0.
Hence the set {(2, 3), (1, 0 )} is linearly independent.
Now we shall show that the set {(2, 3), (1, 0 )} spans R2 . Let ( x1, x2 ) ∈ R2 and let
( x1, x2 ) = a (2, 3) + b (1, 0 ) = (2 a + b, 3 a).
Then 2 a + b = x1, 3 a = x2 . Therefore
x 3 x − 2 x2
a = 2 ,b = 1 ⋅
3 3
x 3 x − 2 x2
∴ ( x1, x2 ) = 2 (2, 3) + 1 (1, 0 ). …(1)
3 3
From the relation (1) we see that the set {(2, 3), (1, 0 )} spans R2 . Hence this set is a basis
for R2 .
Now let ( x1, x2 ) be any member of R2 . Then we are to find a formula for T ( x1, x2 ) under
the conditions that T (2, 3) = (4, 5), T (1, 0 ) = (0 , 0 ).
x 3 x − 2 x2 
We have T ( x1, x2 ) = T  2 (2, 3) + 1 (1, 0 ) , by (1)
3 3 
x2 3 x1 − 2 x2
= T (2, 3) + T (1, 0 ), by linearity of T
3 3
x 3 x − 2 x2
= 2 (4, 5) + 1 (0 , 0 )
3 3
4x 5x
=  2 , 2  ⋅
 3 3 
Example 11: Describe explicitly a linear transformation from V3 (R) into V3 (R) which has
its range the subspace spanned by (1, 0 , − 1) and (1, 2, 2).
Solution: The set B = {(1, 0 , 0 ), (0 , 1, 0 ), (0 , 0 , 1)} is a basis for V3 (R).
Also {(1, 0 , − 1), (1, 2, 2), (0 , 0 , 0 )} is a subset of V3 (R). It should be noted that in this
subset the number of vectors has been taken the same as is the number of vectors in the
set B.
There exists a unique linear transformation T from V3 (R) into V3 (R) such that
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T (1, 0 , 0 ) = (1, 0 , − 1),


and T (0 , 1, 0 ) = (1, 2, 2),  …(1)
T (0 , 0 , 1) = (0 , 0 , 0 ). 
Now the vectors T (1, 0 , 0 ), T (0 , 1, 0 ), T (0 , 0 , 1) span the range of T . In other words the
vectors
(1, 0 , − 1), (1, 2, 2), (0 , 0 , 0 )
span the range of T . Thus the range of T is the subspace of V3 (R) spanned by the set
{(1, 0 , − 1), (1, 2, 2)} because the zero vector (0 , 0 , 0 ) can be omitted from the spanning set.
Therefore T defined in (1) is the required transformation.
Now let us find an explicit expression for T . Let (a, b, c ) be any element of V3 (R). Then
we can write
(a, b, c ) = a (1, 0 , 0 ) + b (0 , 1, 0 ) + c (0 , 0 , 1).
∴ T (a, b, c ) = aT (1, 0 , 0 ) + bT (0 , 1, 0 ) + cT (0 , 0 , 1)
= a (1, 0 , − 1) + b (1, 2, 2) + c (0 , 0 , 0 ) [From (1)]
= (a + b, 2 b, 2 b − a).
Example 12:Let T be a linear operator on V3 (R) defined by
T (a, b, c ) = (3 a, a − b, 2 a + b + c ) V (a, b, c ) ∈ V3 (R).
−1
Is T invertible ? If so, find a rule for T like the one which defines T .
Solution: Let us see that T is one-one or not.
Let α = (a1, b1, c1), β = (a2 , b2 , c2 ) ∈ V3 (R).
Then T (α) = T ( β)
⇒ T (a1, b1, c1) = T (a2 , b2 , c2 )
⇒ (3 a1, a1 − b1, 2 a1 + b1 + c1) = (3 a2 , a2 − b2 , 2 a2 + b2 + c2 )
⇒ 3 a1 = 3 a2 , a1 − b1 = a2 − b2 , 2 a1 + b1 + c1 = 2 a2 + b2 + c2
⇒ a1 = a2 , b1 = b2 , c1 = c2 .
∴ T is one-one.
Now T is a linear transformation on a finite dimensional vector space V3 (R) whose
dimension is 3. Since T is one-one, therefore T must be onto also and thus T is
invertible.
−1
If T (a, b, c ) = ( p, q, r), then T ( p, q, r) = (a, b, c ).
Now T (a, b, c ) = ( p, q, r)
⇒ (3 a, a − b, 2 a + b + c ) = ( p, q, r)
⇒ p = 3 a, q = a − b, r = 2 a + b + c
p p 2p p
⇒ a = , b = − q, c = r − 2 a − b = r − − + q = r − p + q.
3 3 3 3
p p 
∴ T −1 ( p, q, r) =  , − q, r − p + q V ( p, q, r) ∈ V3 (R)
3 3 
is the rule which defines T −1.
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Example 13: A linear transformation T is defined on V2 ( C ) by

T (a, b) = (αa + βb, γa + δb),
where α, β, γ , δ are fixed elements of C. Prove that T is invertible if and only if αδ − β γ ≠ 0.
Solution: The vector space V2 (C) is of dimension 2. Therefore T is a linear
transformation on a finite-dimensional vector space. T will be invertible if and only if
the null space of T consists of zero vector alone. The zero vector of the space V2 (C) is the
ordered pair (0 , 0 ). Thus T is invertible
iff T ( x, y) = (0 , 0 ) ⇒ x = 0 , y = 0
i. e., iff (α x + βy, γ x + δy) = (0 , 0 ) ⇒ x = 0 , y = 0
i. e., iff α x + βy = 0 , γ x + δy = 0 ⇒ x = 0 , y = 0 .
Now the necessary and sufficient condition for the equations αx + βy = 0, γ x + δy = 0 to
have the only solution x = 0 , y = 0 is that
α β
≠0 .
γ δ
Hence T is invertible iff αδ − β γ ≠ 0.
Example 14: Find two linear operators T and S on V2 (R) such that
^ ^
TS = 0 but ST ≠ 0. (Kumaun 2009, 14)
Solution: Consider the linear transformations T and S on V2 (R) defined by
T (a, b) = (a, 0 ) V (a, b) ∈ V2 (R)
and S (a, b) = (0 , a) V (a, b) ∈ V2 (R).
We have (TS ) (a, b) = T [S (a, b)]
= T (0 , a) = (0 , 0 )
^
= 0 (a, b) V (a, b) ∈ V2 (R).
^
∴ TS = 0.
Again (ST ) (a, b) = S [T (a, b)]
= S (a, 0 ) = (0 , a)
^
≠ 0 (a, b) V (a, b) ∈ V2 (R).
^
Thus ST ≠ 0.
2 ^
Example 15: Let V be a vector space over the field F and T a linear operator on V. If T = 0,
what can you say about the relation of the range of T to the null space of T ? Give an example of a
2 ^ ^
linear operator T on V2 (R) such that T = 0 but T ≠ 0.
2 ^
Solution: We have T =0
2 ^
⇒ T (α) = 0 (α) V α ∈ V
⇒ T [T (α)] = 0 V α ∈ V
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⇒ T (α) ∈ null space of T V α ∈ V .

But T (α) ∈ range of T V α ∈ V .
2 ^
∴ T = 0 ⇒ range of T ⊆ null space of T .
For the second part of the question, consider the linear transformation T on V2 (R)
defined by
T (a, b) = (0 , a) V (a, b) ∈ V2 (R).
^
Then obviously T ≠ 0.
2
We have T (a, b) = T [T (a, b)] = T (0 , a) = (0 , 0 )
^
= 0 (a, b) V (a, b) ∈ V2 (R).
2 ^
∴ T = 0.
Example 16: If T : U → V is a linear transformation and U is finite dimensional, show

that U and range of T have the same dimension iff T is non-singular. Determine all non-singular
linear transformations
T : V4 (R) → V3 (R).
Solution: We know that
dim U = rank (T ) + nullity (T )
= dim of range of T + dim of null space of T .
∴ dim U = dim of range of T
iff dim of null space of T is zero
i. e., iff null space of T consists of zero vector alone
i. e., iff T is non-singular.
Let T be a linear transformation from V4 (R) into V3 (R).Then T will be non-singular iff
dim of V4 (R) = dim of range of T .
Now dim V4 (R) = 4 and dim of range of T ≤ 3 because range of T ⊆ V3 (R).
∴ dim V4 (R) cannot be equal to dim of range of T .
Hence T cannot be non-singular. Thus there can be no non-singular linear
transformation from V4 (R) into V3 (R).
Example 17: If A and B are linear transformations (on the same vector space), then a
necessary and sufficient condition that both A and B be invertible is that both AB and BA be
invertible.
Solution: Let A and B be two invertible linear transformations on a vector space V.
We have ( AB) ( B −1 A−1) = I = ( B −1 A−1) ( AB).
∴ AB is invertible.
Also we have
( BA) ( A−1 B −1) = I = ( A−1 B −1) ( BA).
∴ BA is also invertible.
Thus the condition is necessary.
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Conversely, let AB and BA be both invertible. Then AB and BA are both one-one and
onto.
First we shall show that A is invertible.
A is one-one:S
Let α1, α2 ∈V . Then
A (α1) = A (α2 )
⇒ B [ A (α1)] = B [ A (α2 )]
⇒ ( BA) (α1) = ( BA) (α2 )
⇒ α1 = α2 . [∵ BA is one-one]
∴ A is one-one.
A is onto:
Let β ∈V. Since AB is onto, therefore there exists α ∈V such that
( AB) (α) = β
⇒ A [ B (α)] = β.
Thus β ∈ V ⇒ ∃ B (α) ∈ V such that A [ B (α)] = β.
∴ A is onto.
∴ A is invertible.
Interchanging the roles played by AB and BA in the above proof, we can prove that B
is invertible.
Example 18: If A is a linear transformation on a vector space V such that

^
A2 − A + I = 0,
then A is invertible.
Solution: If A2 − A + I = ^
0, then
A2 − A = − I .
First we shall prove that A is one-one Let α1, α2 ∈V .
Then A (α1) = A (α2 ) …(1)
⇒ A [ A (α1)] = A [ A (α2 )]
⇒ A2 (α1) = A2 (α2 ) …(2)
⇒ A2 (α1) − A (α1) = A2 (α2 ) − A (α2 ) [From (2) and (1)]
2 2
⇒ ( A − A) (α1) = ( A − A) (α2 )
⇒ (− I ) (α1) = (− I ) (α2 )
⇒ − [I (α1)] = − [I (α2 )]
⇒ − α1 = − α2 ⇒ α1 = α2 .
∴ A is one-one.
Now to prove that A is onto.
Let α ∈V. Then
α − A (α) ∈ V .
L-37
We have A [α − A (α)] = A (α) − A2 (α)

= ( A − A2 ) (α)
= I (α) [ ∵ A2 − A = − I ⇒ A − A2 = I ]
=α.
Thus α ∈ V ⇒ ∃ α − A (α) ∈ V such that
A [α − A (α)] = α.
∴ A is onto.
Hence A is invertible.
Example 19: Let V be a finite dimensional vector space and T be a linear operator on V.
Suppose that rank (T 2 ) = rank ( T ). Prove that the range and null space of T are disjoint i. e.,
have only the zero vector in common.
Solution: We have
dim V = rank ( T ) + nullity ( T )
and dim V = rank ( T 2 ) + nullity (T 2 ).
Since rank ( T ) = rank ( T 2 ), therefore we get
nullity (T ) = nullity (T 2 )
i. e., dim of null space of T = dim of null space of T 2 .
Now T (α) = 0
⇒ T [T (α)] = T (0)
⇒ T 2 (α) = 0.
∴ α ∈ null space of T ⇒ α ∈ null space of T 2 .
∴ null space of T ⊆ null space of T 2 .
2
But null space of T and null space of T are both subspaces of V and have the same
dimension.
∴ null space of T = null space of T 2 .
∴ null space of T 2 ⊆ null space of T
2
i. e., T (α) = 0 ⇒ T (α) = 0.
∴ range and null space of T are disjoint. [See Example 1 after article 5 ]
Example 20:Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F.

Let {α1, α2 , … , α n} and {β1, β2 , … , β n} be two ordered bases for V. Show that there exists a
unique invertible linear transformation T on V such that
T (α i) = β i , 1 ≤ i ≤ n. (Kumaun 2015)
Solution: We have proved in one of the previous theorems that there exists a
unique linear transformation T on V such that T (α i) = β i , 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Here we are to show that T is invertible. Since V is finite dimensional therefore in order
to prove that T is invertible, it is sufficient to prove that T is non-singular.
L-38
Let α ∈V
and T (α) = 0.
Let α = a1α1 + … + an α n where a1, … , an ∈ F .
We have T (α) = 0
⇒ T (a1α1 + … + an α n) = 0
⇒ a1T (α1) + … + an T (α n) = 0
⇒ a1 β1 + … + an β n = 0
⇒ ai = 0 for each 1≤ i ≤ n [ ∵ β1, … , β n are linearly independent]
⇒ α = 0.
∴ T is non-singular because null space of T consists of zero vector alone.
Hence T is invertible.
1. Describe explicitly the linear transformation T from F 2 to F 2 such that

T (e1) = (a, b), T (e2 ) = (c , d) where e1 = (1, 0 ), e2 = (0 , 1). (Kumaun 2008)
2. Find a linear transformation T : R 2 → R 2 such that T (1, 0 ) = (1, 1) and

T (0 , 1) = (− 1, 2). Prove that T maps the square with vertices (0 , 0 ), (1, 0 ), (1, 1) and
(0 , 1) into a parallelogram.
3. Let T : R 2 → R be the linear transformation for which T (1, 1) = 3 and
T (0 , 1) = − 2. Find T (a, b).
4. Describe explicitly a linear transformation from V3 (R) into V4 (R) which has its
range the subspace spanned by the vectors (1, 2, 0 , − 4), (2, 0 , − 1, − 3).
5. Find a linear mapping T : R 3 → R 4 whose image is generated by (1, − 1, 2, 3) and
(2, 3, − 1, 0 ).
6. Let F be any field and let T be a linear operator on F 2 defined by
T (a, b) = (a + b, a). Show that T is invertible and find a rule for T −1 like the one
which defines T .
7. Show that the operator T on R 3 defined by T ( x, y, z ) = ( x + z , x − z , y) is
invertible and find similar rule defining T −1.
8. Let T be a linear operator on V3 (R) defined by

T (a, b, c ) = (3 a, a − b, 2 a + b + c ) V (a, b, c ) ∈ V3 (R).
^
Prove that (T 2 − I ) (T − 3 I ) = 0. (Kumaun 2011)
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9. Let T and U be the linear operators on R 2 defined by T (a, b) = (b, a) and

U (a, b) = (a, 0 ). Give rules like the one defining T and U for each of the linear
transformation (U + T ), UT , TU , T 2 , U 2 .
10. Let T be the (unique) linear operator on C3 for which

T (1, 0 , 0 ) = (1, 0 , i), T (0 , 1, 0 ) = (0 , 1, 1), T (0 , 0 , 1) = (i, 1, 0 ).
Show that T is not invertible.
11. Show that if two linear transformations of a finite dimensional vector space
coincide on a basis of that vector space, then they are identical.
12. If T is a linear transformation on a finite dimensional vector space V such that

range (T ) is a proper subset of V, show that there exists a non-zero element α in
V with T (α) = 0.
13. Let T : R 3 → R 3 be defined as T (a, b, c ) = (0 , a, b). Show that

^ ^ ^
T ≠ 0, T 2 ≠ 0 but T 3 = 0. (Kumaun 2008)
14. Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space U into a vector space V
with Ker T ≠ 0. Show that there exist vectors α1 and α2 in U such that α1 ≠ α2
and Tα1 = Tα2 . (Kumaun 2008)
15. Let T be a linear transformation from V3 (R) into V2 (R), and let S be a linear
transformation from V2 (R) into V3 (R). Prove that the transformation ST is not
invertible.
16. Let A and B be linear transformations on a finite dimensional vector space V

and let AB = I . Then A and B are both invertible and A−1 = B. Give an example
to show that this is false when V is not finite dimensional.
17. If A and B are linear transformations (on the same vector space) and if AB = I ,
then A is called a left inverse of B and B is called a right inverse of A. Prove that
if A has exactly one right inverse, say B, then A is invertible.
18. Prove that the set of invertible linear operators on a vector space V with the
operation of composition forms a group. Check if this group is commutative.
19. Let V and W be vector spaces over the field F and let U be an isomorphism of V
onto W. Prove that T → UTU −1 is an isomorphism of L (V , V ) onto L (W , W ).
20. If {α1, … , α k } and {β1, … β k } are linearly independent sets of vectors in a finite
dimensional vector space V, then there exists an invertible linear
transformation T on V such that
T (α i) = β i, i = 1, … , k .
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A nswers 2
1. T ( x1, x2 ) = ( x1 a + x2 c , x1 b + x2 d)
2. T ( x1, x2 ) = ( x1 − x2 , x1 + 2 x2 )
3. T (a, b) = 5 a − 2 b
4. T (a, b, c ) = (a + 2 b, 2 a − b, − 4 a − 3 b)
5. T (a, b, c ) = (a + 2 b, − a + 3 b, 2 a − b, 3 a)
6. T −1 ( p, q) = (q, p − q)
1 1 1 1 
7. T −1 ( x, y, z ) =  x + y, z , x − y
2 2 2 2 
9. (U + T ) (a, b) = (a + b, a) ; (UT ) (a, b) = (b, 0 ) ; (TU ) (a, b) = (0 , a)
T 2 (a, b) = (a, b) ; U 2 (a, b) = (a, 0 )
18. Not commutative
13 Isomorphism
Definition: Let U ( F ) and V ( F ) be two Vector spaces. Then a mapping
f :U → V
is called an isomorphism of U onto V, if
(i) f is one-one,
(ii) f is onto,
(iii) f (aα + bβ) = a f (α) + b f ( β) V a, b ∈ F , α, β ∈ U .

Also then the two vector spaces U and V are said to be isomorphic and symbolically we write
U ( F ) ≅ V ( F ).
The vector space V ( F ) is also called the isomorphic image of the vector space U ( F ).
If f is a homomorphism of U ( F ) into V ( F ), then f will become an isomorphism of U
into V if f is one-one. Also in addition if f is onto V, then f will become an
isomorphism of U onto V.
14 Theorems on Isomorphism
Theorem 1: Two finite dimensional vector spaces over the same field are isomorphic if and only
if they are of the same dimension.
Proof: First suppose that U ( F ) and V ( F ) are two finite dimensional vector spaces
each of dimension n. Then to prove that
U ( F ) ≅ V ( F ).
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Let the sets of vectors

{α1, α2 , … , α n} and {β1, β2 , … , β n}
be the bases of U and V respectively.
Any vector α ∈U can be uniquely expressed as
α = a1α1 + a2α2 + … + an α n .
Let f : U ∈ V be defined by
f (α) = a1 β1 + a2 β2 + … + an β n .
Since in the expression of α as a linear combination of α1, α2 , … , α n the scalars
a1, a2 , … , an are unique, therefore the mapping f is well defined
i. e., f (α) is a unique element of V.
f is one-one: We have
f (a1 α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n) = f (b1 α1 + b2 α2 + … + bn α n)
⇒ a1 β1 + a2 β2 + … + an β n = b1 β1 + b2 β2 + … + bn β n
⇒ (a1 − b1) β1 + (a2 − b2 ) β2 + … + (an − bn) β n = 0 ′ [zero vector of V ]
⇒ a1 − b1 = 0 , a2 − b2 = 0 , … , an − bn = 0 , because
β1, β2 , … , β n are linearly independent
⇒ a1 = b1, a2 = b2 , … , an = bn
⇒ a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n = b1α1 + b2 α2 + … + bn α n .
∴ f is one-one.
f is onto V: If a1 β1 + a2 β2 + … + an β n is any element of V, then ∃ an element

a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n ∈ U such that
f (a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n) = a1 β1 + a2 β2 + … + an β n .
∴ f is onto V.
f is a linear transformation: We have
f [a (a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n) + b (b1α1 + b2 α2 + … + bn α n)]
= f [(aa1 + bb1) α1 + (aa2 + bb2 ) α2 + … + (aan + bbn) α n]
= (aa1 + bb1) β1 + (aa2 + bb2 ) β2 + … + (aan + bbn) β n
= a (a1 β1 + a2 β2 + … + an β n) + b (b1 β1 + b2 β2 + … + bn β n)
= a f (a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n) + b f (b1α1 + b2 α2 + … + bn α n).
∴ f is a linear transformation.
Hence f is an isomorphism of U onto V.
∴ U ≅ V.
Conversely, let U ( F ) and V ( F ) be two isomorphic finite dimensional vector spaces.
Then to prove that dim U = dim V.
Let dim U = n. Let S = {α1, α2 , … , α n} be a basis of U. If f is an isomorphism of U onto V,
we shall show that
S ′ = { f (α1), f (α2 ), … , f (α n)}
is a basis of V. Then V will also be of dimension n.
L-42
First we shall show that S ′ is linearly independent.

Let a1 f (α1) + a2 f (α2 ) + … + an f (α n) = 0 ′ [zero vector of V ]
⇒ f (a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n) = 0 ′ [∵ f is a linear transformation]
⇒ a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n = 0
[∵ f is one-one and f (0) = 0 ′ where 0 is zero vector of U ]
⇒ a1 = 0 , a2 = 0 , … , an = 0 ,
since α1, α2 , … , α n are linearly independent.
∴ S ′ is linearly independent.
Now to prove that L (S ′ ) = V . For this we shall prove that any vector β ∈V can be
expressed as a linear combination of the vectors of the set S ′ . Since f is onto V,
therefore β ∈ V ⇒ there exists α ∈U such that f (α) = β.
Let α = c1 α1 + c2 α2 + … + c n α n .
Then β = f (α) = f (c1 α1 + c2 α2 + … + c n α n)
= c1 f (α1) + c2 f (α2 ) + … + c n f (α n).
Thus β is a linear combination of the vectors of S ′ .
Hence V = L (S ′ ).
∴ S ′ is a basis of V. Since S ′ contains n vectors, therefore dim V = n.
Note: While proving the converse, we have proved that if f is an isomorphism of U onto
V, then f maps a basis of U onto a basis of V.
Theorem 2: Every n-dimensional vector space V ( F ) is isomorphic to Vn ( F ).
(Gorakhpur 2014)
Proof: Let {α1, α2 , … , α n} be any basis of V ( F ). Then every vector α ∈V can be
uniquely expressed as
α = a1 α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n , ai ∈ F .
The ordered n-tuple (a1, a2 , … , an) ∈ Vn ( F ).
Let f : V ( F ) → Vn ( F ) be defined by f (α) = (a1, a2 , … , an).
Since in the expression of α as a linear combination of α1, α2 , … , α n the scalars
a1, a2 , … , an are unique, therefore f (α) is a unique element of Vn ( F ) and thus the
mapping f is well defined.
f is one-one: Let α = a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n

and β = b1α1 + b2 α2 + … + bn α n
be any two elements of V. We have
f (α) = f ( β)
⇒ f (a1 α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n) = f (b1 α1 + b2 α2 + … + bn α n)
⇒ (a1, a2 , … , an) = (b1, b2 , … , bn)
⇒ a1 = b1, a2 = b2 , … , an = bn
⇒ α = β.
∴ f is one-one.
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f is onto Vn ( F ): Let (a1, a2 , … , an) be any element of Vn ( F ). Then there exists an

element a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n ∈ V ( F ) such that
f (a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n) = (a1, a2 , … , an).
∴ f is onto Vn ( F ).
f is a linear transformation: If a, b ∈ F and α , β ∈V ( F ), we have
f (aα + bβ)
= f [a (a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n) + b (b1α1 + b2 α2 + … + bn α n)]
= f [(aa1 + bb1) α1 + (aa2 + bb2 ) α2 + … + (aan + bbn) α n]
= (aa1 + bb1, aa2 + bb2 , … , aan + bbn)
= (aa1, aa2 , … , aan) + (bb1, bb2 , … , bbn)
= a (a1, a2 , … , an) + b (b1, b2 ,… , bn)
= a f (a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n) + b f (b1α1 + b2 α2 + … + bn α n)
= a f (α) + b f ( β).
∴ f is a linear transformation.
∴ f is an isomorphism of V ( F ) onto Vn ( F ).
Hence V ( F ) ≅ Vn ( F ).
Example 21: Let V (R) be the vector space of all complex numbers a + ib over the field of reals R
and let T be a mapping from V (R) to V2 (R) defined as
T (a + ib) = (a, b).
Show that T is an isomorphism. (Meerut 2003)
Solution: T is one-one: Let
α = a + ib, β = c + id
be any two members of V (R). Then a, b, c , d ∈ R.
We have T (α) = T ( β)
⇒ (a, b) = (c , d) [ ∵ T (α) = (a, b)]
⇒ a = c, b = d
⇒ a + ib = c + id
⇒ α = β.
∴ T is one-one.
T is onto: Let (a, b) be an arbitrary member of V2 (R). Then ∃ a vector a + ib ∈ V (R)
such that T (a + ib) = (a, b). Hence T is onto.
T is a linear transformation: Let α = a + ib, β = c + id be any two members of V (R)
and k1, k2 be any two elements of the field R. Then
k1α + k2 β = k1 (a + ib) + k2 (c + id)
= (k1a + k2 c ) + i (k1b + k2 d).
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We have
T (k1α + k2 β) = (k1a + k2 c , k1b + k2 d ), by definition of T
= (k1a, k1 b) + (k2 c , k2 d)
= k1 (a, b) + k2 (c , d )
= k1T (a + ib) + k2 T (c + id ) [by definition of T ]
= k1T (α) + k2T ( β).
Hence T is a linear transformation.
Hence T is an isomorphism.
Example 22: If V is a finite dimensional vector space and f is an isomorphism of V into V,

prove that f must map V onto V.
Solution: Let V ( F ) be a finite dimensional vector space of dimension n. Let f be an
isomorphism of V into V i. e., f is a linear transformation and f is one-one. To prove that
f is onto V.
Let S = {α1, α2 , … , α n} be a basis of V. We shall first prove that
S ′ = { f (α1), f (α2 ), … , f (α n)}
is also a basis of V.We claim that S ′ is linearly independent. The proof is as follows :
Let a1 f (α1) + a2 f (α2 ) + … + an f (α n) = 0 [zero vector of V ]
⇒ f (a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n) = 0 [∵ f is linear transformation]
⇒ a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n = 0 [∵ f is one-one and f (0) = 0]
⇒ a1 = 0 , a2 = 0 , … , an = 0 ,
since α1, α2 , … , α n are linearly independent.
∴ S ′ is linearly independent.
Now V is of dimension n and S ′ is a linearly independent subset of V containing n
vectors. Therefore S ′ must be a basis of V. Therefore each vector in V can be expressed
as a linear combination of the vectors belonging to S ′ .
Now we shall show that f is onto V. Let α be any element of V. Then there exist scalars
c1, c2 ,… , c n such that
α = c1 f (α1) + c2 f (α2 ) + … + c n f (α n)
= f (c1 α1 + c2 α2 + … + c n α n).
Now c1 α1 + c2 α2 + … + c n α n ∈ V and the f -image of this element is α. Therefore f is
onto V. Hence f is an isomorphism of V onto V.
Example 23: If V is finite dimensional and f is a homomorphism of V onto V prove that f

must be one-one, and so, an isomorphism.
Solution: Let V ( F ) be a finite dimensional vector space of dimension n. Let f be a
homomorphism of V onto V i. e., f is a linear transformation and f is onto V. To prove
that f is one-one.
Let S = {α1, α2 , … , α n} be a basis of V.
We shall first prove that
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S ′ = { f (α1), f (α2 ), … , f (α n)}

is also a basis of V. We claim that L (S ′ ) = V . The proof is as follows :
Let α be any element of V. We shall show that α can be expressed as a linear combination
of f (α1), f (α2 ), … , f (α n). Since f is onto V, therefore α ∈V implies that there exists
β ∈V such that f ( β) = α. Now β can be expressed as a linear combination of
α1, α2 , … , α n . Let
β = a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n .
Then α = f ( β) = f (a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n)
= a1 f (α1) + a2 f (α2 ) + … + an f (α n).
Thus α has been expressed as a linear combination of
f (α1), f (α2 ), … , f (α n).
Therefore L (S ′ ) = V .
Since V is of dimension n and S ′ is a subset of V containing n vectors and L (S ′ ) = V ,
therefore S ′ must be a basis of V. Therefore each vector in V can be expressed as a linear
combination of the vectors belonging to S ′ and S ′ is linearly independent.
Now we shall show that f is one-one. Let γ and δ be any two elements of V such that
γ = c1 α1 + c2 α2 + … + c n α n , δ = d1 α1 + d2 α2 + … + dn α n .
We have
f (γ ) = f (δ)
⇒ f (c1α1 + c2 α2 + … + c n α n) = f (d1α1 + d2 α2 + … + dn α n)
⇒ c1 f (α1) + c2 f (α2 ) + … + c n f (α n) = d1 f (α1) + d2 f (α2 ) + …
+ dn f (α n)
⇒ (c1 − d1) f (α1) + (c2 − d2 ) f (α2 ) + … + (c n − dn) f (α n) = 0
⇒ c1 − d1 = 0 , c2 − d2 = 0 , … , c n − dn = 0 , since
f (α1), f (α2 ), … , f (α n) are linearly independent
⇒ c1 = d1, c2 = d2 , … , c n = dn
⇒ γ = δ.
∴ f is one-one.
∴ f is an isomorphism of V onto V.
Example 24: If f : U → V is an isomorphism of the vector space U into the vector space V,
then a set of vectors { f (α1), f (α2 ), … , f (α r )} is linearly independent if and only if the set
{α1, α2 , … , α r} is linearly independent.
Solution: U ( F ) and V ( F ) are two vector spaces over the same field F and f is an
isomorphism of U into V i. e., f : U → V such that f is 1-1 and
f (aα + bβ) = a f (α) + b f ( β) V a, b ∈ F and V α, β ∈U .
Let {α1, α2 , … , α r} be a subset of U. First suppose that the vectors α1, α2 , … , α r are
linearly independent. Then to show that the vectors
f (α1), f (α2 ), … , f (α r )
are also linearly independent.
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We have
a1 f (α1) + a2 f (α2 ) + … + ar f (α r ) = 0 ′ , where a1, a2 , ..., ar ∈ F
⇒ f (a1α1 + a2α2 + … + arα r ) = 0 ′ [∵ f is a linear transformation]
⇒ f (a1α1 + a2α2 + … + arα r ) = f (0) [∵ f (0) = 0 ′ ]
⇒ a1α1 + a2α2 + … + arα r = 0 [∵ f is 1-1]
⇒ a1 = 0 , a2 = 0 , … , ar = 0
since the vectors α1, α2 , … , α r are linearly independent.
Hence the vectors f (α1), f (α2 ) , … , f (α r ) are also linearly independent.
Conversely suppose that the vectors
f (α1), f (α2 ), … , f (α r )
are linearly independent. Then to show that the vectors α1, α2 , … , α r are also linearly
independent.
We have
a1 α1 + a2 α2 + … + ar α r = 0, where a1, a2 , … , ar ∈ F
⇒ f (a1 α1 + a2 α2 + … + ar α r ) = f (0)
⇒ a1 f (α1) + a2 f (α2 ) + … + ar f (α r ) = 0 ′
[∵ f is a linear transformation]
⇒ a1 = 0 , a2 = 0 , … , ar = 0
Since the vectors f (α1), f (α2 ), … , f (α r ) are linearly independent.
Hence the vectors α1, α2 , … , α r are also linearly independent.
1. Let T : V2 (R ) → V2 (R ) be defined as T (a1, b1) = (b1, a1).

Show that T is an isomorphism.
2. V ( F ) and W ( F ) are two finite dimensional vector spaces such that dim
V = dim W . If f is an isomorphism of V into W, prove that f must map V into
W. (Meerut 2002, 03; Garhwal 10B; Kumaun 14)
3. If f : (U → V ) is an isomorphism of the vector space U into the vector space V,
then a set of vectors f (α1), f (α2 ), … , f (α r ) is linearly dependent in V if and
only if the set α1, α2 ,… α r is linearly dependent in U.
4. Give an example of a one-one linear transformation of an infinite dimensional
vector space which is not an isomorphism.
5. If f is an isomorphism of a vector space V onto a vector space W, prove that f
maps a basis of V onto a basis of W.
6. Prove that a finite dimensional vector space V (R ) with dimension V = n is
isomorphic to R n.
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O bjective T ype Q uestions
Multiple Choice Questions

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from (a),
(b), (c) and (d).
1. If U ( F ) and V ( F ) are two vector spaces and T is a linear transformation from U
into V, then range of T is a subspace of
(a) U (b) V
(c) U ∪ V (d) none of these
2. Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space U ( F ) into a vector space

V ( F ) with U as finite dimensional. The rank of T is the dimension of the
(a) range of T (b) null space of T
(c) vector space U (d) vector space V
3. Let U be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F, and let V be an

m-dimensional vector space over F. Then the vector space L (U , V ) of all linear
transformations from U into V is finite dimensional and is of dimension
(a) m (b) n
(c) mn (d) none of these
4. If T : V2 (R) → V3 (R) defined as T (a, b) = (a + b, a − b, b) is a linear

transformation, then nullity of T is
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) none of these
(Kumaun 2015)
5. If T is a linear transformation from a vector space V into a vector space W, then
the condition for T −1 to be a linear transformation from W to V is
(a) T should be one-one (b) T should be onto
(c) T should be one-one and onto (d) none of these
6. Let F be any field and let T be a linear operator on F 2 defined by

−1
T (a, b) = (a + b, a). Then T (a, b) =
(a) (b, a − b) (b) (a − b, b)
(c) (a, a + b) (d) none of these
(Kumaun 2014)
7. If T is a linear transformation T (a, b) = (α a + β b, γ a + γ b), the T is invertible if

(a) αβ − γδ = 0 (b) αβ − γδ ≠ 0
(c) αδ − βγ = 0 (d) αδ − βγ ≠ 0 (Kumaun 2015)
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8. Let V ( F ) be a vector space and let T1, T2 be linear Transformations on V. If T1

and T2 are invertible then
(a) (T1T2 )−1 = T2 T1−1 (b) (T1T2 )−1 = T1 T2 −1
(c) (T1T2 )−1 = T2 −1T1−1 (d) (T1T2 )−1 = T1−1T2 −1.
9. If the mapping f : U → V is a linear transformation from the vector space U (V )

to the vector space V (U ), then:
(a) f (− α) = f (α) (b) f (− α) = − f (α)
(c) f (− α) = ± f (α) (d) none of these
(Kumaun 2007)
10. Which of the following function T :R 2 → R 2 is not linear ?
(a) T (a , b) = (b , a) (b) T (a , b) = (a + b , a)
(c) T (a , b) = (a , a + b) (d) T (a , b) = (1 + a , b)
(Kumaun 2010)
11. Let T : U → V be a linear transformation then:
(a) T (0) = 0 (b) T (− α) = − T (α), α ∈ U
(c) T (α − β) = T (α) − T ( β) ∀ α , β ∈ U (d) all above
(Kumaun 2014)
12. Which of the following function is linear ?
(a) T :R 2 → R 2 such that T (a , b) = (b , a)
(b) T :R 2 → R 2 such that T ( x , y) = x y
(c) T :R 2 → R 2 such that T ( x , y) = (1 + x , y)
(d) T :R 2 → R 2 such that T ( x , y) = | x + y |
13. If T : V2 (R ) → V3 (R ) is a linear transformation defined by

T ( x , y) = ( x + y , x − y , y), then nullity of T is
(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) 3
14. If T is a linear transformation T : VF → WF and { v1, v2 ,…, vn} is a basis for VF
then { T (v1), T (v2 ),…, T (vn)} will be a basis for WF if following is true
(a) T is one-one (b) T is onto
(c) T is one-one and onto (d) none of above
15. If A , B and C are linear transformations on a vector space V ( F ) such that
A B = C A = I , then
(a) A is invertible and A−1 = B = C
(b) B is invertible and B−1 = C
(c) C is invertible and C −1 = B
(d) A , B and C are invertible and A−1 = B−1 = C −1
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16. Let T be a linear transformation from a vector space U ( F ) into a vector space
V ( F ) . Then T is non-singular if and only if :
(a) T is one-one onto (b) T is one-one
(c) T is onto (d) none of these
17. T is a linear transformation on an n-dimensional vector space V ( F ) such that
range and null spaces of T are identical. Then
(a) n = 0 (b) n > 0
(c) n is prime (d) n is even
18. If linear transformation T : V → W is invertible then :
(a) T (α) = T ( β) ⇔ α = β (b) T (α) = T ( β) ⇔ α ≠ β
−1
(c) T (α) = T ( β) ⇔ T T ( α) ≠ β (d) none of these
19. Let T1 and T 2 be linear operators on R 2 defined as follows:
T1( x1 , x2 ) = ( x2 , x1), T 2 ( x1 , x2 ) = ( x2 , 0 ). Then (T1T 2 )( x1 , x2 ) =

(a) ( x1 , 0 ) (b) ( x 2 , 0 )
(c) ( 0 , x 2 ) (d) ( 0 , x1)
20. T is non singular iff
(a) nullity (T ) ≠ 0 (b) nullity (T ) = 0
(c) rank (T ) = 0 (d) nullity (T ) = rank (T )
Fill in the Blank(s)

Fill in the blanks ‘‘……’’ so that the following statements are complete and
correct.
1. Let V ( F ) be a vector space. A linear operator on V is a function T from V into V
such that T (aα + bβ) = …… for all α, β in V and for all a, b in F.
2. If U ( F ) and V ( F ) are two vector spaces and T is a linear transformation from U
into V, then the kernel of T is a subspace of …… .
3. Let U and V be vector spaces over the field F and let T be a linear transformation
from U into V. Suppose that U is finite dimensional. Then
rank (T ) + nullity (T ) = …… .
4. Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F and let T be a linear
transformation from V into V such that the range and null space of T are
identical. Then n is …… .
5. The vector space of all linear operators on an n-dimensional vector space U is of
dimension …… .
6. Let V ( F ) be a vector space and let A, B be linear transformations on V. If A and B
are invertible then AB is invertible and ( AB)−1 = …… .
7. A linear operator T on R2 defined by T ( x, y) = (ax + by, cx + dy) will be
invertible iff …… .
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True or False
Write ‘T ’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.
1. Let U ( F ) and V ( F ) be two vector spaces and let T be a linear transformation
from U into V. Then the null space of T is the set of all vectors α in U such that
T (α) = α.
2. The function T : R2 → R2 defined by T (a, b) = (1 + a, b) is a linear

transformation.
3. Two linear transformations from U into V are equal if they agree on a basis of U.
^ ^
4. For two linear operators T and S on R2 , TS = 0 → ST = 0 .
5. If S and T are linear operators on a vector space U, then

(S + T )2 = S 2 + 2 ST + T 2 .
6. The identity operator on a vector space is always invertible.
A nswers

1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (c)
6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (a)
16. (c) 17. (d) 18. (a) 19. (d) 20. (b)

1. aT (α) + bT ( β) 2. U 3. dim U
4. even 5. n2 6. B −1 A−1
7. ad − bc ≠ 0
True or False
1. F 2. F 3. T 4. F 5. F
6. T
¨
L-51
2
M atrices and
L inear T ransformations
1 Matrix
efinition: Let F be any field. A set of mn elements of F arranged in the form of a
D rectangular array having m rows and n columns is called an m × n matrix over the field F.
An m × n matrix is usually written as
 a11 a12 ... a1n
a 
21 a22 ... a2 n
A=  ⋅
 ... ... ... ...
 
am1 am2 ... amn
In a compact form the above matrix is represented by A = [aij]m × n . The element aij is
called the (i, j)th element of the matrix A. In this element the first suffix i will always
denote the number of row in which this element occurs.
If in a matrix A the number of rows is equal to the number of columns and is equal to n,
then A is called a square matrix of order n and the elements aij for which i = j constitute
its principal diagonal.
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Unit matrix: A square matrix each of whose diagonal elements is equal to 1 and each of whose
non-diagonal elements is equal to zero is called a unit matrix or an identity matrix. We shall
denote it by I. Thus if I is unit matrix of order n, then I = [δ ij]n × n where δ ij is Kronecker
delta.
Diagonal matrix: A square matrix is said to be a diagonal matrix if all the elements lying above
and below the principal diagonal are equal to 0. For example,
0 0 0 0
0 2 + i 0 0 
 
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 5
is a diagonal matrix of order 4 over the field of complex numbers.
Null matrix: The m × n matrix whose elements are all zero is called the null matrix or
(zero matrix) of the type m × n.
Equality of two matrices: Definition:
Let A = [aij]m × n and B = [b jk ]m × n . Then
A = B if aij = bij for each pair of subscripts i and j.
Addition of two matrices: Definition:
Let A = [aij]m × n , B = [bij]m × n . Then we define
A + B = [aij + bij]m × n .
Multiplication of a matrix by a scalar: Definition:
Let A = [aij]m × n and a ∈ F i. e., a be a scalar. Then we define
aA = [aaij]m × n .
Multiplication of two matrices: Definition:
Let A = [aij]m × n , B = [b jk ]n × p i. e., the number of columns in the matrix A is
equal to the number of rows in the matrix B. Then we define
 n 
AB =  Σ aij b jk  i. e., AB is an m × p matrix whose (i, k ) th
 j =1 m × p
n
element is equal to Σ aij b jk .
j =1
If A and B are both square matrices of order n, then both the products AB and BA exist
but in general AB ≠ BA.
Transpose of a matrix: Definition:
Let A = [aij]m × n . The n × m matrix AT obtained by interchanging the rows and
columns of A is called the transpose of A. Thus AT = [bij]n × m , where bij = a ji , i. e., the
(i, j)th element of AT is the ( j, i)th element of A. If A is an m × n matrix and B is an n × p

matrix, it can be shown that ( AB)T = BT AT . The transpose of a matrix A is also
denoted by At or by A′ .
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Determinant of a square matrix: Let Pn denote the group of all permutations of

degree n on the set {1, 2 , … , n}. If θ ∈ Pn , then θ (i) will denote the image of i under θ. The
symbol (− 1)θ for θ ∈ Pn will mean + 1 if θ is an even permutation and − 1 if θ is an odd
permutation.
Definition: Let A = [aij]n × n . Then the determinant of A, written as det A or | A| or
| aij |n × n is the element
Σ (− 1)θ a1θ (1) a2 θ (2) … anθ (n) in F.
θ ∈ Pn
The number of terms in this summation is n ! because there are n ! permutations in the
set Pn .
We shall often use the notation
 a11 ... a1n
 a21 ... a2 n
 
 ... ... ...
 ... ... ...
 
 an1 ... ann
for the determinant of the matrix [aij]n × n .
The following properties of determinants are worth to be noted :
(i) The determinant of a unit matrix is always equal to 1.
(ii) The determinant of a null matrix is always equal to 0.
(iii) If A = [aij]n × n , B = [bij]n × n , then det ( AB) = (det A) (det B).
Cofactors: Definition: Let A = [aij]n × n . We define
Aij = cofactor of aij in A
= (− 1)i + j. [Determinant of the matrix of order n − 1 obtained
by deleting the row and column of A passing through aij].
It should be noted that
n
Σ aik Aij = 0 if k ≠ j
i =1
or = det A if k = j.
Adjoint of a square matrix: Definition: Let A = [aij]n × n .
The n × n matrix which is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of A is called the
adjoint of A and is denoted by adj A.
It should be remembered that
A (adj A) = (adj A) A = (det A) I
where I is the unit matrix of order n.
Inverse of a square matrix: Definition: Let A be a square matrix of order n. If there
exists a square matrix B of order n such that
AB = I = BA
then A is said to be invertible and B is called the inverse of A.
Also we write B = A−1.
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The following results should be remembered :

(i) The necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix A to be invertible is
that det A ≠ 0.
(ii) If A is invertible, then A−1 is unique and
1
A− 1 = (adj. A).
det A
(iii) If A and B are invertible square matrices of order n, then AB is also invertible
and ( AB)−1 = B −1 A−1.
(iv) If A is invertible, so is A−1 and ( A−1)−1 = A.
Elementary row operations on a matrix:

Definition: Let A be an m × n matrix over the field F. The following three operations
are called elementary row operations :
(1) multiplication of any row of A by a non-zero element c of F.
(2) addition to the elements of any row of A the corresponding elements of any
other row of A multiplied by any element a in F.
(3) interchange of two rows of A.
Row equivalent matrices: Definition: If A and B are m × n matrices over the field F,
then B is said to be row equivalent to A if B can be obtained from A by a finite sequence
of elementary row operations. It can be easily seen that the relation of being row
equivalent is an equivalence relation in the set of all m × n matrices over F.
Row reduced Echelon matrix:
Definition:
An m × n matrix R is called a row reduced echelon matrix if :
(1) Every row of R which has all its entries 0 occurs below every row which has a
non-zero entry.
(2) The first non-zero entry in each non-zero row is equal to 1.
(3) If the first non-zero entry in row i appears in column k i , then all other entries in
column k i are zero.
(4) If r is the number of non-zero rows, then
k1 < k2 < … < k r
(i. e.,the first non-zero entry in row i is to the left of the first non-zero entry in row i + 1).
Row and column rank of a matrix:
Definition: Let A = [aij]m × n be an m × n matrix over the field F. The row vectors of A
are the vectors α1, … , α m ∈ Vn ( F ) defined by
α i = (ai1, ai2 , … , ain), 1 ≤ i ≤ m.
The row space of A is the subspace of Vn ( F ) spanned by these vectors. The row rank
of A is the dimension of the row space of A.
The column vectors of A are the vectors β1, … , β n ∈ Vm ( F ) defined by
β j = (a1 j , a2 j , … , amj), 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
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The column space of A is the subspace of Vm ( F ) spanned by these vectors. The

column rank of A is the dimension of the column space of A.
The following two results are to be remembered:
(1) Row equivalent matrices have the same row space.
(2) If R is a non-zero row reduced Echelon matrix, then the non-zero row vectors of
R are linearly independent and therefore they form a basis for the row space of
R.
In order to find the row rank of a matrix A, we should reduce it to row reduced Echelon
matrix R by elementary row operations. The number of non-zero rows in R will give us
the row rank of A.
2 Representation of Transformations by Matrices

Matrix of a linear transformation: Let U be an n-dimensional vector space over the
field F and let V be an m-dimensional vector space over F. Let
B = {α1, … , α n} and B ′ = {β1, … , β m}
be ordered bases for U and V respectively. Suppose T is a linear transformation from U
into V. We know that T is completely determined by its action on the vectors α j
belonging to a basis for U. Each of the n vectors T (α j) is uniquely expressible as a linear
combination of β1, … , β m because T (α j) ∈ V and these m vectors form a basis for V. Let
for j = 1, 2 , … , n,
m
T (α j) = a1 j β1 + a2 j β2 + … + amj β m = Σ aij β i .
i =1
The scalars a1 j , a2 j , … , amj are the coordinates of T (α j) in the ordered basis B ′ . The
m × n matrix whose j th column ( j = 1, 2 , … , n) consists of these coordinates is called the
matrix of the linear transformation T relative to the pair of ordered bases B and
B ′. We shall denote it by the symbol [T ; B ; B ′ ] or simply by [T ] if the bases are
understood. Thus
[T ] = [T ; B ; B ′ ]
= matrix of T relative to the ordered bases B and B ′
= [aij]m × n
m
where T (α j) = Σ aij β i , for each j = 1, 2 , … , n.
i =1 …(1)
The coordinates of T (α1) in the ordered basis B ′ form the first column of this matrix,
the coordinates of T (α2 ) in the ordered basis B ′ form the second column of this matrix
and so on.
The m × n matrix [aij]m × n completely determines the linear transformation T through
the formulae given in (1). Therefore the matrix [aij]m × n represents the transformation
T.
Note: Let T be a linear transformation from an n-dimensional vector space V ( F ) into
itself. Then in order to represent T by a matrix, it is most convenient to use the same
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ordered basis in each case, i. e., to take B = B ′ . The representing matrix will then be
called the matrix of T relative to the ordered basis B and will be denoted by [T ; B ] or
sometimes also by [T ]B .
Thus if B = {α1, … , α n} is an ordered basis for V, then
[T ]B or [T ; B ] = matrix of T relative to the ordered basis B
= [aij]n × n ,
n
where T (α j) = Σ aij α i , for each j = 1, 2 , … , n.
i =1
Example 1: Let T be a linear transformation on the vector space V2 ( F ) defined by

T (a, b) = (a, 0 ).
Write the matrix of T relative to the standard ordered basis of V2 ( F ).
Solution: Let B = {α1, α2 } be the standard ordered basis for V2 ( F ). Then
α1 = (1, 0 ), α2 = (0 , 1).
We have T (α1) = T (1, 0 ) = (1, 0 ).
Now let us express T (α1) as a linear combination of vectors in B. We have
T (α1) = (1, 0 ) = 1 (1, 0 ) + 0 (0 , 1) = 1α1 + 0 α2 .
Thus 1, 0 are the coordinates of T (α1) with respect to the ordered basis B. These
coordinates will form the first column of matrix of T relative to ordered basis B.
Again T (α 2 ) = T (0 , 1) = (0 , 0 ) = 0 (1, 0 ) + 0 (0 , 1).
Thus 0 , 0 are the coordinates of T (α2 ) and will form second column of matrix of T
relative to ordered basis B.
Thus matrix of T relative to ordered basis B
1 0
= [T ]B or [T ; B] =  .
0 0 
Example 2: Let V (R) be the vector space of all polynomials in x with coefficients in R of the form
f ( x) = a0 x0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3
i. e., the space of polynomials of degree three or less. The differentiation operator D is a linear
transformation on V. The set
B = {α1, … , α4} where α1 = x0 , α2 = x1, α3 = x2 , α4 = x3
is an ordered basis for V. Write the matrix of D relative to the ordered basis B.
Solution: We have
D (α1) = D ( x0 ) = 0 = 0 x0 + 0 x1 + 0 x2 + 0 x3
= 0 α1 + 0 α2 + 0 α3 + 0 α4
D (α2 ) = D ( x1) = x0 = 1x0 + 0 x1 + 0 x2 + 0 x3
= 1α1 + 0 α2 + 0 α3 + 0 α4
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D (α3 ) = D ( x2 ) = 2 x1 = 0 x0 + 2 x1 + 0 x2 + 0 x3
= 0 α1 + 2α2 + 0 α3 + 0 α4
D (α4 ) = D ( x3 ) = 3 x2 = 0 x0 + 0 x1 + 3 x2 + 0 x3
= 0 α1 + 0 α2 + 3α3 + 0 α4 .
∴ the matrix of D relative to the ordered basis B
0 1 0 0
0 0 2 0
= [D ; B ] =  
0 0 0 3
 
0 0 0 0  4 × 4.
Theorem 1: Let U be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F and let V be an
m-dimensional vector space over F. Let B and B ′ be ordered bases for U and V respectively. Then
corresponding to every matrix [aij]m × n of mn scalars belonging to F there corresponds a unique
linear transformation T from U into V such that
[T ; B ; B ′ ] = [aij]m × n .
Proof: Let B = {α1, α2 , … , α n} and B ′ = {β1, β2 , … , β m}.
m m m
Now Σ ai1 β i , Σ ai2 β i , … , Σ ain β i
i =1 i =1 i =1
are vectors belonging to V because each of them is a linear combination of the vectors
m
belonging to a basis for V. It should be noted that the vector Σ aij β i has been obtained
i =1
th
with the help of the j column of the matrix [aij]m × n .
Since B is a basis for U, therefore by the theorem 2 of article 6 of chapter 'Linear

Transformations' there exists a unique linear transformation T from U into V such that
m
T (α j) = Σ aij β i where j = 1, 2, … , n. …(1)
i =1
By our definition of matrix of a linear transformation , we have from (1)

[T ; B ; B ′ ] = [aij]m × n .
Note: If we take V = U , then in place of B ′ , we also take B. In that case the above
theorem will run as :
Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F and B be an ordered basis or co-ordinate
system for V. Then corresponding to every matrix [aij]n × n of n2 scalars belonging to F there
corresponds a unique linear transformation T from V into V such that
[T ; B ] or [T ]B = [aij]n × n .
Explicit expression for a linear transformation in terms of its matrix: Now our
aim is to establish a formula which will give us the image of any vector under a linear
transformation T in terms of its matrix.
Theorem 2: Let T be a linear transformation from an n-dimensional vector space U into an
m-dimensional vector space V and let B and B ′ be ordered bases for U and V respectively. If A is
the matrix of T relative to B and B ′ then V α ∈U, we have
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[T (α)]B ′ = A [α]B
where [α]B is the co-ordinate matrix of α with respect to ordered basis B and [T (α)]B ′ is
co-ordinate matrix of T (α) ∈ V with respect to B ′ .
Proof: Let B = {α1, α2 , … , α n}
and B ′ = { β1, β2 , … , β m }.
Then A = [T ; B ; B ′ ] = [aij]m × n ,
m
where T (α j) = Σ aij β i , j = 1, 2, … , n. …(1)
i =1
If α = x1α1 + … + xn α n is a vector in U, then

 n 
T (α) = T  Σ x j α j
 j =1 
n
= Σ x j T (α j)
j =1 [∵ T is a linear transformation]
n m
= Σ x j Σ aij β i [From (1)]
j =1 i =1
m  n 
= Σ  Σ aij x j β i . …(2)
i =1  j =1 
The co-ordinate matrix of T (α) with respect to ordered basis B ′ is an m × 1matrix. From
(2), we see that the ith entry of this column matrix [T (α)]B ′
n
= Σ aij x j
j =1
i. e., the coefficient of β i in the linear combination (2) for T (α).

If X is the co-ordinate matrix [α]B of α with respect to ordered basis B, then X is an n × 1
matrix. The product AX will be an m × 1matrix. The ith entry of this column matrix AX
will be
n
= Σ aij x j .
j =1
∴ [T (α)]B ′ = AX = A [α]B = [T ; B ; B ′ ] [α]B .
Note: If we take U = V , then the above result will be

[T (α)]B = [T ]B [α]B .
Matrices of Identity and Zero transformations:
Theorem 3: Let V ( F ) be an n-dimensional vector space and B be any ordered basis for V.
^
If I be the identity transformation and 0 be the zero transformation on V, then
(i) [I ; B ] = I (unit matrix of order n) and (Kumaun 2007)
^
(ii) [0 ; B ] = null matrix of the type n × n. (Kumaun 2007)
Proof: Let B = {α1, α2 , … , α n}.
(i) We have I (α j) = α j , j = 1, 2, … , n
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= 0 α1 + … + 1α j + 0 α j + 1 + … + 0 α n
n
= Σ δ ij α i , where δ ij is Kronecker delta.
i =1
∴ By def. of matrix of a linear transformation , we have

[I ; B ] = [δ ij]n × n = I i. e., unit matrix of order n.
^
(ii) We have 0 (α j) = 0, j = 1, 2, … , n
= 0 α1 + 0 α2 + … + 0 α n
n
= Σ oij α i , where each oij = 0.
i =1
∴ By def. of matrix of a linear transformation, we have

^
[ 0 ; B ] = [oij]n × n = null matrix of the type n × n.
Matrix of the Sum of Linear Transformation :

Theorem 4: Let T and S be linear transformations from an n-dimensional vector space U into
an m-dimensional vector space V and let B and B ′ be ordered bases for U and V respectively. Then
(i) [T + S ; B ; B ′ ] = [T ; B ; B ′ ] + [S ; B ; B ′ ]
(ii) [cT ; B ; B ′ ] = c [T ; B ; B ′ ] where c is any scalar.
Proof: Let B = {α1, α2 , … , α n} and B ′ = { β1, β2 , … , β m }.
Let [aij]m × n be the matrix of T relative to B, B ′. Then
m
T (α j) = Σ aij β i , j = 1, 2, … , n.
i =1
Also let [bij]m × n be the matrix of S relative to B, B ′. Then

m
S (α j) = Σ bij β i , j = 1, 2, … , n.
i =1
(i) We have
(T + S ) (α j) = T (α j) + S (α j), j = 1, 2, … , n
m m m
= Σ aij β i + Σ bij β i = Σ (aij + bij) β i .
i =1 i =1 i =1
∴ matrix of T + S relative to B, B ′ = [aij + bij]m × n

= [aij]m × n + [bij]m × n ,
∴ [T + S ; B ; B ′ ] = [T ; B ; B ′ ] + [S ; B ; B ′ ].
(ii) We have (cT ) (α j) = cT (α j), j = 1, 2, … , n
m m
= c Σ aij β i = Σ (caij) β i .
i =1 i =1
∴ [cT ; B ; B ′ ] = matrix of cT relative to B, B ′

= [cai j]m × n = c [ai j]m × n = c [T ; B ; B ′ ].
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Matrix of the Product of Linear Transformation :

Theorem 5: Let U , V and W be finite dimensional vector spaces over the field F ; let T be a
linear transformation from U into V and S a linear transformation from V into W. Further let
B, B ′ and B ′ ′ be ordered bases for spaces U , V and W respectively. If A is the matrix of T relative
to the pair B, B ′ and D is the matrix of S relative to the pair B ′ , B ′ ′ then the matrix of the
composite transformation ST relative to the pair B, B ′ ′ is the product matrix C = DA.
Proof: Let dim U = n, dim V = m and dim W = p. Further let
B = {α1, α2 , … , α n}, B ′ = { β1, β2 , … , β m } and B′ ′ = {γ1, γ 2 , … , γ p }.
Let A = [ai j]m × n , D = [dk i]p × m and C = [c k j]p × n . Then
m
T (α j) = Σ aij β i , j = 1, 2, … , n, …(1)
i =1
p
S ( β i) = Σ dki γ k , i = 1, 2, … , m. …(2)
k =1
p
and (ST ) (α j) = Σ c kj γ k , j = 1, 2, … , n. …(3)
k =1
We have (ST ) (α j) = S [T (α j)], j = 1, 2, … , n
 m 
= S  Σ aij β i [From (1)]
 i =1 
m
= Σ aij S ( β i) [∵ S is linear]
i =1
m p
= Σ aij Σ dki γ k [From (2)]
i =1 k =1
p  m 
= Σ  Σ dki aij γ k . …(4)
k =1  i =1 
Therefore from (3) and (4), we have
m
c kj = Σ dki aij, j = 1, 2, … , n ; k = 1, 2, … , p.
i =1
m 
∴ [c kj]p × n =  Σ dki aij
i = 1 p × n
= [dki]p × m [aij]m × n, by def. of product of two matrices.

Thus C = DA.
Note: If U = V = W , then the statement and proof of the above theorem will be as
follows :
Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F ; let T and S be linear transformations of V.
Further let B be an ordered basis for V. If A is the matrix of T relative to B, and D is the matrix of S
relative to B,then the matrix of the composite transformation ST relative to B is the product matrix
C = DA i. e., [ST ]B = [S ]B [T ]B .
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Proof: Let B = {α1, α2 , … , α n}.

Let A = [aij]n × n , D = [dki]n × n and C = [c kj]n × n .
n
Then T (α j) = Σ aij α i, j = 1, 2, … , n, …(1)
i =1
n
S ( αi ) = Σ dki α k , i = 1, 2, … , n, …(2)
k =1
n
and (ST ) (α j) = Σ c kj α k , j = 1, 2, … , n. …(3)
k =1
We have (ST ) (α j) = S [T (α j)]
 n  n n n
= S  Σ aij α i = Σ aij S (α i) = Σ aij Σ dki α k
 i =1  i =1 i =1 k =1
n  n 
= Σ  Σ dki aij α k . …(4)
k =1  i =1 
∴ from (3) and (4), we have
n
c kj = Σ dki aij.
i =1
 n 
∴ [c kj]n × n =  Σ dki aij = [dk i]n × n [ai j]n × n .
i = 1  n× n
∴ C = DA.
Theorem 6: Let U be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F and let V be an
m-dimensional vector space over F. For each pair of ordered bases B, B ′ for U and V respectively,
the function which assigns to a linear transformation T its matrix relative to B, B ′ is an
isomorphism between the space L (U , V ) and the space of all m × n matrices over the field F.
Proof: Let B = {α1, … , α n} and B′ = { β1, … , β m }.
Let M be the vector space of all m × n matrices over the field F. Let
ψ : L (U , V ) → M such that
ψ (T ) = [T ; B ; B′ ] V T ∈ L (U , V ).
Let T1, T2 ∈ L (U , V ) ; and let
[T1 ; B ; B′ ] = [aij]m × n and [T2 ; B ; B ′ ] = [bij]m × n .
m
Then T1 (α j) = Σ aij β i, j = 1, 2 , … , n
i =1
m
and T2 (α j) = Σ bij β i, j = 1, 2, … , n.
i =1
To prove that ψ is one-one:

We have ψ (T1) = ψ (T2 )
⇒ [T1 ; B ; B ′ ] = [T2 ; B ; B ′ ] [By def. of ψ]
⇒ [aij]m × n = [bij]m × n
⇒ aij = bij for i = 1, … , m and j = 1, … , n
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m m
⇒ Σ aij β i = Σ bij β i for j = 1, … , n
i =1 i =1
⇒ T1 (α j) = T2 (α j) for j = 1, … , n
⇒ T1 = T2 [∵ T1 and T2 agree on a basis for U ]
∴ ψ is one-one.
ψ is onto:
Let [c ij]m × n ∈ M .Then there exists a linear transformation T from U into V such that
m
T (α j) = Σ c ij β i, j = 1, 2, … , n.
i =1
We have [ T ; B ; B ′ ] = [c ij]m × n ⇒ ψ (T ) = [cij ]m × n .

∴ ψ is onto.
ψ is a linear transformation:
If a, b ∈ F , then
ψ (aT1 + bT2 ) = [aT1 + bT2 ; B ; B′ ] [By def. of ψ]
= [aT1 ; B ; B′ ] + [bT2 ; B ; B′ ] [By theorem 4]
= a [T1 ; B ; B′ ] + b [T2 ; B ; B′ ] [By theorem 4]
= aψ (T1) + bψ (T2 ), by def. of ψ.
∴ ψ is a linear transformation.
Hence ψ is an isomorphism from L (U , V ) onto M.
Note: It should be noted that in the above theorem if U → V , then ψ also preserves
products and I i. e.,
ψ (T1 T2 ) = ψ (T1) ψ (T2 )
and ψ (I ) = I i. e., unit matrix.
Theorem 7: Let T be a linear operator on an n-dimensional vector space V and let B be an

ordered basis for V. Prove that T is invertible iff [T ]B is an invertible matrix. Also if T is
invertible, then
[ T −1]B = [T ]B −1,
i. e., the matrix of T −1 relative to B is the inverse of the matrix of T relative to B.
Proof: Let T be invertible. Then T −1 exists and we have
T −1 T = I = T T −1
⇒ [T −1 T ]B = [I ]B = [T T −1]B
⇒ [T −1]B [T ]B = I = [T ]B [T −1]B
⇒ [T ]B is invertible and ([T ]B )−1 = [T −1]B .
Conversely, let [T ]B be an invertible matrix. Let [T ]B = A. Let C = A−1 and let S be the
linear transformation of V such that
[S ]B = C .
We have C A = I = AC
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⇒ [S ]B [T ]B = I = [T ]B [S ]B
⇒ [ST ]B = [I ]B = [TS ]B
⇒ ST = I = TS
⇒ T is invertible.
3 Change of Basis
Suppose V is an n-dimensional vector space over the field F. Let B and B ′ be two
ordered bases for V. If α is any vector in V, then we are now interested to know
what is the relation between its coordinates with respect to B and its
coordinates with respect to B ′ . (Garhwal 2010)
Theorem 1: Let V ( F ) be an n-dimensional vector space and let B and B ′ be two ordered bases
for V.Then there is a unique necessarily invertible, n × n matrix A with entries in F such that
(1) [α]B = A [α]B ′ (Garhwal 2008)
−1
(2) [α]B ′ = A [α]B for every vector α in V.
Proof: Let B = {α1, α2 , … , α n} and B′ = { β1, β2 , … , β n}.
Then there exists a unique linear transformation T from V into V such that
T (α j) = β j , j = 1, 2, … , n. …(1)
Since T maps a basis B onto a basis B ′ , therefore T is necessarily invertible. The matrix
of T relative to B i. e., [T ]B will be a unique n × n matrix with elements in F. Also this
matrix will be invertible because T is invertible.
Let [T ]B = A = [aij]n × n .
n
Then T (α j) = Σ aij α i, j = 1, 2, … , n. …(2)
i =1
Let x1, x2 , … , xn be the coordinates of α with respect to B and y1, y2 , … , yn be the

coordinates of α with respect to B′. Then
n
α = y1 β1 + y2 β2 + … + yn β n = Σ y j β j
j =1
n
= Σ y j T (α j) [From (1)]
j =1
n n
= Σ y j Σ aij α i [From (2)]
j =1 i =1
n  n 
= Σ  Σ aij y j α i .
i =1  j =1 
n n
Also α = Σ xi α i . ∴ xi = Σ aij y j
i =1 j =1
because the expression for α as a linear combination of elements of B is unique.

Now [α]B is a column matrix of the type n × 1. Also [α]B ′ is a column matrix of the type
n × 1. The product matrix A [α]B ′ will also be of the type n × 1.
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n
The ith entry of [α]B = xi = Σ aij y j = ith entry of A [α]B ′ .
j =1
∴ [α]B = A [α]B ′ ⇒ A−1 [α]B = A−1 A [α]B ′

⇒ A−1 [α]B = I [α]B ⇒ A−1 [α]B = [α]B ′ .
Note: The matrix A = [T ]B is called the transition matrix from B to B ′. It expresses

the coordinates of each vector in V relative to B in terms of its coordinates relative to
B′.
How to write the transition matrix from one basis to another ?
Let B = {α1, α2 , … , α n} and B′ = { β1, β2 , … , β n} be two ordered bases for the
n-dimensional vector space V ( F ). Let A be the transition matrix from the basis B to the
basis B′ . Let T be the linear transformation from V into V which maps the basis B onto
the basis B ′ . Then A is the matrix of T relative to B i. e., A = [T ]B . So in order to find
the matrix A, we should first express each vector in the basis B ′ as a linear combination
over F of the vectors in B. Thus we write the relations
β1 = a11 α1 + a21 α 2 + … + an1 α n
β2 = a12 α1 + a22 α 2 + … + an2 α n
… … … … …
… … … … …
β n = a1n α1 + a2 n α 2 + … + ann α n .
Then the matrix A = [aij]n × n i. e., A is the transpose of the matrix of coefficients in the
above relations. Thus
 a11 a12 ... a1n
a a ... a2 n
 21 22 
A =  ... ... ... ... ⋅
 
 ... ... ... ...
 an1 an2 ... ann
Now suppose α is any vector in V. If [α]B is the coordinate matrix of α relative to the
basis B and [α]B ′ its coordinate matrix relative to the basis B ′ then
[α]B = A [α]B ′ and [α]B ′ = A−1 [α]B .
Theorem 2: Let B = {α1, … , α n} and B′ = { β1, … , β n} be two ordered bases for an

n
n-dimensional vector space V ( F ). If ( x1, … , xn) is an ordered set of n scalars, let α = Σ xi α i and
i =1
n
β = Σ xi β i .
i =1
Then show that T (α) = β, where T is the linear operator on V defined by

T (α i) = β i , i = 1, 2, … , n.
 n  n
Proof: We have T (α) = T  Σ xi α i = Σ xi T (α i) [∵ T is linear]
 i =1  i =1
n
= Σ xi β i = β.
i =1
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Similarity:
Similarity of matrices: Definition: Let A and B be square matrices of order n over the field
F. Then B is said to be similar to A if there exists an n × n invertible square matrix C with elements
in F such that
B = C −1 AC. (Gorakhpur 2010)
Theorem 3: The relation of similarity is an equivalence relation in the set of all n × n matrices
over the field F. (Kumaun 2010, 11)
Proof: If A and B are two n × n matrices over the field F, then B is said to be similar to A
if there exists an n × n invertible matrix C over F such that
B = C −1 AC.
−1
Reflexive: Let A be any n × n matrix over F. We can write A = I AI , where I is n × n
unit matrix over F.
∴ A is similar to A because I is definitely invertible.
Symmetric: Let A be similar to B. Then there exists an n × n invertible matrix P over
F such that
A = P −1 BP
⇒ PAP −1 = P ( P −1 BP ) P −1
⇒ PAP −1 = B ⇒ B = PAP −1
⇒ B = ( P −1)−1 AP −1
[∵ P is invertible means P −1 is invertible and ( P −1)−1 = P ]
⇒ B is similar to A.
Transitive: Let A be similar to B and B be similar to C. Then
A = P −1 BP and B = Q −1CQ ,
where P and Q are invertible n × n matrices over F.
We have A = P −1 BP = P −1 (Q −1CQ ) P
= ( P −1Q −1) C (QP )
= (QP)−1 C (QP) [∵ P and Q are invertible means QP is
invertible and (QP)−1 = P −1Q −1]
∴ A is similar to C.
Hence similarity is an equivalence relation on the set of n × n matrices over the field F.
Theorem 4: Similar matrices have the same determinant.
Proof: Let B be similar to A. Then there exists an invertible matrix C such that
B = C −1 AC
⇒ det B = det (C −1 AC ) ⇒ det B = (det C −1) (det A) (det C )
⇒ det B = (det C −1) (det C ) (det A)
⇒ det B = (det C −1C ) (det A)
⇒ det B = (det I ) (det A) ⇒ det B = 1 (det A) ⇒ det B = det A.
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Similarity of linear transformations: Definition: Let A and B be linear

transformations on a vector space V ( F ). Then B is said to be similar to A if there exists an
invertible linear transformation C on V such that
B = CAC −1.
Theorem 5: The relation of similarity is an equivalence relation in the set of all linear
transformations on a vector space V ( F ).
Proof: If A and B are two linear transformations on the vector space V ( F ), then B is
said to be similar to A if there exists an invertible linear transformation C on V such that
B = CAC −1.
Reflexive: Let A be any linear transformation on V. We can write
−1
A = IAI ,
where I is identity transformation on V.
∴ A is similar to A because I is definitely invertible.
Symmetric: Let A be similar to B. Then there exists an invertible linear
transformation P on V such that
A = PBP −1
⇒ P −1 AP = P −1 ( PBP −1) P
⇒ P −1 AP = B ⇒ B = P −1 AP
⇒ B = P −1 A ( P −1)−1
⇒ B is similar to A.
Transitive: Let A be similar to B and B be similar to C.
Then A = PBP −1,
and B = QCQ −1,
where P and Q are invertible linear transformations on V.
We have A = PBP −1 = P (QCQ −1) P −1
= ( PQ ) C (Q −1 P −1) = ( PQ ) C ( PQ )−1.
∴ A is similar to C.
Hence similarity is an equivalence relation on the set of all linear transformations on
V ( F ).
Theorem 6: Let T be a linear operator on an n-dimensional vector space V ( F ) and let B and
B′ be two ordered bases for V. Then the matrix of T relative to B′ is similar to the matrix of T
relative to B.
Proof:Let B = {α1, α 2 , … , α n} and B′ = { β1, … , β n}.
Let A = [ai j]n × n be the matrix of T relative to B
and C = [c i j]n × n be the matrix of T relative to B ′ .
n
Then T (α j) = Σ aij α i, j = 1, 2, … , n …(1)
i =1
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n
and T ( β j) = Σ c ij β i, j = 1, 2, … , n. …(2)
i =1
Let S be the linear operator on V defined by

S (α j) = β j, j = 1, 2, … , n. …(3)
Since S maps a basis B onto a basis B ′, therefore S is necessarily invertible. Let P be the
matrix of S relative to B. Then P is also an invertible matrix.
If P = [ pi j]n × n , then
n
S (α j) = Σ pij α i, j = 1, 2, … , n …(4)
i =1
We have T ( β j) = T [S (α j)] [From (3)]

 n 
= T  Σ pkj α k 
 k =1 
[From (4), on replacing i by k which is immaterial]
n
= Σ pkj T (α k )
k =1 [∵ T is linear]
n n
= Σ pkj Σ aik α i [From (1), on replacing j by k]
k =1 i =1
n  n 
= Σ  Σ aik pkj α i . …(5)
i =1  k =1 
n
Also T ( β j) = Σ c kj β k [From (2), on replacing i by k ]
k =1
n
= Σ c kj S (α k ) [From (3)]
k =1
n n
= Σ c kj Σ pik α i [From (4), on replacing j by k ]
k =1 i =1
n  n 
= Σ  Σ pik c kj α i . …(6)
i =1  k =1 
From (5) and (6), we have
n  n  n  n 
Σ  Σ aik pkj α i = Σ  Σ pik c kj α i
i =1  k =1  i =1  k =1 
n n
⇒ Σ aik pkj = Σ pik c kj
k =1 k =1
⇒ [aik ]n × n [ pkj]n × n = [ pik ]n × n [c kj]n × n

[By def. of matrix multiplication]
⇒ AP = PC
⇒ P −1 AP = P −1 PC [∵ P −1 exists]
⇒ P −1 AP = IC ⇒ P −1 AP = C
⇒ C is similar to A.
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Note: Suppose B and B′ are two ordered bases for an n-dimensional vector space
V ( F ). Let T be a linear operator on V. Suppose A is the matrix of T relative to B and C
is the matrix of T relative to B′ . If P is the transition matrix from the basis B to the basis
B′ , then C = P −1 AP.
This result will enable us to find the matrix of T relative to the basis B ′ when we already
knew the matrix of T relative to the basis B.
Theorem 7: Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F and T1 and T2 be two linear
operators on V. If there exist two ordered bases B and B ′ for V such that [T1]B = [T2 ]B ′ , then show
that T2 is similar to T1.
Proof: Let B = {α1, … , α n} and B′ = { β1, … , β n}.
Let [T1]B = [T2 ]B ′ = A = [aij]n × n.
n
Then T1 (α j) = Σ aij α i, j = 1, 2, … , n, …(1)
i =1
n
and T2 ( β j) = Σ aij β i, j = 1, 2, … , n. …(2)
i =1
Let S be the linear operator on V defined by

S (α j) = β j, j = 1, 2, … , n. …(3)
Since S maps a basis of V onto a basis of V, therefore S is invertible.
We have T2 ( β j) = T2 [S (α j)] [From (3)]
= (T2 S ) (α j). …(4)
n
Also T2 ( β j) = Σ ai j β i [From (2)]
i =1
n
= Σ ai j S (α i) [From (3)]
i =1
 n 
= S  Σ ai j α i [∵ S is linear]
 i =1 
= S [T1 (α j)] [From (1)]
= (ST1) (α j). …(5)
(T2 S ) (α j) = (ST1) (α j), j = 1, 2, … , n.
Since T2 S and ST1 agree on a basis for V, therefore we have
T2 S = ST1
⇒ T2 SS −1 = ST1S − 1 ⇒ T2 I = ST1S −1
⇒ T2 = ST1S −1 ⇒ T2 is similar to T1.
Determinant of a linear transformation on a finite dimensional vector

space: Let T be a linear operator on an n-dimensional vector space V ( F ). If B and B′
are two ordered bases for V, then [T ]B and [T ]B ′
are similar matrices. Also similar matrices have the same determinant. This enables us
to make the following definition :
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Definition: Let T be a linear operator on an n-dimensional vector space V ( F ). Then the

determinant of T is the determinant of the matrix of T relative to any ordered basis for V.
By the above discussion the determinant of T as defined by us will be a unique element
of F and thus our definition is sensible.
Scalar Transformation: Definition: Let V ( F ) be a vector space. A linear transformation
T on V is said to be a scalar transformation of V if
T (α) = cα V α ∈ V ,
where c is a fixed scalar in F.
Also then we write T = c and we say that the linear transformation T is equal to the
scalar c.
Also obviously if the linear transformation T is equal to the scalar c, then we have T = cI ,
where I is the identity transformation on V.
Trace of a Matrix: Definition: Let A be a square matrix of order n over a field F. The sum of
the elements of A lying along the principal diagonal is called the trace of A. We shall write the trace
of A as trace A. Thus if A = [aij]n × n , then
n
tr A = Σ aii = a11 + a22 + … + ann.
i =1 (Kumaun 2008)
In the following two theorems we have given some fundamental properties of the trace
function.
Theorem 8: Let A and B be two square matrices of order n over a field F and λ ∈ F. Then
(i) tr (λ A) = λ tr A ; (Kumaun 2008)
(ii) tr ( A + B ) = tr A + tr B ;
(iii) tr ( AB ) = tr ( BA).
Proof: Let A = [aij]n × n and B = [bij]n × n.
(i) We have λA = [λaij]n × n , by def. of multiplication of a matrix by a scalar.
n n
∴ tr (λ A) = Σ λaii = λ Σ aii = λ tr A.
i =1 i =1
(ii) We have A + B = [aij + bij]n × n.

n n n
∴ tr ( A + B ) = Σ (aii + bii) = Σ aii + Σ bii = tr A + tr B.
i =1 i =1 i =1
n
(iii) We have AB = [c i j]n × n where c ij = Σ ai k bk j .
k =1
n
Also BA = [dij]n × n where dij = Σ bik akj .
k =1
n  n  n
Now tr ( AB ) = Σ c ii = Σ  Σ aik bki
i =1 i =1  k =1 
n n
= Σ Σ aik bki , [Interchanging the order of
k =1 i =1
summation in the last sum]
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n  n  n
= Σ  Σ bki aik  = Σ dkk
k =1  i =1  k =1
= d11 + d22 + … + dnn = tr ( BA).
Theorem 9: Similar matrices have the same trace.

Proof: Suppose A and B are two similar matrices. Then there exists an invertible
matrix C such that B = C −1 AC.
Let C −1 A = D.
Then tr B = tr ( DC )
= tr (CD ) [By theorem 8]
−1
= tr (CC A) = tr (IA) = tr A.
Trace of a linear transformation on a finite dimensional vector space: Let T be a
linear operator on an n-dimensional vector space V ( F ). If B and B′ are two ordered
bases for V, then [T ]B and [T ]B ′
are similar matrices. Also similar matrices have the same trace. This enables us to make
the following definition.
Definition of trace of a linear transformation. Let T be a linear operator on an
n-dimensional vector space V ( F ). Then the trace of T is the trace of the matrix of T relative to any
ordered basis for V.
By the above discussion the trace of T as defined by us will be a unique element of F and
thus our definition is sensible.
Example 3: Find the matrix of the linear transformation T on V3 (R) defined as

T (a, b, c ) = (2 b + c , a − 4 b, 3 a), with respect to the ordered basis B and also with respect to the
ordered basis B ′ where
(i) B = {(1, 0 , 0 ), (0 , 1, 0 ), (0 , 0 , 1) }
(ii) B′ = {(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0 ), (1, 0 , 0 ) }.
Solution: (i) We have
T (1, 0 , 0 ) = (0 , 1, 3) = 0 (1, 0 , 0 ) + 1 (0 , 1, 0 ) + 3 (0 , 0 , 1)
T (0 , 1, 0 ) = (2, − 4, 0 ) = 2 (1, 0 , 0 ) − 4 (0 , 1, 0 ) + 0 (0 , 0 , 1)
and T (0 , 0 , 1) = (1, 0 , 0 ) = 1 (1, 0 , 0 ) + 0 (0 , 1, 0 ) + 0 (0 , 0 , 1).
∴ by def. of matrix of T with respect to B, we have
0 2 1

[T ]B =  1 −4 0  .
 3 0 0 
Note: In order to find the matrix of T relative to the standard ordered basis B, it is
sufficient to compute T (1, 0 , 0 ), T (0 , 1, 0 ) and T (0 , 0 , 1). There is no need of further
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expressing these vectors as linear combinations of (1, 0 , 0 ), (0 , 1, 0 ) and (0 , 0 , 1).

Obviously the co-ordinates of the vectors T (1, 0 , 0 ), T (0 , 1, 0 ) and T (0 , 0 , 1) respectively
constitute the first, second and third columns of the matrix [T ]B .
(ii) We have T (1, 1, 1) = (3, − 3, 3).

Now our aim is to express (3, − 3, 3) as a linear combination of vectors in B′ .
Let (a, b, c ) = x (11
, , 1) + y (1, 1, 0 ) + z (1, 0 , 0 )
= ( x + y + z , x + y, x).
Then x + y + z = a, x + y = b, x = c
i. e., x = c , y = b − c , z = a − b. …(1)
Putting a = 3, b = − 3, and c = 3 in (1), we get
x = 3, y = − 6 and z = 6.
∴ T (1, 1, 1) = (3, − 3, 3) = 3 (1, 1, 1) − 6 (1, 1, 0 ) + 6 (1, 0 , 0 ).
Also T (1, 1, 0 ) = (2, − 3, 3).
Putting a = 2, b = − 3 and c = 3 in (1), we get
T (1, 1, 0 ) = (2, − 3, 3) = 3 (1, 1, 1) − 6 (1, 1, 0 ) + 5 (1, 0 , 0 ).
Finally, T (1, 0 , 0 ) = (0 , 1, 3).
Putting a = 0 , b = 1 and c = 3 in (1), we get
T (1, 0 , 0 ) = (0 , 1, 3) = 3 (1, 1, 1) − 2 (1, 0 , 0 ) − 1 (1, 0 , 0 ).
 3 3 3
∴ 
[T ]B ′ =  −6 −6 −2  .
 6 5 −1 
Example 4: Let T be the linear operator on R3 defined by

T ( x1, x2 , x3 ) = (3 x1 + x3 , − 2 x1 + x2 , − x1 + 2 x2 + 4 x3 ).
What is the matrix of T in the ordered basis {α1, α2 , α3 } where
α1 = (1, 0 , 1), α 2 = (− 1, 2, 1) and α3 = (2, 1, 1) ?
Solution: By def. of T , we have
T (α1) = T (1, 0 , 1) = (4, − 2, 3).
Now our aim is to express (4, − 2, 3) as a linear combination of the vectors in the basis
B = {α1, α2 , α3 }. Let
(a, b, c ) = x α1 + yα2 + zα3
= x (1, 0 , 1) + y (− 1, 2, 1) + z (2, 1, 1)
= ( x − y + 2 z , 2 y + z , x + y + z ).
Then x − y + 2 z = a, 2 y + z = b, x + y + z = c .
Solving these equations, we have
− a − 3b + 5c b+c−a b−c+a
x= , y= , z= ⋅ …(1)
4 4 2
Putting a = 4, b = − 2, c = 3 in (1), we get
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17 3 1
x= , y = − ,z = − ⋅
4 4 2
17 3 1
∴ T (α1) = α1 − α2 − α3 .
4 4 2
Also T (α 2 ) = T (− 1, 2, 1) = (− 2, 4, 9).
Putting a = − 2, b = 4, c = 9 in (1), we get
35 15 −7
x= , y= ,z = ⋅
4 4 2
35 15 7
∴ T (α 2 ) = α1 + α 2 − α3 .
4 4 2
Finally T (α3 ) = T (2, 1, 1) = (7, − 3, 4).
Putting a = 7, b = − 3, c = 4 in (1), we get

11 3
x= , y = − , z = 0.
2 2
11 3
∴ T (α3 ) = α1 − α2 + 0 α3 .
2 2
 17 35 11 
 4 4 2 
 
3 15 3
∴ [T ]B = − − ⋅
 4 4 2 
 1 7 
− − 0 
 2 2 
Example 5: Let T be a linear operator on R3 defined by

T ( x1, x2 , x3 ) = (3 x1 + x3 , − 2 x1 + x2 , − x1 + 2 x2 + 4 x3 ).
−1
Prove that T is invertible and find a formula for T .
Solution: Suppose B is the standard ordered basis for R3 . Then
B = {(1, 0 , 0 ), (0 , 1, 0 ), (0 , 0 , 1) }.
Let A = [T ]B i. e.,let A be the matrix of T with respect to B.First we shall compute A.
We have
T (1, 0 , 0 ) = (3, − 2, − 1), T (0 , 1, 0 ) = (0 , 1, 2) and T (0 , 0 , 1) = (1, 0 , 4).
 3 0 1
∴ A = [T ]B = − 2 1 0  ⋅
 − 1 2 4 
Now T will be invertible if the matrix [T ]B is invertible. [See theorem 7 of article 2]

 3 0 1
We have det A = | A| =− 2 1 0 
 
 − 1 2 4
= 3 (4 − 0 ) + 1 (− 4 + 1) = 9.
Since det A ≠ 0,therefore the matrix A is invertible and consequently T is invertible.
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Now we shall compute the matrix A−1. For this let us first find adj. A.
The cofactors of the elements of the first row of A are
 1 0   − 2 0   − 2 1
 , − ,  i. e., 4, 8, − 3.
2 4  − 1 4  − 1 2
The cofactors of the elements of the second row of A are
0 1  3 1  3 0 
− ,  , −  i. e., 2, 13, − 6.
 2 4 − 1 4  − 1 2
The cofactors of the elements of the third row of A are
0 1  3 1  3 0 
 , − ,   i. e., − 1, − 2, 3.
 1 0   − 2 0   − 2 1
 4 8 −3
∴ Adj. A = transpose of the matrix  2 13 − 6 

− 1 − 2 3 
 4 2 − 1
=  8 13 − 2  ⋅

− 3 − 6 3 
 4 2 −1 
1 1
∴ A− 1 = Adj. A =  8 13 −2 .
det A 9
 −3 −6 3 
Now [T −1]B = ([T ]B )−1 = A−1. [See theorem 7 of article 2]

We shall now find a formula for T −1.Let α = (a, b, c ) be any vector belonging to R3 .Then
[T −1 (α)]B = [T −1]B [α]B [See Note of Theorem 2, article 2]
 4 2 −1  a
1
= 8 13 −2  b
9
 −3 −6 3   c 
 4a + 2b − c 
1
=  8 a + 13 b − 2 c 
9
− 3 a − 6 b + 3 c 
Since B is the standard ordered basis for R3 ,
−1 −1
∴ T (α) = T (a, b, c )
1
= (4 a + 2 b − c , 8 a + 13 b − 2 c , − 3 a − 6 b + 3 c ).
9
Example 6: Let T be the linear operator on R3 defined by
T ( x1, x2 , x3 ) = (3 x1 + x3 , − 2 x1 + x2 , − x1 + 2 x2 + 4 x3 ).
(i) What is the matrix of T in the standard ordered basis B for R3 ? (Kumaun 2014)
(ii) Find the transition matrix P from the ordered basis B to the ordered basis B′ = {α1, α2 , α3 }
where α1 = (1, 0 , 1), α 2 = (− 1, 2, 1), and α3 = (2, 1, 1). Hence find the matrix of T relative to the
ordered basis B ′ .
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Solution: (i) Let A = [T ]B . Then

 3 0 1
A = − 2 1 0  ⋅ [For calculation work see Example 5]
 − 1 2 4 
(ii) Since B is the standard ordered basis, therefore the transition matrix P from B to B′
can be immediately written as
1 −1 2
P =  0 2 1  ⋅
 1 1 1 
−1
Now [T ]B ′ = P [T ]B P. [See note of theorem 6, article 3]
−1
In order to compute the matrix P , we find that det P = − 4.
 1 3 −5 
1 1
Therefore P −1
= Adj. P = −  1 −1 −1 .
det P 4
 −2 −2 2 
 1 3 − 5   3 0 1  1 − 1 2 
1
∴ [T ]B ′ = −  1 − 1 − 1  − 2 1 0  0 2 1 
4
− 2 − 2 2   − 1 2 4   1 1 1 
 2 − 7 − 19   1 − 1 2 
1
=− 6 − 3 − 3   0 2 1 
4
− 4 2 6   1 1 1 
− 17 − 35 − 22 
1
= −  3 − 15 6 
4
 2 14 0 
 17 35 11 
 4 4 2 
 
3 15 3
= − − ⋅
 4 4 2
 1 7 
− − 0
 2 2 
[Note that this result tallies with that of Example 4.]
Example 7: Let T be a linear operator on R2 defined by : T ( x, y) = (2 y, 3 x − y).

Find the matrix representation of T relative to the basis { (1, 3), (2, 5) }.
(Kumaun 2011, 15)
Solution: Let α1 = (1, 3) and α 2 = (2, 5). By def. of T , we have
T (α1) = T (1, 3) = (2 . 3, 3 . 1 − 3) = (6, 0 )
and T (α 2 ) = T (2, 5) = (2 . 5, 3 . 2 − 5) = (10 , 1).
Now our aim is to express the vectors T (α1) and T (α 2 ) as linear combinations of the
vectors in the basis {α1, α 2}.
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Let (a, b) = pα1 + qα 2 = p (1, 3) + q (2, 5) = ( p + 2 q, 3 p + 5 q).

Then p + 2 q = a, 3 p + 5 q = b.
Solving these equations, we get
p = − 5 a + 2 b, q = 3 a − b. …(1)
Putting a = 6, b = 0 in (1), we get p = − 30 , q = 18.
∴ T (α1) = (6, 0 ) = − 30 α1 + 18α2 . …(2)
Again putting a = 10 , b = 1 in (1), we get
p = − 48, q = 29.
∴ T (α 2 ) = (10 , 1) = − 48α1 + 29α 2 . …(3)
From the relations (2) and (3), we see that the matrix of T relative to the basis
 −30 −48 
{α1, α 2 } is =  .
 18 29 
Example 8: Consider the vector space V (R) of all 2 × 2 matrices over the field R of real
numbers. Let T be the linear transformation on V that sends each matrix X onto AX, where
 1 1
A=   . Find the matrix of T with respect to the ordered basis B = {α1, α2 , α3 , α4 } for V
 1 1
where
 1 0  0 1 0 0  0 0 
α1 =   , α2 =   , α3 =   , α4 =  ⋅
0 0  0 0   1 0  0 1
Solution: We have
 1 1  1 0   1 0 
T (α1) =   = 
 1 1  0 0   1 0 
1 0  0 1 0 0  0 0 
= 1  +0  0 0  + 1 1 0  + 0  0 1 ,
0 0       
 1 1  0 1  0 1
T (α2 ) =   = 
 1 1  0 0   0 1
1 0  0 1 0 0  0 0 
=0  + 1  0 0  + 0  1 0  + 1  0 1
 0 0       
 1 1  0 0   1 0 
T (α3 ) =   = 
 1 1  1 0   1 0 
 1 0  0 1 0 0  0 0 
= 1  +0  0 0  + 1 1 0  + 0  0 1 ,
0 0       
 1 1  0 0   0 1
and T (α4 ) =   = 
 1 1  0 1  0 1
 1 0  0 1 0 0  0 0 
=0
0 0  + 1  0 0  + 0  1 0  + 1  0 1 .
       
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1 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
∴ [T ]B =  ⋅
1 0 1 0
 
0 1 0 1
Example 9: If the matrix of a linear transformation T on V2 ( C ), with respect to the ordered

 1 1
basis B = {(1, 0 ), (0 , 1) } is   , what is the matrix of T with respect to the ordered basis
 1 1
B ′ = {(1, 1), (1, − 1) } ?
Solution: Let us first define T explicitly. It is given that
 1 1
[T ]B =  .
 1 1
∴ T (1, 0 ) = 1 (1, 0 ) + 1 (0 , 1) = (1, 1),
and T (0 , 1) = 1 (1, 0 ) + 1 (0 , 1) = (1, 1).
If (a, b) ∈ V2 (C), then we can write (a, b) = a (1, 0 ) + b (0 , 1).
∴ T (a, b) = aT (1, 0 ) + bT (0 , 1)
= a (1, 1) + b (1, 1)
= (a + b, a + b).
This is the explicit expression for T .
Now let us find the matrix of T with respect to B′ .
We have T (1, 1) = (2, 2).
Let (2, 2) = x (1, 1) + y (1, − 1) = ( x + y, x − y).
Then x + y = 2, x − y = 2
⇒ x = 2 , y = 0.
∴ (2, 2) = 2 (1, 1) + 0 (1, − 1).
Also T (1, − 1) = (0 , 0 )
= 0 (1, 1) + 0 (1, − 1).
2 0
∴ [T ]B ′ =  ⋅
0 0 
Note: If P is the transition matrix from the basis B to the basis B ′ , then
 1 1
P= ⋅
 1 −1 
We can compute [T ]B ′ by using the formula
[T ]B ′ = P −1 [T ]B P.
Example 10: Show that the vectors α1 = (1, 0 , − 1), α 2 = (1, 2, 1), α3 = (0 , − 3, 2) form a
basis for R3 .Express each of the standard basis vectors as a linear combination of α1, α 2 , α3 .
(Kumaun 2015)
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Solution: Let a, b, c be scalars i. e., real numbers such that

aα1 + bα2 + cα3 = 0
i. e., a (1, 0 , − 1) + b (1, 2, 1) + c (0 , − 3, 2) = (0 , 0 , 0 )
i. e., (a + b + 0 c , 0 a + 2 b − 3 c , − a + b + 2 c ) = (0 , 0 , 0 )
a + b + 0 c = 0 ,

i. e., 0 a + 2 b − 3 c = 0 , …(1)
− a + b + 2 c = 0 .
The coefficient matrix A of these equations is
 1 1 0
A =  0 2 − 3 ⋅
− 1 1 2
 1 1 0
We have det A = | A| = 0 2 − 3⋅

 
 −1 1 2
= 1 (4 + 3) − 1 (0 − 3)
= 7 + 3 = 10.
Since det A ≠ 0, therefore the matrix A is non-singular and rank A = 3 i. e., equal to the
number of unknowns a, b, c . Hence a = 0 , b = 0 , c = 0 is the only solution of the
equations (1). Therefore the vectors α1, α2 , α3 are linearly independent over R. Since
dim R3 = 3, therefore the set {α1, α2 , α3 } containing three linearly independent vectors
forms a basis for R3 .
Now let B = { e1, e2 , e3 } be the standard ordered basis for R3 .
Then e1 = (1, 0 , 0 ), e2 = (0 , 1, 0 ), e3 = (0 , 0 , 1).
Let B′ = {α1, α 2 , α3 }.
We have α1 = (1, 0 , − 1) = 1 e1 + 0 e2 − 1 e3
α2 = (1, 2, 1) = 1 e1 + 2 e2 + 1 e3
α3 = (0 , − 3, 2) = 0 e1 − 3 e2 + 2 e3 .
If P is the transition matrix from the basis B to the basis B′ , then
 1 1 0
P =  0 2 − 3  ⋅
−1 1 2 
Let us find the matrix P −1. For this let us first find Adj. P.
The cofactors of the elements of the first row of P are
 2 −3   0 −3   0 2 
 1 2  , −  −1 2  ,  −1 1  , i. e., 7, 3, 2.
     
The cofactors of the elements of the second row of P are
1 0  1 0 1 1
−  , , − i. e., − 2, 2, − 2.
 1 2  −1 2 −1 1
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The cofactors of the elements of the third row of P are

1 0 1 0 1 1
,− , , i. e, − 3, 3, 2
2 −3 0 −3 0 2
 7 3 2 7 − 2 − 3
∴ Adj P = transpose of the matrix − 2 2 − 2 = 3 2 3 ⋅
− 3 3 2 2 − 2 2
7 − 2 − 3
1 1 
∴ P −1
= Adj P = 3 2 3 ⋅
det P 10 
2 − 2 2
Now e1 = 1 e1 + 0 e2 + 0 e3 .
∴ Coordinate matrix of e1 relative to the basis B
 1
= 0  ⋅
0 
∴ Co-ordinate matrix of e1 relative to the basis B ′

 1
= [e1]B ′ = P −1 0 
0 
7 − 2 − 3  1
1 
=  3 2 3 0 
10
2 − 2 2 0 
7 7 /10 
1   
= 3 = 3 /10  ⋅
10   
2 2 /10 
7 3 2
∴ e1 = α1 + α2 + α3 .
10 10 10
0  0 
Also [e2 ]B =  1 and [e3 ]B = 0  ⋅
0   1
0  0 
∴ [e2 ]B ′ = P −1 1 and [e3 ]B ′ = P −1 0  ⋅
   
0  1
− 2 − 3
1   1  
Thus [e2 ]B ′ = 2 , [e3 ]B ′ = 3 ⋅
10   10  
− 2  2
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2 2 2
∴ e2 = − α1 + α2 − α3
10 10 10
3 3 2
and e3 = − α1 + α2 + α3 .
10 10 10
Example 11: Let A be an m × n matrix with real entries. Prove that A = 0 (null matrix) if and
only if trace ( At A) = 0 .
Solution: Let A = [aij]m × n .
Then At = [bij]n × m , where bij = a ji .
Now At A is a matrix of the type n × n.

Let At A = [c ij]n × n . Then
c ii = the sum of the products of the corresponding elements of

the ith row of At and the ith column of A
= bi1 a1i + bi2 a2 i + … + bim ami
= a1i a1i + a2 i a2 i + … + am i am i [ ∵ bij = a ji]
= a1i2 + a2 i2 +…+ ami2 .
n n
Now trace ( At A) = Σ c ii = Σ { a1i2 + a2 i2 + … + ami2 }
i =1 i =1
= the sum of the squares of all the elements of A.

Now the elements of A are all real numbers.
Therefore trace ( At A) = 0
⇒ the sum of the squares of all the elements of A is zero
⇒ each element of A is zero
⇒ A is a null matrix.
Conversely if A is a null matrix, then At A is also a null matrix and so trace ( At A) = 0 .
Hence trace ( At A) = 0 iff A = 0 .
Example 12: Show that the only matrix similar to the identity matrix I is I itself.
Solution: The identity matrix I is invertible and we can write I = I −1 I I . Therefore I
is similar to I.Further let B be a matrix similar to I.Then there exists an invertible matrix
P such that
B = P −1IP
⇒ B = P −1 P [ ∵ P − 1 I = P − 1]
⇒ B = I.
Hence the only matrix similar to I is I itself.
Example 13: If T and S are similar linear transformations on a finite dimensional vector
space V ( F ), then det T = det S.
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Solution: Since T and S are similar, therefore there exists an invertible linear
transformation P on V such that T = PSP −1.
Therefore det T = det ( PSP −1) = (det P) (det S ) (det P −1)
= (det P) (det P −1) (det S )
= [det ( PP −1)] (det S )
= (det I ) (det S )
= 1(det S ) = det S.
1. Let V = R 3 and T : V → V be a linear mapping defined by
T ( x, y, z ) = ( x + z , − 2 x + y, − x + 2 y + z ).
What is matrix of T relative to the basis B = {(1, 0 , 1), (−1, 1, 1),(0 , 1, 1)} ?
2. Find matrix representation of linear mapping T : R 3 → R 3 given by
T ( x, y, z ) = (z , y + z , x + y + z ) relative to the basis
B = {(1, 0 , 1), (− 1, 2, 1), (2, 1, 1)}. (Gorakhpur 2010)
4
3. Find the coordinates of the vector (2, 1, 3, 4) of R relative to the basis vectors
α1 = (1, 1, 0 , 0 ), α2 = (1, 0 , 1, 1), α3 = (2, 0 , 0 , 2), α4 = (0 , 0 , 2, 2).
4. Let T be the linear operator on R 2 defined by
T ( x, y) = (4 x − 2 y, 2 x + y).
Compute the matrix of T relative to the basis {α1, α2 } where α1 = (1, 1),
α2 = (− 1, 0 ). (Kumaun 2008)
T ( x, y) = (4 x − 2 y, 2 x + y).
(i) What is the matrix of T in the standard ordered basis B for R 2 ?
(ii) Find the transition matrix P from the ordered basis B to the ordered basis
B ′ = {α1, α2 } where α1 = (1, 1), α2 = (− 1, 0 ). Hence find the matrix of T
relative to the ordered basis B′.
T (a, b) = (a, 0 ).
Write the matrix of T in the standard ordered basis B = {(1, 0 ), (0 , 1)}.If
B ′ = {(1, 1), (2, 1)} is another ordered basis for R 3 , find the transition matrix P
from the basis B to the basis B ′. Hence find the matrix of T relative to the basis
B ′.
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7. The matrix of a linear transformation T on V3 (C) relative to the basis

B = {(1, 0 , 0 ), (0 , 1, 0 ), (0 , 0 , 1)} is
 0 1 1
 1 0 −1  .
 
 −1 −1 0 
What is the matrix of T relative to the basis

B′ = {(0 , 1, − 1), (1, − 1, 1), (− 1, 0 , 1)}?
8. Find the matrix relative to the basis
2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2
α1 =  , ,−  , α2 =  ,− ,−  , α3 =  ,− , 
 3 3 3  3 3 3  3 3 3
of R 3 , of the linear transformation T : R 3 → R 3 whose matrix relative to the
standard ordered basis is
2 0 0 
0 4 0  ⋅
 
 0 0 3 
9. Find the matrix representation of the linear mappings relative to the usual bases
for R n.
(i) T : R 3 → R 2 defined by T ( x, y, z ) = (2 x − 4 y + 9 z , 5 x + 3 y − 2 z ).
(ii) T : R → R 2 defined by T ( x) = (3 x, 5 x).
(iii) T : R 3 → R 3 defined by T ( x, y, z ) = ( x, y, 0 ).
(iv) T : R 3 → R 3 defined by T ( x, y, z ) = (z , y + z , x + y + z ).
10. Let B = {(1, 0 ),(0 , 1)} and B′ = {(1, 2), (2, 3)} be any two bases of R 2 and
T ( x, y) = (2 x − 3 y, x + y).
(i) Find the transition matrices P and Q from B to B′ and from B′ to B
respectively.
(ii) Verify that [α]B = P [α]B ′ V α ∈ R 2
(iii) Verify that P −1 [T ]B P = [T ]B ′ .
11. Let V be the space of all 2 × 2 matrices over the field F and let P be a fixed 2 × 2
matrix over F. Let T be the linear operator on V defined by
T ( A) = PA, V A ∈ V .
Prove that trace (T ) = 2 trace ( P).
1 2
12. Let V be the space of 2 × 2 matrices over R and let M =  ⋅
3 4
Let T be the linear operator on V defined by T ( A) = MA. Find the trace of T .
13. Find the trace of the operator T on R 3 defined by
T ( x, y, z ) = (a1 x + a2 y + a3 z , b1 x + b2 y + b3 z , c1 x + c2 y + c3 z ).
14. Show that the only matrix similar to the zero matrix is the zero matrix itself.
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A nswers 1
 2 1 2
1.  0 1 1 
 −2 2 0 
 3 0 13 
2 4 
1 5
2.  1 
2 4
0 1 −1
 2 
3. 1, 0 , 1 , 3 
 
 2 2
 3 −2 
4.  
 1 2
 4 −2   1 −1   3 −2 
5. (i) 2 (ii)  ; 
 1  1 0   1 2 

 1 0 1 2   −1 −2 
6. [T ]B =   ; P=  ; [T ]B ′ =  
0 0   1 1  1 2
1 0 −4 
7. [T ]B ′ =  0 0 −2 
 0 0 −3 
 3 −2 /3 −2 /3 
8.  −2 /3 10 /3 0 
 −2 /3 0 8 /3 
 2 −4 9 3
9. (i) 5 (ii)  
 3 − 2  5
 1 0 0  0 0 1
(iii)  0 1 0  (iv)  0 1 1 
 0 0 0   1 1 1 
1 2 −3 2
10. (i) P=  ; Q =  2 −1
 2 3   
12. trace (T ) = 10
13. trace (T ) = a1 + b2 + c3
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Objective Type Questions

(b), (c) and (d).
1. Let T be a linear transformation on the vector space V2 ( F ) defined by
T (a, b) = (a, 0 ).
The matrix of T relative to the ordered basis {(1, 0 ), (0 , 1) } of V2 ( F ) is
1 0 0 1
(a)   (b)  
0 0  0 0 
0 0  0 0 
(c)   (d)  .
1 0 0 1
2. The transition matrix P from the standard ordered basis to the ordered basis
{(1, 1), (− 1, 0 )} is
 1 1  1 −1 
(a)   (b)  
 −1 0  1 0 
 0 1 1 0
(c)   (d)  .
1 0  0 1
3. Let V be the vector space of 2 × 2 matrices over R and let

 1 2
M= .
3 4
Let T be the linear operator on V defined by
T ( A) = MA.
Then the trace of T is
(a) 5 (b) 10
(c) 0 (d) none of these.
4. Let T be a linear operator on R 2 defined by T (a , b) = (b , a). Then the matrix of T

with respect to basis { e1 = (1, 0 ) and e 2 = (0 ,1)} :
1 0 1 0
(a)   (b) 
0 1 1 0 
1 1 0 1
(c)   (d) 
 0 0  1 0 
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correct.
1. If T is a linear operator on R2 defined by
T ( x, y) = ( x − y, y),
2
then T ( x, y) = …… .
2. Let A be a square matrix of order n over a field F. The sum of the elements of A
lying along the principal diagonal is called the …… of A.
3. Let T and S be similar linear operators on the finite dimensional vector space
V ( F ), then det (T ) …… det (S ).
4. Let V ( F ) be an n-dimensional vector space and B be any ordered basis for V. If I
be the identity transformation on V, then [I ; B ] = …… .
5. Let T be a linear operator on an n-dimensional vector space V ( F ) and let B and
B′ be two ordered bases for V. Then the matrix of T relative to B′ is …… to the
matrix of T relative to B.
True or False
1. The relation of similarity is an equivalence relation in the set of all linear
transformations on a vector space V ( F ).
2. Similar matrices have the same trace.
A nswers

1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a)

1. ( x − 2 y, y) 2. trace 3. =
4. unit matrix of order n 5. similar
True or False
1. T 2. T
¨
L-85
3
L inear F unctionals and D ual S pace
1 Linear Functionals
(Kumaun 2015)
et V ( F ) be a vector space. We know that the field F can be regarded as a vector
L space over F. This is the vector space F ( F ) or F 1. We shall simply denote it by F. A
linear transformation from V into F is called a linear functional on V. We shall now
give independent definition of a linear functional.
Linear Functionals: Definition: Let V ( F ) be a vector space. A function f from V into
F is said to be a linear functional on V if
f (aα + bβ) = af (α) + bf ( β) V a, b ∈ F and V α, β ∈V .
If f is a linear functional on V ( F ), then f (α) is in F for each α belonging to V. Since
f (α) is a scalar, therefore a linear functional on V is a scalar valued function.
Illustration 1: Let Vn ( F ) be the vector space of ordered n-tuples of the elements of
the field F.
Let x1, x2 , … , xn be n field elements of F. If
α = (a1, a2 , … , an) ∈ Vn ( F ),
let f be a function from Vn ( F ) into F defined by
f (α) = x1a1 + x2 a2 + … + xn an .
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Let β = (b1, b2 , … , bn) ∈ Vn ( F ). If a, b ∈ F , we have

f (aα + bβ) = f [a (a1, … , an) + b (b1, … , bn)]
= f (aa1 + bb1, … , aan + bbn)
= x1 (aa1 + bb1) + … + xn (aan + bbn)
= a ( x1a1 + … + xn an) + b ( x1 b1 + … + xn bn)
= af (a1, … , an) + bf (b1, … , bn) = af (α) + bf ( β).
∴ f is a linear functional on Vn ( F ).
Illustration 2: Now we shall give a very important example of a linear functional.
We shall prove that the trace function is a linear functional on the space of all n × n matrices over
a field F.
Let n be a positive integer and F a field. Let V ( F ) be the vector space of all n × n
matrices over F. If A = [aij ]n × n ∈ V , then the trace of A is the scalar
n
tr A = a11 + a22 + … + ann = Σ aii .
i =1
Thus the trace of A is the scalar obtained by adding the elements of A lying along the
principal diagonal.
The trace function is a linear functional on V because if
a, b ∈ F and A = [aij ]n × n , B = [bij ]n × n ∈ V , then
tr (aA + bB) = tr (a [aij ]n × n + b [bij ]n × n) = tr ([aaij + bbij ]n × n )
n n n
= Σ (aaii + bbii) = a Σ aii + b Σ bii
i =1 i =1 i =1
= a (tr A ) + b (tr B ).
Illustration 3:Now we shall give another important example of a linear functional.
Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space over the field F and let B be an ordered basis for V. The
function f i which assigns to each vector α in V the ith coordinate of α relative to the ordered basis B
is a linear functional on V.
Let B = {α1, α2 , … , α n}.
If α = a1α1 + a2 α2 + … + an α n ∈ V , then by definition of f i , we have
f i (α) = ai .
Similarly if β = b1α1 + … + bn α n ∈ V , then f i ( β) = bi .
If a, b ∈ F , we have
f i (aα + bβ) = f i [a (a1α1 + … + an α n) + b (b1α1 + … + bn α n)]
= f i [(aa1 + bb1) α1 + … + (aan + bbn) α n]
= aai + bbi = af i (α) + bf i ( β).
Hence f i is a linear functional on V.
Illustration 4: Let V be the vector space of polynomials in x over R. Let T : V → R be the
1
integral operator defined by T ( f ( x)) = ∫0 f ( x) dx. Then T is linear and hence it is a linear
functional on V.
L-87
2 Some Particular Linear Functionals

1. Zero Functional: Let V be a vector space over the field F. The function f from V into F
defined by
f (α) = 0 (zero of F) V α ∈V
is a linear functional on V.
Proof: Let α , β ∈ V and a, b ∈ F . We have
f (aα + bβ) = 0 [By def. of f ]
= a0 + b0 = af (α) + bf ( β).
∴ f is a linear functional on V. It is called the zero functional and we shall in future
^
denote it by 0
2. Negative of a Linear Functional: Let V be a vector space over the field F. Let f be a
linear functional on V. The correspondence − f defined by
(− f ) (α) = − [ f (α)] V α ∈ V
is a linear functional on V. (Kumaun 2013)
Proof: Since f (α) ∈ F ⇒ − f (α) ∈ F , therefore − f is a function from V into F.
Let a , b ∈ F and α, β ∈V . Then
(− f ) (aα + bβ) = − [ f (aα + bβ)] [By def. of − f ]
= − [af (α) + bf ( β)] [∵ f is a linear functional]
= a [− f (α)] + b [− f ( β)]
= a [(− f ) (α)] + b [(− f ) ( β)].
∴ − f is a linear functional on V.
Properties of a Linear Functional:
Theorem 1: Let f be a linear functional on a vector space V ( F ). Then
(i) f (0) = 0 where 0 on the left hand side is zero vector of V, and 0 on the right hand side is
zero element of F.
(ii) f (− α) = − f (α) V α ∈ V .
Proof: (i) Let α ∈V. Then f (α) ∈ F .
We have f (α) + 0 = f (α) [∵ 0 is zero element of F ]
= f (α + 0) [∵ 0 is zero element of V ]
= f (α) + f (0) [∵ f is a linear functional]
Now F is a field. Therefore
f (α) + 0 = f (α) + f (0)
⇒ f (0) = 0 , by left cancellation law for addition in F.
(ii) We have f [α + (− α)] = f (α) + f (− α) [∵ f is a linear functional]
But f [α + (− α)] = f (0) = 0 [By (i)]
Thus in F, we have
f (α) + f (− α) = 0
⇒ f (− α) = − f (α).
L-88
3 Dual Spaces
(Gorakhpur 2015)
Let V ′ be the set of all linear functionals on a vector space V ( F ). Sometimes we denote
this set by V *. Now our aim is to impose a vector space structure on the set V ′ over the
same field F. For this purpose we shall have to suitably define addition in V ′ and scalar
multiplication in V ′ over F.
Theorem: Let V be a vector space over the field F. Let f1 and f2 be linear functionals on V. The
function f1 + f2 defined by
( f1 + f2 ) (α) = f1 (α) + f2 (α) V α ∈ V
is a linear functional on V. If c is any element of F, the function cf defined by
(c f ) (α) = c f (α) V α ∈ V
is a linear functional on V. The set V ′ of all linear functionals on V, together with the addition and
scalar multiplication defined as above is a vector space over the field F.
Proof: Suppose f1 and f2 are linear functionals on V and we define f1 + f2 as follows :
( f1 + f2 ) (α) = f1 (α) + f2 (α) V α ∈ V . …(1)
Since f1 (α) + f2 (α) ∈ F , therefore f1 + f2 is a function from V into F.
Let a, b ∈ F and α, β ∈ V . Then
( f1 + f2 ) (aα + bβ) = f1 (aα + bβ) + f2 (aα + bβ) [By (1)]
= [af1 (α) + bf1 ( β)] + [af2 (α) + bf2 ( β)]
[ ∵ f1 and f2 are linear functionals]
= a [ f1 (α) + f2 (α)] + b [ f1 ( β) + f2 ( β)]
= a [( f1 + f2 ) (α)] + b [( f1 + f2 ) ( β)] [By (1)]
∴ ( f1 + f2 ) is a linear functional on V. Thus
f1, f2 ∈ V ′ ⇒ f1 + f2 ∈ V ′ .
Therefore V ′ is closed with respect to addition defined in it.
Again let f ∈ V ′ and c ∈ F . Let us define c f as follows :
(c f ) (α) = c f (α) V α ∈ V . …(2)
Since c f (α) ∈ F , therefore cf is a function from V into F.
Let a , b ∈ F and α , β ∈V . Then
(c f ) (aα + bβ) = c f (aα + bβ) [By (2)]
= c [af (α) + bf ( β)] [∵ f is linear functional]
= c [af (α)] + c [bf ( β)] [∵ F is a field]
= (ca) f (α) + (cb) f ( β)
= (ac ) f (α) + (bc ) f ( β)
= a [c f (α)] + b [c f ( β)]
= a [(c f ) (α)] + b [(c f ) ( β)].
∴ c f is a linear functional on V. Thus
f ∈ V ′ and c ∈ F ⇒ c f ∈ V ′ .
Therefore V ′ is closed with respect to scalar multiplication defined in it.
L-89
Associativity of addition in V ′.
Let f1, f2 , f3 ∈ V ′ . If α ∈V, then
[ f1 + ( f2 + f3 )] (α) = f1 (α) + ( f2 + f3 ) (α) [By (1)]
= f1 (α) + [ f2 (α) + f3 (α)] [By (1)]
= [ f1 (α) + f2 (α)] + f3 (α) [∵ addition in F is associative]
= ( f1 + f2 ) (α) + f3 (α) [By (1)]
= [( f1 + f2 ) + f3 ] (α) [By (1)]
∴ f1 + ( f2 + f3 ) = ( f1 + f2 ) + f3
[By def. of equality of two functions]
Commutativity of addition in V ′: Let f1, f2 ∈ V ′ . If α is any element of V, then

( f1 + f2 ) (α) = f1 (α) + f2 (α) [By (1)]
= f2 (α) + f1 (α) [∵ Addition in F is commutative]
= ( f2 + f1) (α) [By (1)]
∴ f1 + f2 = f2 + f1.
^
Existence of additive identity in V ′: Let 0 be the zero linear functional in V i. e.,
^
0 (α) = 0 V α ∈ V .
^
Then 0 ∈ V ′ . If f ∈ V ′ and α ∈V, we have
^ ^
( 0 + f ) (α) = 0 (α) + f (α) [By (1)]
^
= 0 + f (α) [By def. of 0 ]
= f (α) [0 being additive identity in F ]
^
∴ 0 + f = f V f ∈V ′ .
^
∴ 0 is the additive identity in V ′ .
Existence of additive inverse of each element in V ′:
Let f ∈ V ′ . Let us define − f as follows :
(− f ) (α) = − f (α) V α ∈ V .
Then − f ∈ V ′ . If α ∈V, we have
(− f + f ) (α) = (− f ) (α) + f (α) [By (1)]
= − f (α) + f (α) [By def. of − f ]
=0
^ ^
= 0 (α) [By def. of 0 ]
^
∴ − f + f = 0 for every f ∈ V ′ .
Thus each element in V ′ possesses additive inverse. Therefore V ′ is an abelian group
with respect to addition defined in it.
L-90
Further we make the following observations :

(i) Let c ∈ F and f1, f2 ∈ V ′ . If α is any element in V, we have
[c ( f1 + f2 )] (α) = c [( f1 + f2 ) (α)] [By (2)]
= c [ f1 (α) + f2 (α)] [By (1)]
= c f1 (α) + c f2 (α)
= (c f1) (α) + (c f2 ) (α) [By (2)]
= (c f1 + c f2 ) (α) [By (1)]
∴ c ( f1 + f2 ) = c f1 + c f2 .
(ii) Let a, b ∈ F and f ∈ V ′ . If α ∈V, we have
[(a + b) f ] (α) = (a + b) f (α) [By (2)]
= af (α) + bf (α) [∵ F is a field]
= (af ) (α) + (bf ) (α) [By (2)]
= (af + bf ) (α) [By (1)]
∴ (a + b) f = af + bf .
(iii) Let a, b ∈ F and f ∈ V ′ . If α ∈V, we have
[(ab) f ] (α) = (ab) f (α) [By (2)]
= a [bf (α)] [∵ multiplication in F is associative]
= a [(bf ) (α)] [By (2)]
= [a (bf )] (α) [By (2)]
∴ (ab) f = a (bf ).
(iv) Let 1 be the multiplicative identity of F and f ∈ V ′ . If α ∈V, we have
(1 f ) (α) = 1 f (α) [By (2)]
= f (α) [∵ F is a field]
∴ 1f = f .
Hence V ′ is a vector space over the field F.
Dual Space:
Definition: Let V be a vector space over the field F. Then the set V ′ of all linear functionals on
V is also a vector space over the field F. The vector space V ′ is called the dual space of V.
^
Sometimes V * and V are also used to denote the dual space of V. The dual space of V is
also called the conjugate space of V.
4 Dual Bases
Theorem 1: Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F and let B = {α1, … , α n} be
an ordered basis for V. If {x1, … , xn}is any ordered set of n scalars, then there exists a unique linear
functional f on V such that
f (α i) = xi , i = 1, 2, … , n.
L-91
Proof: Existence of f . Let α ∈V.

Since B = {α1, α 2 , … , α n} is a basis for V, therefore there exist unique scalars
a1 , a2 , … , an such that
α = a1α1 + … + an α n.
For this vector α, let us define f (α) = a1 x1 + … + an xn.
Obviously f (α) as defined above is a unique element of F. Therefore f is a well-defined
rule for associating with each vector α in V a unique scalar f (α) in F. Thus f is a
function from V into F.
The unique representation of α i ∈ V as a linear combination of the vectors belonging to
the basis B is
α i = 0 α1 + 0 α2 + … + 1 α i + 0 α i + 1 + …+ 0 α n .
Therefore according to our definition of f , we have
f (α i) = 0 x1 + 0 x2 + … + 1xi + 0 xi + 1 + … + 0 xn
i. e., f (α i) = xi , i = 1, 2 , … , n.
Now to show that f is a linear functional.
Let a , b ∈ F and α , β ∈V . Also let
α = a1α1 + … + an α n , and β = b1α1 + … + bn α n .
Then f (aα + bβ) = f [a (a1α1 + …+ an α n) + b (b1α1 + … + bn α n)]
= f [(aa1 + bb1) α1 + … + (aan + bbn) α n]
= (aa1 + bb1) x1 + … + (aan + bbn) xn [By def. of f ]
= a (a1 x1 + … + an xn) + b (b1 x1 + … + bn xn)
= af (α) + bf ( β).
∴ f is a linear functional on V.
Thus there exists a linear functional f on V such that f (α i) = xi , i = 1, 2 , … , n.
Uniqueness of f : Let g be a linear functional on V such that
g (α i) = xi , i = 1, 2 , … , n.
For any vector α = a1α1 + … + an α n ∈ V , we have
g (α) = g (a1α1 + … + an α n)
= a1 g (α1) + … + an g (α n) [∵ g is linear]
= a1 x1 + … + an xn [By def. of g]
= f (α). [By def. of f ]
Thus g (α) = f (α) V α ∈ V .
∴ g = f.
This shows the uniqueness of f .
Remark: From this theorem we conclude that if f is a linear functional on a finite
dimensional vector space V, then f is completely determined if we mention under f the
images of the elements of a basis set of V. If f and g are two linear functionals on V such
that f (α i) = g (α i) for all α i belonging to a basis of V, then
f (α) = g (α) V α ∈ V i. e., f = g.
Thus two linear functionals of V are equal if they agree on a basis of V.
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Theorem 2: Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F and let B = {α1, … , α n}be a
basis for V. Then there is a uniquely determined basis B′ = { f1, … , f n} for V ′ such that
f i (α j ) = δ ij . Consequently the dual space of an n-dimensional space is n-dimensional.
(Gorakhpur 2015)
The basis B ′ is called the dual basis of B.
Proof: B = {α1, … , α n}is an ordered basis for V. Therefore by theorem 1, there exists a
unique linear functional f1 on V such that
f1 (α1) = 1, f1 (α 2 ) = 0 , … , f1 (α n) = 0
where {1, 0 , … , 0 } is an ordered set of n scalars.
In fact, for each i = 1, 2, … , n there exists a unique linear functional f i on V such that
 0 if i ≠ j
f i (α j ) = 
 1 if i = j
i. e., f i (α j ) = δ ij , …(1)
where δ ij ∈ F is Kronecker delta i. e., δ ij = 1 if i = j and δ ij = 0 if i ≠ j.
Let B′ = { f1, … , f n}. Then B′ is a subset of V ′ containing n distinct elements of V ′ . We
shall show that B′ is a basis for V ′ .
First we shall show that B′ is linearly independent.
^
Let c1 f1 + c2 f2 + … + c n f n = 0
^
⇒ (c1 f1 + … + c n f n) (α) = 0 (α) V α ∈ V
^
⇒ c1 f1 (α) + … + c n f n (α) = 0 V α ∈ V [ ∵ 0 (α) = 0 ]
n
⇒ Σ c i f i (α) = 0 V α ∈ V
i =1
n
⇒ Σ c i f i (α j ) = 0 , j = 1, 2 , … , n [Putting α = α j where j = 1, 2 , … , n]
i =1
n
⇒ Σ c i δ ij = 0 , j = 1, 2, … , n
i =1
⇒ c j = 0 , j = 1, 2 , … , n
⇒ f1, f2 , … , f n are linearly independent.
In the second place, we shall show that the linear span of B′ is equal to V ′ .
Let f be any element of V ′ . The linear functional f will be completely determined if we
define it on a basis for V. So let
f (α i) = ai, i = 1, 2, … , n. …(2)
We shall show that
n
f = a1 f1 + … + an f n = Σ ai f i .
i =1
We know that two linear functionals on V are equal if they agree on a basis of V. So let
α j ∈ B where j = 1, … , n. Then
L-93
 n  n
 Σ ai f i (α j ) = Σ ai f i (α j )
i = 1  i =1
n
= Σ ai δ ij [From (1)]
i =1
= aj, [On summing with respect to i and

remembering that δ ij = 1 when i = j
and δ ij = 0 when i ≠ j ]
= f (α j ) [From (2)]
 n 
Thus  Σ ai f i (α j ) = f (α j ) V α j ∈ B.
i = 1 
n
Therefore f = Σ ai f i . Thus every element f in V ′ can be expressed as a linear
i =1
combination of f1, … , f n .
∴ V ′ = linear span of B′ . Hence B′ is a basis for V ′ .
Now dim V ′ = number of distinct elements in B′ = n.
Corollary: If V is an n-dimensional vector space over the field F, then V is isomorphic to its dual
space V ′ .
Proof: We have dim V ′ = dim V = n.
∴ V is isomorphic to V ′ .
Theorem 3: Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F and let B = {α1, … , α n} be
a basis for V. Let B′ = { f1, … , f n}be the dual basis of B. Then for each linear functional f on V,
we have
n
f = Σ f (α i) f i
i =1
and for each vector α in V we have

n
α= Σ f i (α) α i.
i =1
Proof: Since B′ is dual basis of B, therefore

f i (α j ) = δ ij . …(1)
If f is a linear functional on V, then f ∈ V ′ for which B′ is basis. Therefore f can be
expressed as a linear combination of f1, … , f n .
n
Let f = Σ ci fi .
i =1
 n  n
Then f (α j ) =  Σ c i f i (α j ) = Σ c i f i (α j )
i = 1  i =1
n
= Σ c i δ ij [From (1)]
i =1
= c j , j = 1, 2, … , n.
L-94
n
∴ f = Σ f (α i) f i .
i =1
Now let α be any vector in V. Let

α = x1α1 + … + xn α n . …(2)
 n   n 
Then f i (α) = f i  Σ x j α j  From (2), α = Σ x j α j 
j =1   j =1 
n
= Σ x j f i (α j ) [∵ f i is linear functional]
j =1
n
= Σ x j δ ij [From (1)]
j =1
= xi .
∴ α = f1 (α) α1 + … + f n (α) α n
n
= Σ f i (α) α i .
i =1
Important: It should be noted that if B = {α1, … , α n} is an ordered basis for V and

B′ = { f1, … , f n} is the dual basis, then f i is precisely the function which assigns to each
vector α in V the ith coordinate of α relative to the ordered basis B.
Theorem 4: Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F. If α is a non-zero vector in V,
there exists a linear functional f on V such that f (α) ≠ 0 .
Proof: Since α ≠ 0, therefore {α} is a linearly independent subset of V. So it can be
extended to form a basis for V. Thus there exists a basis B = {α1, … , α n} for V such that
α1 = α.
If B′ = { f1, … , f n} is the dual basis, then
f1 (α) = f1 (α1) = 1 ≠ 0 .
Thus there exists linear functional f1 such that
f1 (α) ≠ 0 .
Corollary: Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F. If
f (α) = 0 V f ∈ V ′ , then α = 0.
Proof: Suppose α ≠ 0. Then there is a linear functional f on V such that f (α) ≠ 0. This
contradicts the hypothesis that
f (α) = 0 V f ∈ V ′ .
Hence we must have α = 0.
Theorem 5: Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F. If α, β are any two different
vectors in V, then there exists a linear functional f on V such that f (α) ≠ f ( β).
Proof: We have α ≠ β ⇒ α − β ≠ 0.
Now α − β is a non-zero vector in V. Therefore by theorem 4, there exists a linear
functional f on V such that
f (α − β) ≠ 0 ⇒ f (α) − f ( β) ≠ 0 ⇒ f (α) ≠ f ( β)
Hence the result.
L-95
5 Reflexivity ( Second Dual Space or Bi-dual Space or

Double Dual Space )
Second dual space (or Bi-dual space): We know that every vector space V possesses
a dual space V ′ consisting of all linear functionals on V. Now V ′ is also a vector space.
Therefore it will also possess a dual space (V ′ )′ consisting of all linear functionals on V ′.
This dual space of V ′ is called the Second dual space or Bi-dual space of V and for the
sake of simplicity we shall denote it by V ′ ′ .
If V is finite-dimensional, then
dim V = dim V ′ = dim V ′ ′
showing that they are isomorphic to each other.
Natural Isomorphism:
Theorem 1: Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F. If α is any vector in V, the
function Lα on V ′ defined by
Lα ( f ) = f (α) V f ∈ V ′
is a linear functional on V ′ i.e., Lα ∈ V ′ ′ .
Also the mapping α ⇒ Lα is an isomorphism of V onto V ′ ′ .
Proof: If α ∈V and f ∈ V ′ , then f (α) is a unique element of F. Therefore the
correspondence Lα defined by
Lα ( f ) = f (α) V f ∈ V ′ …(1)
is a function from V ′ into F.
Let a, b ∈ F and f , g ∈ V ′ , then
Lα (af + bg) = (af + bg) (α) [From (1)]
= (af ) (α) + (bg) (α)
= a f (α) + b g (α)
[By scalar multiplication of linear functionals]
= a [ Lα ( f )] + b [ Lα ( g)]. [From (1)]
Therefore Lα is a linear functional on V ′ and thus Lα ∈ V ′ ′ .
Now let ψ be the function from V into V ′ ′ defined by
ψ (α) = Lα V α ∈ V .
ψ is one-one: If α , β ∈V , then
ψ (α) = ψ ( β)
⇒ Lα = Lβ ⇒ Lα ( f ) = Lβ ( f ) V f ∈ V ′
⇒ f (α) = f ( β) V f ∈ V ′ [From (1)]
⇒ f (α) − f ( β) = 0 V f ∈ V ′
⇒ f (α − β) = 0 V f ∈ V ′
⇒ α −β = 0
[∵ By theorem 4 of article 4, if α − β ≠ 0, then ∃ a linear
functional f on V such that f (α − β) ≠ 0 . Here we have
f (α − β) = 0 V f ∈ V ′ and so α − β must be 0]
L-96
⇒ α = β.
∴ ψ is one-one.
ψ is a linear transformation:
Let a , b ∈ F and α , β ∈V . Then
ψ (aα + bβ) = Laα + bβ [By def. of ψ]
For every f ∈ V ′ , we have
Laα + bβ ( f ) = f (aα + bβ)
= af (α) + bf ( β) [From (1)]
= aLα ( f ) + bLβ ( f ) [From (1)]
= (aLα ) ( f ) + (bLβ ) ( f ) = (aLα + bLβ ) ( f ).
∴ Laα + bβ = aLα + bLβ = a ψ (α) + b ψ ( β).
Thus ψ (aα + bβ) = a ψ (α) + b ψ ( β).
∴ ψ is a linear transformation from V into V ′ ′ . We have dim V = dim V ′ ′ . Therefore ψ
is one-one implies that ψ must also be onto.
Hence ψ is an isomorphism of V onto V ′ ′ .
Note: The correspondence α → Lα as defined in the above theorem is called the

natural correspondence between V and V ′ ′ . It is important to note that the above
theorem shows not only that V and V ′ ′ are isomorphic—this much is obvious from the
fact that they have the same dimension — but that the natural correspondence is an
isomorphism. This property of vector spaces is called reflexivity. Thus in the above
theorem we have proved that every finite-dimensional vector space is reflexive.
In future we shall identify V ′ ′ with V through the natural isomorphism α ↔ Lα . We
shall say that the element L of V ′ ′ is the same as the element α of V iff L = Lα i. e.,iff
L ( f ) = f (α) V f ∈ V ′ .
It will be in this sense that we shall regard V ′ ′ = V .
Theorem 2: Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F. If L is a linear functional
on the dual space V ′ of V, then there is a unique vector α in V such that
L ( f ) = f (α) V f ∈ V ′ .
Proof: This theorem is an immediate corollary of theorem 1. We should first prove
theorem 1. Then we should conclude like this :
The correspondence α → Lα is a one-to-one correspondence between V and V ′ ′.
Therefore if L ∈ V ′ ′ ,there exists a unique vector α in V such that L = Lα i. e.,such that
L ( f ) = f (α) V f ∈ V ′ .
Theorem 3: Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F. Each basis for V ′ is the
dual of some basis for V.
Proof: Let B ′ = { f1, f2 , … , f n} be a basis for V.
Then there exists a dual basis ( B′ )′ = {L1, L 2 , … , Ln} for V ′ ′ such that
Li ( f j ) = δ ij . …(1)
By previous theorem, for each i there is a vector α i in V such that
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Li = Lα i where Lα i ( f ) = f (α i) V f ∈ V ′ . …(2)
The correspondence α ↔ Lα is an isomorphism of V onto V ′ ′ . Under an isomorphism
a basis is mapped onto a basis. Therefore B = {α1, … , α n} is a basis for V because it is the
image set of a basis for V ′ ′ under the above isomorphism.
Putting f = f j in (2), we get
f j (α i) = Lα i ( f j ) = Li ( f j )
= δ ij . [From (1)]
∴ B′ = { f1, … , f n} is the dual of the basis B.
Hence the result.
Theorem 4: Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F. Let B be a basis for V and
B′ be the dual basis of B. Then show that
B′ ′ = ( B′ )′ = B. (Kumaun 2007)
Proof: Let B = {α1, … , α n} be a basis for V,
B′ = { f1, … , f n} be the dual basis of B in V ′
and B′ ′ = ( B′ )′ = {L1, … , Ln} be the dual basis of B in V ′ ′ .
Then f i (α j ) = δ ij ,
and Li ( f j ) = δ ij , i = 1, … , n ; j = 1, … , n.
If α ∈V, then there exists Lα ∈ V ′ ′ such that
Lα ( f ) = f (α) V f ∈ V ′ .
Taking α i in place of α , we see that for each j = 1, … , n,
Lα i ( f j ) = f j (α i) = δ ij = Li ( f j ).
Thus Lα i and Li agree on a basis for V ′ . Therefore Lα i = Li .
If we identify V ′ ′ with V through the natural isomorphism α ↔ Lα , then we consider
Lα as the same element as α.
So Li = Lα i = α i where i = 1, 2, … , n.
Thus B′ ′ = B.
Example 1: Find the dual basis of the basis set

B = {(1, − 1, 3), (0 , 1, − 1), (0 , 3, − 2) } for V3 (R).
(Kumaun 2008, 09, 11, 13)
Solution: Let α1 = (1, − 1, 3), α2 = (0 , 1, − 1), α3 = (0 , 3, − 2).
Then B = {α1, α2 , α3 }.
If B′ = { f1, f2 , f3 } is dual basis of B, then
f1 (α1) = 1, f1 (α2 ) = 0 , f1 (α3 ) = 0 ,
f2 (α1) = 0 , f2 (α2 ) = 1, f2 (α3 ) = 0 ,
and f3 (α1) = 0 , f3 (α2 ) = 0 , f3 (α3 ) = 1.
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Now to find explicit expressions for f1, f2 , f3 .

Let (a, b, c ) ∈ V3 (R).
Let (a, b, c ) = x (1, − 1, 3) + y (0 , 1, − 1) + z (0 , 3, − 2) …(1)
= xα1 + yα2 + zα3 .
Then f1 (a, b, c ) = x, f2 (a, b, c ) = y, and f3 (a, b, c ) = z .
Now to find the values of x, y, z .
From (1), we have
x = a, − x + y + 3 z = b, 3 x − y − 2 z = c .
Solving these equations, we have
x = a, y = 7 a − 2 b − 3 c , z = b + c − 2 a.
Hence f1 (a, b, c ) = a, f2 (a, b, c ) = 7 a − 2 b − 3 c ,
and f3 (a, b, c ) = − 2 a + b + c .
Therefore B′ = { f1, f2 , f3 } is a dual basis of B where f1, f2 , f3 are as defined above.
Example 2: The vectors α1 = (1, 1, 1), α 2 = (1, 1, − 1), and α3 = (1, − 1, − 1) form a basis of
V3 (C). If { f1, f2 , f3 } is the dual basis and if α = (0 , 1, 0 ), find f1 (α), f2 (α) and f3 (α).
Solution: Let α = a1α1 + a2 α2 + a3 α3 . Then

f1 (α) = a1, f2 (α) = a2 , f3 (α) = a3 .
Now α = a1α1 + a2 α2 + a3 α3
⇒ (0 , 1, 0 ) = a1 (1, 1, 1) + a2 (1, 1, − 1) + a3 (1, − 1, − 1)
⇒ (0 , 1, 0 ) = (a1 + a2 + a3 , a1 + a2 − a3 , a1 − a2 − a3 )
⇒ a1 + a2 + a3 = 0 , a1 + a2 − a3 = 1, a1 − a2 − a3 = 0
1 1
⇒ a1 = 0 , a2 = , a3 = − ⋅
2 2
1 1
∴ f1 (α) = 0 , f2 (α) = , f3 (α) = − ⋅
2 2
Example 3: If f is a non-zero linear functional on a vector space V and if x is an arbitrary
scalar, does there necessarily exist a vector α in V such that f (α) = x ?
Solution: f is a non-zero linear functional on V. Therefore there must be some non-zero
vector β in V such that
f ( β) = y where y is a non-zero element of F.
If x is any element of F, then
x = ( xy −1) y = ( xy −1) f ( β)
= f [( xy −1) β] [∵ f is linear functional]
Thus there exists α = ( xy −1) β ∈ V such that f (α) = x.
Note 1: If f is a non-zero linear functional on V ( F ), then f is necessarily a function

from V onto F.
Note 2: In some books f (α) is written as [α, f ].
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Example 4: Prove that if f is a linear functional on an n-dimensional vector space V ( F ), then

the set of all those vectors α for which f (α) = 0 is a subspace of V, what is the dimension of that
subspace ?
Solution: Let N = {α ∈ V : f (α) = 0 }.
N is not empty because at least 0 ∈ N. Remember that
f (0) = 0 .
Let α, β ∈ N . Then f (α) = 0 , f ( β) = 0 .
If a , b ∈ F , we have
f (aα + bβ) = af (α) + bf (β) = a0 + b0 = 0 .
∴ aα + bβ ∈ N .
Thus a , b ∈ F and α , β ∈ N
⇒ aα + b β ∈ N .
∴ N is a subspace of V. This subspace N is the null space of f .
We know that dim V = dim N + dim (range of f ).
(i) If f is zero linear functional, then range of f consists of zero element of F alone.
Therefore dim (range of f ) = 0 in this case.
∴ In this case, we have
dim V = dim N + 0
⇒ n = dim N .
(ii) If f is a non-zero linear functional on V, then f is onto F. So range of f consists of
all F in this case. The dimension of the vector space F ′ is 1.
∴ In this case we have
dim V = dim N + 1
⇒ dim N = n − 1.
Example 5: Let V be a vector space over the field F. Let f be a non-zero linear functional on V
and let N be the null space of f . Fix a vector α0 in V which is not in N. Prove that for each α in V
there is a scalar c and a vector β in N such that α = cα0 + β. Prove that c and β are unique.
Solution: Since f is a non-zero linear functional on V, therefore there exists a non-zero
vector α0 in V such that f (α0 ) ≠ 0 . Consequently α0 ∉N. Let f (α0 ) = y ≠ 0 .
Let α be any element of V and let f (α) = x.
We have f (α) = x
⇒ f (α) = ( x y −1) y [∵ 0 ≠ y ∈ F ⇒ y −1 exists]
⇒ f (α) = cy where c = x y −1 ∈ F
⇒ f (α) = c f (α0 )
⇒ f (α) = f (c α0 ) [∵ f is a linear functional]
⇒ f (α) − f (c α0 ) = 0
⇒ f (α − c α0 ) = 0
⇒ α − c α0 ∈ N
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⇒ α − c α0 = β for some β ∈ N.
⇒ α = c α0 + β .
If possible, let
α = c ′ α0 + β ′ where c ′ ∈ F and β′ ∈ N.
Then c α0 + β = c ′ α0 + β ′ …(1)
⇒ (c − c ′ ) α0 + ( β − β ′ ) = 0
⇒ f [(c − c ′ ) α0 + ( β − β ′ )] = f (0)
⇒ (c − c ′ ) f (α0 ) + f ( β − β ′ ) = 0
⇒ (c − c ′ ) f (α0 ) = 0
[ ∵ β, β ′ ∈ N ⇒ β − β ′ ∈ N and thus f ( β − β ′ ) = 0 ]
⇒ (c − c ′ ) = 0 [ ∵ f (α0 ) is a non-zero element of F ]
c = c′.
Putting c = c ′ in (1), we get cα0 + β = cα0 + β ′ ⇒ β = β ′ .
Hence c and β are unique.
Example 6: If f and g are in V ′ such that f (α) = 0 ⇒ g (α) = 0 , prove that g = kf for some
k ∈ F.
Solution: It is given that f (α) = 0 ⇒ g (α) = 0 .Therefore if α belongs to the null space
of f , then α also belongs to the null space of g. Thus null space of f is a subset of the null
space of g.
(i) If f is zero linear functional, then null space of f is equal to V. Therefore in this case
V is a subset of null space of g. Hence null space of g is equal to V. So g is also zero linear
functional. Hence we have
g = k f V k ∈ F.
(ii) Let f be non-zero linear functional on V. Then there exists a non-zero vector α0 ∈V
such that f (α0 ) = y where y is a non-zero element of F.
g (α0 )
Let k= ⋅
f (α0 )
If α ∈V, then we can write
α = c α0 + β where c ∈ F and β ∈ null space of f .
We have g (α) = g (c α0 + β) = cg (α0 ) + g ( β)
= cg (α0 )
[∵ β ∈ null space of f ⇒ f ( β) = 0 and so g ( β) = 0 ]
Also (k f ) (α) = k f (α) = k f (cα0 + β)
= k [cf (α0 ) + f ( β)]
= kc f (α0 ) [ ∵ f ( β) = 0 ]
g (α0 )
= cf (α0 ) = cg (α0 ).
f (α0 )
Thus g (α) = (k f ) (α) V α ∈ V .
∴ g = k f.
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1. Let f : R 2 → R and g : R 2 → R be the linear functionals defined by
f ( x, y) = x + 2 y and g ( x, y) = 3 x − y.
Find (i) f + g (ii) 4 f (iii) 2 f − 5 g.
2. Let f : R 2 → R and g : R 2 → R be the linear functionals defined by
f ( x, y, z ) = 2 x − 3 y + zand g ( x, y, z ) = 4 x − 2 y + 3 z .
Find (i) f + g (ii) 3 f (iii) 2 f − 5 g.
3. Find the dual basis of the basis set {(2, 1), (3, 1)} for R 2 .
4. Find the dual basis of the basis set
B = {(1, 0 , 0 ), (0 , 1, 0 ), (0 , 0 , 1)} for V3 (R). (Gorakhpur 2013)
5. Find the dual basis of the basis set

B = {(1, − 2, 3), (1, − 1, 1), (2, − 4, 7)} of V3 (R). (Kumaun 2010)
6. If B = {(− 1, 1, 1), (1, − 1, 1), (1, 1, − 1)} is a basis of V3 (R), then find the dual basis of B.
(Kumaun 2011, 15)
7. Let V be the vector space of polynomials over R of degree ≤ 1 i. e.,
V = { a + bx : a, b ∈ R }.
Let φ1 and φ2 be linear functionals on V defined by
1 2
φ1 [ f ( x)] = ∫0 f ( x) dx and φ2 [ f ( x)] = ∫0 f ( x) dx.
Find the basis { f1, f2 } of V which is dual to { φ1, φ2 }.
8. Let V be the vector space of polynomials over R of degree ≤ 2. Let φ1, φ2 and φ3 be
the linear functionals on V defined by
1
φ1 [ f ( x)] = ∫0 f ( x) dx, φ2 [ f ( x)] = f ′ (1), φ3 [ f ( x)] = f (0 ).
Here f ( x) = a + bx + cx2 ∈ V and f ′ ( x) denotes the derivative of f ( x). Find the

basis { f1 ( x), f2 ( x), f3 ( x)} of V which is dual to { φ1, φ2 , φ3 }.
9. Prove that every finite dimensional vector space V is isomorphic to its second
conjugate space V ** under an isomorphism which is independent of the choice of
a basis in V.
10. Define a non-zero linear functional f on C3 such that f (α) = 0 = f (β) where
α = (1, 1, 1) and β (1, 1, − 1).
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A nswers 1
1. (i) 4x + y (ii) 4 x + 8 y (iii) − 13 x + 9 y

2. (i) 6 x − 5 y + 4z (ii) 6 x − 9 y + 3 z (iii) − 16 x + 4 y − 13 z
3. B′ = { f1, f2 } where f1 (a, b) = 3 b − a, f2 (a, b) = a − 2 b
4. B′ = { f1, f2 , f3 } where f1 (a, b, c ) = a, f2 (a, b, c ) = b, f3 (a, b, c ) = c
5. B′ = { f1, f2 , f3 } where f1 (a, b, c ) = − 3 a − 5 b − 2 c , f2 (a, b, c ) = 2 a + b,
f3 (a, b, c ) = a + 2 b + c
1 1
6. B′ = { f1, f2 , f3 }, where f1 (a, b, c ) = (b + c ), f2 (a, b, c ) = (a + c ),
2 2
1
f3 (a, b, c ) = (a + b)
2
1
7. f1 ( x) = 2 − 2 x, f2 ( x) = − +x
2
3 1 3 3
8. f1 ( x) = 3 x − x2 , f2 ( x) = − x + x2 , f3 ( x) = 1 − 3 x + x2
2 2 4 2
10. f (a, b, c ) = x (a − b), where x is any non-zero scalar.
6 Annihilators
(Kumaun 2008)
Definition:If V is a vector space over the field F and S is a subset of V, the annihilator of S is the
set S0 of all linear functionals f on V such that
f (α) = 0 V α ∈ S.
Sometimes A (S ) is also used to denote the annihilator of S.
Thus S0 = { f ∈ V ′ : f (α) = 0 V α ∈ S }.
It should be noted that we have defined the annihilator of S which is simply a subset of
V . S should not necessarily be a subspace of V.
If S = zero subspace of V, then S0 = V ′ .
If S = V , then S0 = V 0 = zero subspace of V ′ .

If V is finite dimensional and S contains a non-zero vector, then S0 ≠ V ′. If 0 ≠ α ∈ S,
then there is a linear functional f on V such that f (α) ≠ 0 . Thus there is f ∈ V ′ such
that f ∉ S0 . Therefore S0 ≠ V ′ .
Theorem 1: If S is any subset of a vector space V ( F ), then S0 is a subspace of V ′ .

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^
Proof: First we see that S0 is a non-empty subset of V ′ because at least 0 ∈ S0 .
^
We have 0 (α) = 0 V α ∈ S.
Let f , g ∈ S 0 . Then f (α) = 0 V α ∈ S, and g (α) = 0 V α ∈ S.

(af + bg) (α) = (af ) (α) + (bg) (α) = af (α) + bg (α) = a0 + b0 = 0 .
∴ af + bg ∈ S0 .
Thus a, b ∈ F and f , g ∈ S0 ⇒ af + bg ∈ S0 .
∴ S0 is a subspace of V ′ .
Dimension of Annihilator:
Theorem 2: Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F, and let W be a subspace of
V. Then
dim W + dim W 0 = dim V .
Proof: If W is zero subspace of V, then W 0 = V ′ .
∴ dim W 0 = dim V ′ = dim V .

Also in this case dim W = 0. Hence the result.
Similarly the result is obvious when W = V .
Let us now suppose that W is a proper subspace of V.
Let dim V = n, and dim W = m where 0 < m < n.
Let B1 = {α1, … , α m}be a basis for W. Since B1 is a linearly independent subset of V also,
therefore it can be extended to form a basis for V. Let B = {α1, … , α m , α m + 1, … , α n}be
a basis for V.
Let B′ = { f1, … , f m , f m + 1, … , f n} be the dual basis of B. Then B′ is a basis for V ′ such
that f i (α j ) = δ ij .
We claim that S = { f m + 1, … , f n} is a basis for W 0 .
Since S ⊂ B′ , therefore S is linearly independent because B′ is linearly independent. So

S will be a basis for W 0 , if W 0 is equal to the subspace of V ′ spanned by S i. e., if
W 0 = L (S ).
First we shall show that W 0 ⊆ L (S ). Let f ∈ W 0 . Then f ∈ V ′ . So let

n
f = Σ xi f i . …(1)
i =1
Now f ∈ W 0 ⇒ f (α) = 0 V α ∈ W
⇒ f (α j ) = 0 for each j = 1, … , m [ ∵ α1, … , α m are in W ]
 n 
⇒  Σ xi f i (α j ) = 0 [From (1)]
 i =1 
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n n
⇒ Σ xi f i (α j ) = 0 ⇒ Σ xi δ ij = 0
i =1 i =1
⇒ x j = 0 for each j = 1, … , m.
Putting x1 = 0 , x2 = 0 , … , xm = 0 in (1), we get

f = xm + 1 f m + 1 + … + xn f n
= a linear combination of the elements of S.
∴ f ∈ L (S ).
0
Thus f ∈ W ⇒ f ∈ L (S ).
0
∴ W ⊆ L (S ).
Now we shall show that L (S ) ⊆ W 0 .

Let g ∈ L (S ). Then g is a linear combination of f m + 1, … , f n . Let
n
g= Σ yk f k . …(2)
k = m+1
Let α ∈W. Then α is a linear combination of α1, … , α m . Let

m
α = Σ cj αj . …(3)
j =1
 m 
We have g (α) = g  Σ c j α j  [From (3)]
j =1 
m
= Σ c j g(α j ) [∵ g is linear functional]
j =1
m  n 
= Σ cj  Σ yk f k  (α j ) [From (2)]
j =1 k = m + 1 
m n m n
= Σ cj Σ yk f k (α j ) = Σ c j Σ yk δ kj
j =1 k = m+1 j =1 k = m+1
m
= Σ cj 0 [∵δ kj = 0 if k ≠ j which is so for each
j =1
k = m + 1, … , n and for each j = 1, … , m]

= 0.
Thus g (α) = 0 V α ∈ W . Therefore g ∈ W 0 .
Thus g ∈ L (S ) ⇒ g ∈W0 .
∴ L (S ) ⊆ W 0 .
Hence W 0 = L (S ) and S is a basis for W 0 .
∴ dim W 0 = n − m = dim V − dim W
or dim V = dim W + dim W 0 .

L-105
Corollary: If V is finite-dimensional and W is a subspace of V, then W ′ is isomorphic to

V ′ /W 0 .
Proof: Let dim V = n and dim W = m . W ′ is dual space of W,
so dim W ′ = dim W = m.
Now dim V ′ / W 0 = dim V ′ − dim W 0
= dim V − (dim V − dim W ) = dim W = m.
Since dim W ′ = dim V ′ / W 0 , therefore
W ′ ≅ V ′ /W 0 .
Annihilator of an Annihilator: Let V be a vector space over the field F. If S is any

subset of V, then S 0 is a subspace of V ′ . By definition of an annihilator, we have
(S0 )0 = S00 = {L ∈ V ′ ′ : L ( f ) = 0 V f ∈ S0 }.
Obviously S00 is a subspace of V ′ ′ . But if V is finite dimensional, then we have

identified V ′ ′ with V through the natural isomorphism α ↔ Lα . Therefore we may
regard S00 as a subspace of V. Thus
S00 = {α ∈ V : f (α) = 0 V f ∈ S0 }.
Theorem 3: Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F and let W be a subspace of
V. Then W 00 = W .
Proof: We have
W 0 = { f ∈ V ′ : f (α) = 0 V α ∈ W } …(1)
and W 00 = {α ∈ V : f (α) = 0 V f ∈ W 0 }. …(2)
Let α ∈W. Then from (1), f (α) = 0 V f ∈ W 0 and so from (2), α ∈W 00 .
∴ α ∈ W ⇒ α ∈ W 00 .
Thus W ⊆ W 00 . Now W is a subspace of V and W 00 is also a subspace of V. Since

W ⊆ W 00 , therefore W is a subspace of W 00 .
Now dim W + dim W 0 = dim V . [By theorem (2)]

Applying the same theorem for vector space V ′ and its subspace W 0 , we get
dim W 0 + dim W 00 = dim V ′ = dim V .
∴ dim W = dim V − dim W 0 = dim V − [dim V − dim W 00 ]
= dim W 00 .
Since W is a subspace of W 00 and dim W = dim W 00 , therefore W = W 00 .
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7 Hyperspace
Definition : Let V be an n dimensional vector space, then any subspace of dimension (n − 1) is
called a hyperspace. These are also called hyperspaces or subspaces of codimension 1.
A hyperspace of V can be represented as the null space of a non zero linear functional on
V.
Let f be a non-zero functional on an n dimensional vector space V.
Since f is a linear transformation from V into the scalar field F, therefore range of f is a
non-zero subspace of F.
∴ dim F = 1 and rank f = 1.
By nullity theorem, we have
⇔ nullity f = dim V − rank f
= n − 1.
Thus nullspace of f is a hyperspace of V.
Remark : If U is a k-dimensional subspace of an n-dimensional vector space V,then U is
the intersection of (n − k ) hyperspaces in V.
Example 7: If S1 and S2 are two subsets of a vector space V such that S1 ⊆ S2 , then
show that S20 ⊆ S10 . (Kumaun 2008)
Solution: Let f ∈ S20 .

Then f (α) = 0 V α ∈ S2
⇒ f (α) = 0 V α ∈ S1 [ ∵ S1 ⊆ S2 ]
⇒ f ∈ S10 .
∴ S20 ⊆ S10 .
Example 8: Let V be a vector space over the field F. If S is any subset of V, then show that
S0 = [ L (S )]0 .
Solution: We know that S ⊆ L (S ).

∴ [ L (S )]0 ⊆ S0 . …(1)
0
Now let f ∈ S . Then f (α) = 0 V α ∈ S.
n
If β is any element of L (S ), then β = Σ xi α i where each α i ∈ S.
i =1
L-107
n
We have f ( β) = Σ xi f (α i) = 0, since each f (α i) = 0 .
i =1
Thus f ( β) = 0 V β ∈ L (S ).
∴ f ∈( L (S ))0 .
Therefore S0 ⊆ ( L (S ))0 …(2)
0 0
From (1) and (2), we conclude that S = ( L (S )) .
Example 9: Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space over the field F. If S is any subset of V,
then S00 = L (S ).
Solution:We have S0 = ( L (S ))0 . [See Example 8]

00 00
∴ S = ( L (S )) . …(1)
But V is finite-dimensional and L (S ) is a subspace of V. Therefore by theorem 3,
( L (S ))00 = L (S ).
∴ from (1), we have S00 = L (S ).
Example 10: Let W1 and W2 be subspaces of a finite dimensional vector space V.

(i) Prove that (W1 + W2 )0 = W10 ∩ W20 . (Kumaun 2011, 13)
0
(ii) Prove that (W1 ∩ W2 ) = W10 + W20 . (Kumaun 2013)
Solution: (i) First we shall prove that
W10 ∩ W20 ⊆ (W1 + W2 )0 .
Let f ∈ W10 ∩ W20 . Then f ∈ W10 , f ∈ W20 .
Suppose α is any vector in W1 + W2 . Then
α = α1 + α 2 where α1 ∈ W1, α2 ∈ W2 .
We have f (α) = f (α1 + α2 ) = f (α1) + f (α2 )
=0 +0 [ ∵ α1 ∈ W1 and f ∈ W10 ⇒ f (α1) = 0
and similarly f (α2 ) = 0 ]
= 0.
Thus f (α) = 0 V α ∈ W1 + W2 .
∴ f ∈ (W1 + W2 )0 .
∴ W10 ∩ W20 ⊆ (W1 + W2 )0 . …(1)
Now we shall prove that
(W1 + W2 )0 ⊆ W10 ∩ W20 .
We have W1 ⊆ W1 + W2 .
∴ (W1 + W2 )0 ⊆ W10 . …(2)
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Similarly, W2 ⊆ W1 + W2 .
∴ (W1 + W2 )0 ⊆ W20 . …(3)
(W1 + W2 )0 ⊆ W10 ∩ W20 . …(4)
(W1 + W2 )0 = W10 ∩ W20 .
(ii) Let us use the result (a) for the vector space V ′ in place of the vector space V. Thus
replacing W1 by W10 and W2 by W20 in (a), we get
(W10 + W20 )0 = W100 ∩ W200
⇒ (W10 + W20 )0 = W1 ∩ W2 [ ∵ W100 = W1 etc. ]
⇒ (W10 + W20 )00 = (W1 ∩ W2 )0
⇒ W10 + W20 = (W1 ∩ W2 )0 .
Example 11: If W1 and W2 are subspaces of a vector space V, and if V = W1 ⊕ W2 , then

V ′ = W10 ⊕ W20 .
Solution: To prove that V ′ = W10 ⊕ W20 , we are to prove that
^
(i) W10 ∩ W20 = { 0 }
and (ii) V ′ = W10 + W20 i. e., each f ∈ V ′ can be written as f1 + f2
where f1 ∈ W10 , f2 ∈ W20 .
^
(i) First to prove that W10 ∩ W20 = {0 }.
Let f ∈ W10 ∩ W20 .
Then f ∈ W10 and f ∈ W20 .
If α is any vector in V, then, V being the direct sum of W1 and W2 , we can write
α = α1 + α2 where α1 ∈ W1, α2 ∈ W2 .
We have f (α) = f (α1 + α2 )
= f (α1) + f (α2 ) [∵ f is linear functional]
=0 +0 [∵ f ∈ W10 and α1 ∈ W1 ⇒ f (α1) = 0
and similarly f (α2 ) = 0 ]
= 0.
Thus f (α) = 0 V α ∈ V .
^
∴ f = 0.
^
∴ W10 ∩ W20 = {0 }.
(ii) Now to prove that V ′ = W10 + W20 .

Let f ∈ V ′ .
If α ∈V, then α can be uniquely written as
α = α1 + α2 where α1 ∈ W1, α2 ∈ W2 .
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For each f , let us define two functions f1 and f2 from V into F such that
f1 (α) = f1 (α1 + α2 ) = f (α2 ) …(1)
and f2 (α) = f2 (α1 + α2 ) = f (α1). …(2)
First we shall show that f1 is a linear functional on V. Let a, b ∈ F and
α = α1 + α 2 , β = β1 + β2 ∈ V where α1, β1 ∈W1 and α 2 , β2 ∈W2 . Then
f1 (aα + bβ) = f1 [a (α1 + α 2 ) + b ( β1 + β2 )]

= f1 [(aα1 + bβ1) + (aα2 + bβ2 )]
= f (aα 2 + bβ2 ) [ ∵ aα1 + bβ1 ∈ W1, aα 2 + bβ2 ∈ W2 ]
= af (α 2 ) + bf ( β2 ) [∵ f is linear functional]
= af1 (α) + bf1 ( β) [From (1)]
∴ f1 is linear functional on V i. e., f1 ∈ V ′ .
Now we shall show that f1 ∈ W10 .
Let α1 be any vector in W1. Then α1 is also in V. We can write
α1 = α1 + 0, where α1 ∈ W1, 0 ∈ W2 .
∴ From (1), we have f1 (α1) = f1 (α1 + 0) = f (0) = 0 .
Thus f1 (α1) = 0 V α1 ∈ W1 .
∴ f1 ∈ W10 .
Similarly we can show that f2 is a linear functional on V and f2 ∈ W20 .
Now we claim that f = f1 + f2 .
Let α be any element in V. Let α = α1 + α 2 , where α1 ∈ W1, α2 ∈ W2 .
Then ( f1 + f2 ) (α) = f1 (α) + f2 (α) = f (α2 ) + f (α1) [From (1) and (2)]
= f (α1) + f (α2 ) = f (α1 + α2 )
[∵ f is linear functional]
= f (α).
Thus ( f1 + f2 ) (α) = f (α) V α ∈ V .
∴ f = f1 + f2 .
Thus f ∈ V ′ ⇒ f = f1 + f2 where f1 ∈ W10 , f2 ∈ W20 .
∴ V ′ = W10 + W20 .
Hence V ′ = W10 ⊕ W20 .
8 Invariant Direct-Sum Decompositions

Let T be a linear operator on a vector space V ( F ). If S is a non-empty subset of V, then
by T (S) we mean the set of those elements of V which are images under T of the
elements in S. Thus
T (S) = {T (α) ∈ V : α ∈ S }.
Obviously T (S) ⊆ V . We call it the image of S under T .
L-110
Invariance : Definition. Let V be a vector space and T a linear operator on V. If W is a

subspace of V, we say that W is invariant under T if
α ∈ W ⇒ T (α) ∈ W .
Illustration 1: If T is any linear operator on V, then V is invariant under T . If α ∈V, then
T (α) ∈ V because T is a linear operator on V. Thus V is invariant under T .
The zero subspace of V is also invariant under T . The zero subspace contains only one
vector i. e., 0 and we know that T (0) = 0 which is in zero subspace.
Illustration 2: Let V ( F ) be the vector space of all polynomials in x over the field F and let D be
the differentiation operator on V. Let W be the subspace of V consisting of all polynomials of
degree not greater than n.
If f ( x) ∈ W , then D [ f ( x)] ∈ W because differentiation operator D is degree
decreasing. Therefore W is invariant under D.
Let W be a subspace of the vector space V and let W be invariant under the linear
operator T on V i. e., let
α ∈ W ⇒ T (α) ∈ W .
We know that W itself is a vector space. If we ignore the fact that T is defined outside
W, then we may regard T as a linear operator on W. Thus the linear operator T induces
a linear operator TW on the vector space W defined by
TW (α) = T (α) V α ∈ W .
It should be noted that TW is quite a different object from T because the domain of
TW is W while the domain of T is V.
Invariance can be considered for several linear transformations also. Thus W is in-
variant under a set of linear transformations if it is invariant under each member of
the set.
9 Matrix Interpretation of Invariance

Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F and let T be a linear operator
on V. Suppose V has a subspace W which is invariant under T . Then we can choose
suitable ordered basis B for V so that the matrix of T with respect to B takes some
particular simple form.
Let B1 = {α1, … , α m} be an ordered basis for W where dim W = m. We can extend B1 to
form a basis for V. Let
B = {α1, … , α m , α m + 1, … , α n}
be an ordered basis for V where dim V = n.
Let A = [aij ]n × n be the matrix of T with respect to the ordered basis B. Then
n
T (α j ) = Σ ai j α i , j = 1, 2, … , n. …(1)
i =1
If1≤ j ≤ m, then α j is in W. But W is invariant under T . Therefore if 1≤ j ≤ m, then T (α j )

is in W and so it can be expressed as a linear combination of the vectors α1, … , α m ,which
form a basis for W. This means that
L-111
m
T (α j ) = Σ ai j α i, 1 ≤ j ≤ m. …(2)
i =1
In other words in the relation (1), the scalars ai j are all zero if1≤ j ≤ m and m + 1 ≤ i ≤ n.
Therefore the matrix A takes the simple form
 M C
A= 
 O D 
where M is an m × m matrix, C is an m × (n − m) matrix, O is the null matrix of the type
(n − m) × m and D is an (n − m) × (n − m) matrix.
From the relation (2) it is obvious that the matrix M is nothing but the matrix of
the induced operator TW on W relative to the ordered basis B1 for W.
10 Reducibility
Definition: Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of a vector space V and let T be a linear
operator on V. Then T is said to be reduced by the pair (W1, W2 ) if
(i) V = W1 ⊕ W2 ,
(ii) both W1 and W2 are invariant under T .
It should be noted that if a subspace W1 of V is invariant under T , then there are many
ways of finding a subspace W2 of V such that V = W1 ⊕ W2 , but it is not necessary that
some W2 will also be invariant under T . In other words among the collection of all
subspaces invariant under T we may not be able to select any two other than V and the
zero subspace with the property that V is their direct sum .
The definition of reducibility can be extended to more than two subspaces. Thus let W1, … , Wk be
k subspaces of a vector space V and let T be a linear operator on V. Then T is said to be reduced by
(W1, … , Wk ) if
(i) V is the direct sum of the subspaces W1, … , Wk ,
and (ii) Each of the subspaces Wi is invariant under T .
11 Direct Sum of Linear Operators

Definition: Suppose T is a linear operator on the vector space V. Let
V = W1 ⊕ … ⊕ Wk
be a direct sum decomposition of V in which each subspace Wi is invariant under T .
Then T induces a linear operator Ti on each Wi by restricting its domain from V to Wi . If
α ∈V, then there exist unique vectors α1, … , α k with α i in Wi such that
α = α1 + … + α k
⇒ T (α) = T (α1 + … + α k )
⇒ T (α) = T (α1) + … + T (α k ) [∵ T is linear]
⇒ T (α) = T1 (α1) + … + Tk (α k ) [ ∵ If α i ∈ Wi, then by def. of

Ti, we have T (α i) = Ti (α i)]
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Thus we can find the action of T on V with the help of independent action of the
operators Ti on the subspaces Wi. In such situation we say that the operator T is the
direct sum of the operators T1,… , Tk . It should be noted carefully that T is a
linear operator on V, while the Ti are linear operators on the various subspaces
Wi .
12 Matrix Representation of Reducibility

If T is a linear operator on a finite dimensional vector space V and is reduced by the pair
(W1, W2 ), then by choosing a suitable basis B for V, we can give a particularly simple
form to the matrix of T with respect to B.
Let dim V = n and dim W1 = m. Then dim W2 = n − m since V is the direct sum of W1 and
W2 .
Let B1 = {α1, … , α m} be a basis for W1 and B2 = {α m + 1, … , α n} be a basis for W2 . Then
B = B1 ∪ B2 = {α1, … , α m , α m + 1, … , α n} is a basis for V.
It can be easily seen, as in the case of invariance, that
 M O
[T ]B = 
 O N 
where M is an m × m matrix, N is an (n − m) × (n − m) matrix and O are null matrices of
suitable sizes.
Also if T1 and T2 are linear operators induced by T on W1 and W2 respectively, then
M = [T1]B , and N = [T2 ]B .
1 2
Example 12: If T is a linear operator on a vector space V and if W is any subspace of V,

then T (W ) is a subspace of V. Also W is invariant under T iff T (W ) ⊆ W .
Solution: We have, by definition
T (W ) = {T (α) : α ∈ W }.
Since 0 ∈W and T (0) = 0, therefore T (W ) is not empty because at least 0 ∈T (W ).
Now let T (α1), T (α2 ) be any two elements of T (W ) where α1, α 2 are any two elements
of W.
aT (α1) + bT (α2 ) = T (aα1 + bα2 ), because T is linear.
But W is a subspace of V.
Therefore α1, α2 ∈W and a, b ∈ F ⇒ aα1 + bα2 ∈ W . Consequently
T (aα1 + bα2 ) ∈ T (W ).
Thus a, b ∈ F and T (α1), T (α2 ) ∈ T (W )
⇒ aT (α1) + bT (α2 ) ∈ T (W ).
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∴ T (W ) is a subspace of V.
Second Part: Suppose W is invariant under T .
Let T (α) be any element of T (W ) where α ∈W.
Since α ∈W and W is invariant under T , therefore
T (α) ∈ W . Thus T (α) ∈ T (W ) ⇒ T (α) ∈ W .
Therefore T (W ) ⊆ W .
Conversely suppose that T (W ) ⊆ W .
Then T (α) ∈ W V α ∈ W . Therefore W is invariant under T .
Example 13: If T is any linear operator on a vector space V, then the range of T and the null
space of T are both invariant under T .
Solution: Let N (T ) be the null space of T . Then
N (T ) = {α ∈ V : T (α) = 0}.
If β ∈ N (T ), then T ( β) = 0 ∈ N (T ) because N (T ) is a subspace.
∴ N (T ) is invariant under T .
Again let R (T ) be the range of T . Then
R (T ) = {T (α) ∈ V : α ∈ V }.
Since R (T ) is a subset of V, therefore β ∈ R (T ) ⇒ β ∈ V .
Now β ∈ V ⇒ T (β) ∈ R (T ).
Thus β ∈ R (T ) ⇒ T (β) ∈ R (T ). Therefore R (T ) is invariant under T .
Example 14: Give an example of a linear transformation T on a finite-dimensional vector

space V such that V and the zero subspace are the only subspaces invariant under T .
Solution: Let T be the linear operator on V2 (R) which is represented in the standard
ordered basis by the matrix
 0 −1 
1 0⋅
 
Let W be a proper subspace of V2 (R) which is invariant under T . Then W must be of
dimension 1. Let W be the subspace spanned by some non-zero vector α. Now α ∈W
and W is invariant under T . Therefore T (α) ∈ W .
∴ T (α) = cα for some c ∈ R
⇒ T (α) = cI (α) where I is identity operator on V
⇒ [T − cI ] (α) = 0
⇒ T − cI is singular [ ∵ α ≠ 0]
⇒ T − cI is not invertible.
If B denotes the standard ordered basis for V2 (R), then
[T − cI ]B = [T ]B − c [I ]B
 0 − 1  1 0  − c − 1 
=  −c = ⋅
1 0 0 1   1 − c 
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− c − 1  
− c − 1 2
 = c + 1 ≠ 0 for any real number c.
Now det  =
 1 − c   1 −c
− c − 1 
∴  1 − c  i. e., [ T − cI ]B is invertible.
 
Consequently T − cI is invertible which is contradictory to the result that T − cI is not
invertible.
Hence no proper subspace W of V2 (R) can be invariant under T .
13 The Adjoint or the Transpose of a Linear

Transformation
In order to bring some simplicity in our work we shall introduce a few changes in
our notation of writing the image of an element of a vector space under a linear
transformation and that under a linear functional. If T is a linear transformation on
a vector space V and α ∈ V, then in place of writing T (α) we shall simply write
Tα i. e., we shall omit the brackets. Thus Tα will mean the image of α under T. If T1
and T2 are two linear transformations of V, then in our new notation T1 T2 α will
stand for T1 [T2 (α)].
Let f be a linear functional on V. If α ∈V, then in place of writing f (α) we shall write
[α , f ]. This is the square brackets notation to write the image of a vector under a linear
functional. Thus [α , f ] will stand for f (α). If a , b ∈ F and α, β ∈V , then in this new
notation the linearity property of f
i. e., f (aα + bβ) = af (α) + bf (β)
will be written as
[aα + bβ , f ] = a [α , f ] + b [ β, f ].
Also if f and g are two linear functionals on V and a, b ∈ F , then the property defining
addition and scalar multiplication of linear functionals i. e., the property
(af + bg) (α) = af (α) + bg (α)
will be written as
[α , af + bg] = a [α , f ] + b [α, g].
Note that in this new notation, we get
[α , f ] = f (α), [α , g] = g (α).
Theorem 1: Let U and V be vector spaces over the field F. For each linear transformation T
from U into V, there is a unique linear transformation T ′ from V ′ into U ′ such that
[T ′ ( g)] (α) = g [T (α)] (in old notation)
or [α , T ′ g] = [Tα , g] (in new notation)
for every g in V ′ and α in U.
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The linear transformation T ′ is called the adjoint or the transpose or the dual of T . In
some books it is denoted by T t or by T *.
Proof : T is a linear transformation from U to V. U ′ is the dual space of U and V ′ is
the dual space of V. Suppose g ∈ V ′ i. e., g is a linear functional on V. Let us define
f (α) = g [T (α)] V α ∈ U …(1)
Then f is a function from U into F. We see that f is nothing but the product or
composite of the two functions T and g where T : U → V and g : V → F . Since both T
and g are linear therefore f is also linear. Thus f is a linear functional on
U i. e., f ∈ U ′ . In this way T provides us with a rule T ′ which associates with each
functional g on V a linear functional
f = T ′ ( g) on U, defined by (1).
Thus T ′ : V ′ → U ′ such that
T ′ ( g) = f V g ∈ V ′ where f (α) = g [T (α)] V α ∈ U .
Putting f = T ′ ( g) in (1), we see that T ′ is a function from V ′ into U ′ such that
[T ′ ( g)] (α) = g [T (α)]
or in square brackets notation
[α , T ′ g] = [Tα , g] V g ∈ V ′ and V α ∈ U . …(2)
Now we shall show that T ′ is a linear transformation from V ′ into U ′ . Let g1, g2 ∈ V ′
and a, b ∈ F .
Then we are to prove that
T ′ (ag1 + bg2 ) = aT ′ g1 + bT ′ g2 …(3)
where T ′ g1 stands for T ′ ( g1) and T ′ g2 stands for T ′ ( g2 ).
We see that both the sides of (3) are elements of U ′ i. e., both are linear functionals on U.
So if α is any element of U, we have
[α , T ′ (ag1 + bg2 )] = [Tα, ag1 + bg2 ] [From (2) because ag1 + bg2 ∈ V ′ ]
= [Tα , ag1] + [Tα , bg2 ] [By def. of addition in V ′ ]
= a [Tα, g1] + b [Ta , g2 ]
[by def. of scalar multiplication in V ′ ]
= a [α , T ′ g1] + b [α1 , T ′ g2 ] [From (2)]
= [α , aT ′ g1] + [α , bT ′ g2 ]
[By def. of scalar multiplication in U ′ .
Note that T ′ g1, T ′ g2 ∈ U ′ ]
= [α , aT ′ g1 + bT ′ g2 ] [By addition in U ′]
Thus V α ∈U, we have
[α, T ′ (ag1 + bg2 )] = [α , aT ′ g1 + bT ′ g2 ].
∴ T ′ (ag1 + bg2 ) = aT ′ g1 + bT ′ g2 [By def. of equality of two functions]
Hence T ′ is a linear transformation from V ′ into U ′ .
Now let us show that T ′ is uniquely determined for a given T . If possible, let T1 be a
linear transformation from V ′ into U ′ such that
[α , T1 g] = [Tα , g] V g ∈ V ′ and α ∈U. …(4)
L-116
Then from (2) and (4), we get

[α , T1 g] = [α , T ′ g] V α ∈ U , V g ∈ V ′
⇒ T1 g = T ′ g V g ∈ V ′
⇒ T1 = T ′ .
∴ T ′ is uniquely determined for each T . Hence the theorem.
Note: If T is a linear transformation on the vector space V, then in the proof of the
above theorem we should simply replace U by V.
Theorem 2 : If T is a linear transformation from a vector space U into a vector space V, then
(i) the annihilator of the range of T is equal to the null space of T ′ i. e.,
[ R (T )]0 = N (T ′ ) .
If in addition U and V are finite dimensional, then
(ii) ρ (T ′ ) = ρ (T )
and (iii) the range of T ′ is the annihilator of the null space of T i. e.,
R (T ′ ) = [N (T )]0 .
Proof : (i) If g ∈ V ′, then by definition of T ′ , we have
[α , T ′ g] = [Tα , g] V α ∈ U . …(1)
Let g ∈ N (T ′ ) which is a subspace of V ′ . Then
^ ^ ^
T ′ g = 0 where 0 is zero element of U ′ i. e., 0 is zero functional on U. Therefore from
(1), we get
^
[Tα, g] = [α, 0 ] V α ∈ U
^
⇒ [Tα , g] = 0 V α ∈ U [ ∵ 0 (α) = 0 V α ∈ U ]
⇒ g ( β) = 0 V β ∈ R (T ) [ ∵ R (T ) = {β ∈V : β = T (α) for some α ∈U }]
0
⇒ g ∈[ R (T )] .
∴ N (T ′ ) ⊆ [ R (T )]0 .
Now let g ∈[ R (T )]0 which is a subspace of V ′ . Then
g ( β) = 0 V β ∈ R (T )
⇒ [Tα, g] = 0 V α ∈ U [∵ V α ∈ U , Tα ∈ R (T )]
⇒ [α , T ′ g] = 0 V α ∈ U [From (1)]
^
⇒ T ′ g=0 (zero functional on U ) ⇒ g ∈ N (T ′ ).
∴ [ R (T )]0 ⊆ N (T ′ ).
Hence [ R (T )]0 = N (T ′ ).
(ii) Suppose U and V are finite dimensional. Let dim U = n, dim V = m. Let
r = ρ (T ) = the dimension of R (T ).
Now R (T ) is a subspace of V. Therefore
dim R (T ) + dim [ R (T )]0 = dim V . [See Th. 2 of article 6]
L-117
∴ dim [ R (T )]0 = dim V − dim R (T )

= dim V − r = m − r.
By part (i) of this theorem [ R (T )]0 = N (T ′ ).
∴ dim N (T ′ ) = m − r ⇒ nullity of T ′ = m − r.
But T ′ is a linear transformation from V ′ into U ′ .
∴ ρ (T ′ ) + ν (T ′ ) = dim V ′
or ρ (T ′ ) = dim V ′ − ν (T ′ )
= dim V − nullity of T ′ = m − (m − r) = r.
∴ ρ (T ) = ρ (T ′ ) = r.
(iii) T ′ is a linear transformation from V ′ into U ′. Therefore R (T ′ ) is a subspace of
U ′. Also [N (T )]0 is a subspace of U ′ because N (T ) is a subspace of U. First we shall
show that R (T ′ ) ⊆ [N (T )]0 .
Let f ∈ R (T ′ ).
Then f = T ′ g for some g ∈ V ′ .
If α is any vector in N (T ), then Tα = 0.
We have
[α , f ] = [α , T ′ g] = [Tα , g] = [0, g] = 0 .
Thus f (α) = 0 V α ∈ N (T ).
Therefore f ∈[N (T )]0 .
∴ R (T ′ ) ⊆ [N (T )]0
⇒ R (T ′ ) is a subspace of [N (T )]0 .
Now dim N (T ) + dim [N (T )]0 = dim U . [Theorem 2 of article 6]
∴ dim [N (T )]0 = dim U − dim N (T )

= dim R (T ) [∵ dim U = dim R (T ) + dim N (T )]
= ρ (T ) = ρ (T ′ ) = dim R (T ′ ).
Thus dim R (T ′ ) = dim [N (T )]0
and R (T ′ ) ⊆ [N (T )]0 .
∴ R (T ′ ) = [N (T )]0 .
Note: If T is a linear transformation on a vector space V, then in the proof of the above
theorem we should replace U by V and m by n.
Theorem 3: Let U and V be finite-dimensional vector spaces over the field F. Let B be an ordered
basis for U with dual basis B ′ , and let B1 be an ordered basis for V with dual basis B1 ′. Let T be a
linear transformation from U into V. Let A be the matrix of T relative to B, B1 and let C be the
matrix of T ′ relative to B1 ′ , B ′. Then C = A′ i. e.,the matrix C is the transpose of the matrix A.
Proof : Let dim U = n, dim V = m.
Let B = {α1,... , α n}, B ′ = { f1,... , f n},
L-118
B1 = { β1, ... , β m}, B1 ′ = { g1, ... , g}.

Now T is a linear transformation from U into V and T ′ is that from V ′ into U ′ . The
matrix A of T relative to B, B1 will be of the type m × n. If A = [aij ]m × n , then by
definition
m
T (α j ) or simply Tα j = Σ aij β i , j = 1, 2 ..., n. …(1)
i =1
The matrix C of T ′ relative to B1 ′ , B′ will be of the type n × m. If C = [c ji]n × m, then by
definition
n
T ′ ( gi) or simply T ′ gi = Σ c j i f j , i = 1, 2 , ... , m …(2)
j =1
Now T ′ gi is an element of U ′ i. e., T ′ gi is a linear functional on U. If f is any linear

functional on U, then we know that
n
f = Σ f (α j ) f j . [See theorem 3, article 4]
j =1
Applying this formula for T ′ gi in place of f , we get

n
T ′ gi = Σ {(T ′ gi) (α j )} f j . …(3)
j =1
Now let us find (T ′ gi) (α j ).

We have (T ′ gi) (α j ) = gi T (α j ) [By def. of T ′ ]
 m 
= gi  Σ ak j β k  [From (1), replacing the suffix i
k = 1 
by k which is immaterial]
m
= Σ akj gi ( β k ) [∵ gi is linear]
k =1
m
= Σ akj δ ik [∵ gi ∈ B1 ′ which is dual basis of B1]
k =1
= ai j
[On summing with respect to k and remembering

that δ ik = 1 when k = i and δ ik = 0 when k ≠ i]
Putting this value of (T ′ gi) (α j ) in (3), we get
m
T ′ gi = Σ aij f j . …(4)
j =1
Since f1, ... , f n are linearly independent, therefore from (2) and (4), we get
c ji = aij .
Hence by definition of transpose of a matrix, we have
C = A′ .
Note: If T is a linear transformation on a finite-dimensional vector space V, then in

the above theorem we put U = V and m = n. Also according to our convention we take
B1 = B. The students should write the complete proof themselves.
L-119
Theorem 4: Let A be any m × n matrix over the field F. Then the row rank of A is equal to the
column rank of A.
Proof : Let A = [ aij ]m × n . Let
B = {α1, ... , α n} and B1 = { β1, ... , β m}
be the standard ordered bases for Vn ( F ) and Vm ( F ) respectively. Let T be the linear
transformation from Vn ( F ) into Vm ( F ) whose matrix is A relative to ordered bases B
and B1. Then obviously the vectors T (α1), ... , T (an) are nothing but the column vectors
of the matrix A. Also these vectors span the range of T because α1 ,..., α n form a basis for
the domain of T i. e., Vn ( F ).
∴ the range of T = the column space of A
⇒ the dimension of the range of T = the dimension of the column space of A
⇒ ρ (T ) = the column rank of A. …(1)
If T ′ is the adjoint of the linear transformation T , then the matrix of T ′ relative to the
dual bases B1 ′ and B ′ is the matrix A' which is the transpose of the matrix A. The
columns of the matrix A′ are nothing but the rows of the matrix A. By the same
reasoning as given in proving the result (1), we have
ρ (T ′ ) = the column rank of A'
= the row rank of A …(2)
Since ρ (T ) = ρ (T ′ ), therefore from (1) and (2), we get the result that
the column rank of A = the row rank of A.
Theorem 5 : Prove the following properties of adjoints of linear operators on a vector space
V (F ) :
^ ^
(i) 0′ = 0 ;
(ii) I ′=I; (Kumaun 2007, 09)
(iii) (T1 + T2 )′ = T1 ′+ T2 ′ ; (Kumaun 2010)
(iv) (T1 T2 )′ = T2 ′ T1 ′ ; (Kumaun 2007, 09, 10)
(v) (aT )′ = aT ′ where a ∈ F ;
(vi) (T −1)′ = (T ′ )−1 if T is invertible ;
(vii) (T ′ )′ = T ′ ′ = T if V is finite-dimensional.
^
Proof : (i) If 0 is the zero transformation on V, then by the definition of the adjoint
of a linear transformation, we have
^ ^
[α, 0 ′ g] = [ 0 α , g] for every g in V ′ and α in V
^
= for every g in V ′ [∵ 0 (α) = 0 V α ∈ V ]
=0 [∵ g (0) = 0 ]
^ ^ ^
= [ α , 0 ] V α ∈V [Here 0 ∈ V ′ and 0 (α) = 0 ]
^
= [α , 0 g] V g ∈ V ′ and α ∈V
^
[Here 0 is the zero transformation on V ′ ]
L-120
Thus we have
^ ^
[α , 0 ′ g] = [α , 0 g] for all g in V ′ and α in V.
^ ^
∴ 0 ′ = 0.
(ii) If I is the identity transformation on V, then by the definition of the adjoint of a
linear transformation, we have
[α , I ′ g] = [Iα, g] for every g in V ′ and α in V
= [α , g] for every g in V ′ and α in V [∵ I (α) = α V α ∈ V ]
= [α , Ig] for every g in V ′ and α in V
[Here I is the identity operator on V' ]
∴ I ′ = I.
(iii) If T1, T2 are linear operators on V, then T1 + T2 is also a linear operator on V. By the
definition of adjoint, we have
[α , (T1 + T2 )′ g] = [(T1 + T2 ) α , g] for every g in V ′ and α in V
= [T1 α + T2 α , g]
[By def. of addition of linear transformations]
= [T1 α , g] + [T2 α , g] [By linearity property of g]
= [α , T1 ′ g] + [α , T2 ′ g] [By def. of adjoint]
= [α , T1 ′ g + T2 ′ g] [By def. of addition of linear
functionals. Note that T1 ′ g, T2 ′ g are
elements of V ′ ]
= [α , (T1 ′ + T2 ′ ) g].
Thus we have
[α , (T1 + T2 )′ g] = [a, (T1 ′ + T2 ′ ) g] for every g in V ′ and α in V.
∴ (T1 + T2 )′ g = (T1 + T2 ′ ) g V g ∈ V ′.
∴ (T1 + T2 )′ = T1 ′ + T2 ′ .
(iv) If T1, T2 are linear operators on V, then T1 T2 is also a linear operator on V. By the
definition of adjoint, we have
[α, (T1 T2 )′ g] = [(T1 T2 ) α , g] for every g in V ′ and α in V
= [(T1) T2 α, g]
[By def. of product of linear transformations]
= [T2 α , T1 ′ g] [By def. of adjoint]
= [α , T2 ′ T1 ′ g] [By def. of adjoint]
Thus we have
[α , (T1 T2 )′ g] = [a , T2 ′ T1 ′ g] for every g in V ′ and α in V.
∴ (T1 T2 )′ = T2 ′ T1 ′ .
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Note: This is called the reversal law for the adjoint of the product of two linear
transformations.
(v) If T is a linear operator on V and a ∈ F , then aT is also a linear operator on V. By
the definition of the adjoint, we have
[α , (aT )′ g] = [(aT ) α , g] for every g in V ′ and α in V
= [a (Tα), g] [By def. of scalar multiplication of a
linear transformation]
= a [Tα , g] [∵ g is linear]
= a [α, T ′ g] [By def. of adjoint]
= [α, a (T ′ g)] [By def. of scalar multiplication in V ′ .
Note that T ′ g ∈ V ′ ]
= [α , (aT ′ ) g]
[By def. of scalar multiplication of T ′ by a]
∴ (aT )′ = aT ′ .
−1
(vi) Suppose T is an invertible linear operator on V. If T is the inverse of T , we
have
T −1 T = I = T T −1
⇒ (T −1 T )′ = I ′ = (T T −1)′
⇒ T ′ (T −1) = I = (T −1)′ T ′ [Using results (ii) and (iv)]
∴ T ′ is invertible and (T ′ )−1 = (T −1)′ .

(vii) V is a finite dimensional vector space. T is a linear operator on V , T ′ is a linear
operator on V ′ and (T ′ )′ or T ′ ′ is a linear operator on V ′ ′ . We have identified V ′ ′
with V through natural isomorphism α ↔ Lα where α ∈V and Lα ∈ V ′ ′ . Here Lα is a
linear functional on V ′ and is such that
Lα ( g) = g (α) ∀ g ∈ V ′ . …(1)
Through this natural isomorphism we shall take α = Lα and thus T ′ ′ will be regarded
as a linear operator on V.
Now T ′ is a linear operator on V ′ . Therefore by the definition of adjoint, we have
[ g, T ′ ′ Lα ] = [ g, (T ′ )′ Lα ] = [T ′ g, Lα ] for every g ∈ V ′ and α ∈V.
Now T ′ g is an element of V ′ . Therefore from (1), we have
[T ′ g, Lα ] = [α , T ′ g]
[Note that from (1), Lα ( T ′ g ) = ( T ′ g ) α]
= [Tα , g]. [By def. of adjoint]
Again T ′ ′ Lα is an element of V ′ ′ . Therefore from (1), we have
[ g, T ′ ′ Lα ] = [ β , g] where β ∈ V and β ↔ T ′ ′ Lα
under natural isomorphism
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= [T ′ ′ α , g] [∵ β = T ′ ′ Lα = T ′ ′ α when we regard
T ′ ′ as linear operator on V in place of V ′ ′ ]
Thus, we have
[Tα , g] = [T ′ ′ α , g] for every g in V ′ and α in V
⇒ g (Tα) = g (T ′ ′ α) for every g in V ′ and α in V
⇒ g (Tα − T ′ ′ α) = 0 for every g in V ′ and α in V
⇒ Tα − T ′ ′ α = 0 for every α in V
⇒ (T − T ′ ′ ) α = 0 for every α in V
^
⇒ T −T ′′ = 0
⇒ T = T ′ ′.
Example 15: Let f be the linear functional on R2 defined by f ( x, y) = 2 x − 5 y. For each

linear mapping
T : R 3 → R 2 find [T ′ ( f )] ( x, y, z ), where
(i) T ( x, y, z ) = ( x − y, y + z ),
(ii) T ( x, y, z ) = ( x + y + 2 z , 2 x + y),
(iii) T ( x, y, z ) = ( x + y, 0 ).
Solution: By definition of the transpose mapping,
T ′ ( f ) = f o T i. e., [T ′ ( f )] α = f [T (α)] for every α ∈ R3 .
(i) [T ′ ( f )] ( x, y, z ) = f [T ( x, y, z )]
= f ( x − y, y + z ) = 2 ( x − y) − 5 ( y + z ) = 2 x − 7 y − 5 z .
(ii) [T ′ ( f )] ( x, y, z ) = f [T ( x, y, z )]
= f ( x + y + 2 z , 2 x + y)
= 2 ( x + y + 2 z ) − 5 (2 x + y) = − 8 x − 3 y + 4 z .
(iii) [T ′ ( f )] ( x, y, z ) = f [T ( x, y, z )]
= f ( x + y , 0 ) = 2 ( x + y) − 5 . 0 = 2 x + 2 y .
Example 16: If A and B are similar linear transformations on a vector space V, then so also
are A′ and B′ .
Solution: A is similar to B means that there exists an invertible linear transformation
C on V such that
A = CBC −1
⇒ A = (CBC −1)′
⇒ A′ = (C −1)′ B ′ C ′ .
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Now C is invertible implies that C ′ is also invertible and

(C ′ ) −1 = (C −1)′ .
∴ A′ = (C ′ )−1 B ′ C ′ ⇒ C ′ A′ (C ′ )−1 = B ′
[Multiplying on right by (C ′ )−1 and on left by C ′ ]
⇒ B ′ is similar to A′
⇒ A′ and B ′ are similar.
Example 17: Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F. Show that T → T ′ is
an isomorphism of L (V , V ) onto L (V ′ , V ′ ).
Solution: Let dim V = n.
Then dim V ′ = n.
Also dim L (V , V ) = n2 , dim L (V ′ , V ′ ) = n2 .
Let ψ : L (V , V ) → L (V ′ , V ′ ) such that
ψ (T ) = T ′ V T ∈ L (V , V ).
(i) ψ is linear transformation:
Let a, b ∈ F and T1, T2 ∈ L (V , V ). Then
ψ (aT1 + bT2 ) = (aT1 + bT2 )′ [By def. of ψ]
= (aT1)′ + (bT2 )′ [ ∵ ( A + B )′ = A′ + B′ ]
= aT1 ′ + bT2 ′ [∵ (aA)′ = aA′ ]
= aψ (T1) + bψ (T2 ) [By def. of ψ]
∴ ψ is a linear transformation from L (V , V ) into L (V ′ , V ′ ).
(ii) ψ is one-one:
Let T1, T2 ∈ L (V , V ).
Then ψ (T1) = ψ (T2 )
⇒ T1 ′ = T2 ′
⇒ T1 ′ ′ = T2 ′ ′
⇒ T1 = T2 [∵V is finite-dimensional]
∴ ψ is one-one.
(iii) ψ is onto:
We have dim L (V , V ) = dim L (V ′ , V ′ ) = n2 .
Since ψ is a linear transformation from L (V , V ) into L (V ′ , V ′ ) therefore ψ is one-one
implies that ψ must be onto.
Hence ψ is an isomorphism of L (V , V ) onto L (V ′ , V ′ ).
Example 18: If A and B are linear transformations on an n-dimensional vector space V, then
prove that
(i) ρ ( AB) ≥ ρ ( A) + ρ ( B) − n.
(ii) ν ( AB) ≤ ν ( A) + ν ( B). (Sylvester’s law of nullity)
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Solution: (i) First we shall prove, that if T is a linear transformation on V and W1 is an

h-dimensional subspace of V, then the dimension of T (W1) is ≥ h − ν (T ).
Since V is finite-dimensional, therefore the subspace W1 will possess complement. Let
V = W1 ⊕ W2 . Then
dim W2 = n − h = k (say).
Since V = W1 + W2 , therefore
T (V ) = T (W1) + T (W2 ), as can be easily seen.
∴ dim T (V ) = dim [T (W1) + T (W2 )]
≤ dim T (W1) + dim T (W2 )
[∵ The dimension of a sum is ≤ the sum of the dimensions]
But T (V ) = the range of T .
∴ dim T (V ) = ρ (T ).
Thus dim T (W1) + dim T (W2 ) ≥ ρ (T ). …(1)
Now T (W2 ) is a subspace of W2 . Therefore
dim W2 ≥ dim T (W2 ). …(2)
From (1) and (2), we get
dim T (W1) + dim W2 ≥ ρ (T )
⇒ dim T (W1) ≥ ρ (T ) − dim W2
⇒ dim T (W1) ≥ n − ν (T ) − k [∵ ρ (T ) + ν (T ) = n]
⇒ dim T (W1) ≥ n − k − ν (T )
⇒ dim T (W1) ≥ h − ν (T ). …(3)
Now taking T = A and W1 = B (V ) in (3), we get
dim A [ B (V )] ≥ dim B (V ) − ν ( A)
⇒ dim ( AB) (V ) ≥ ρ ( B ) − ν ( A) [∵ B (V ) = the range of B ]
⇒ ρ ( AB) ≥ ρ ( B ) − [n − ρ ( A)]
⇒ ρ ( AB ) ≥ ρ ( A) + ρ ( B ) − n.
(ii) We have ρ ( AB ) + ν ( AB ) = n.
∴ ρ ( AB ) = n − ν ( AB ).
But ρ ( AB ) ≥ ρ ( A) + ρ ( B ) − n.
∴ n − v ( AB ) ≥ ρ ( A) + ρ ( B ) − n
⇒ ν ( AB ) ≤ [n − ρ ( A)] + [n − ρ ( B )]
⇒ ν ( AB ) ≤ ν ( A) + ν ( B ) [∵ ρ ( A) + ν ( A) = n]
1. Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F. If W1 and W2 are
subspaces of V, then W10 = W20 iff W1 = W2 .
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2. If W1 and W2 are subspaces of a finite-dimensional vector space V and if

V = W1 ⊕ W2 , then
(i) W1 ′ is isomorphic to W20 . (ii) W2 ′ is isomorphic to W10 .
3. Let W be the subspace of R 3 spanned by (1, 1, 0 ) and (0 , 1, 1). Find a basis of the
annihilator of W.
4. Let W be the subspace of R 4 spanned by (1, 2, − 3, 4), (1, 3, − 2, 6) and (1, 4, − 1, 8).
Find a basis of the annihilator of W.
5. If the set S = {Wi} is the collection of subspaces of a vector space V which are
invariant under T , then show that W = ∩ Wi is also invariant under T .

i
6. Prove that the subspace spanned by two subspaces each of which is invariant
under some linear operator T , is itself invariant under T .
7. Let V be a vector space over the field F, and let T be a linear operator on V and let
f (t) be a polynomial in the indeterminate t over the field F. If W is the null space
of the operator f (T ), then W is invariant under T .
8. Let T be the linear operator on R2 , the matrix of which in the standard ordered
basis is
 1 − 1
A=  ⋅
2 2 
(a) Prove that the only subspaces of R2 invariant under T are R2 and the zero
subspace.
(b) If U is the linear operator on C2, the matrix of which in the standard ordered
basis is A, show that U has one dimensional invariant subspaces.
9. Let T be the linear operator on R2 , the matrix of which in the standard ordered
basis is
2 1
0 ⋅
 2 
If W1 is the subspace of R2 , spanned by the vector (1, 0 ), prove that W1 is invariant

under T .
10. Show that the space generated by (1, 1, 1) and (1, 2, 1) is an invariant subspace of R3
under T , where T ( x, y, z ) = ( x + y − z , x + y, x + y − z ).
11. If A and B are linear transformations on a finite-dimensional vector space V, then

prove that
(i) ρ ( A + B ) ≤ ρ ( A) + ρ ( B )
(ii) ρ ( AB ) ≤ min { ρ ( A), ρ ( B)}.
(iii) If B is invertible, then ρ ( AB ) = ρ ( BA) = ρ ( A).
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A nswers 2
3. Basis is { f ( x, y, z ) = x − y + z }
4. Basis is { f1, f2 } where f1 ( x, y, z , w) = 5 x − y + z , f2 ( x, y, z , w) = 2 y − w
O bjective T ype Q uestions

(b), (c) and (d).
1. Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F. The dimension of the
dual space of V is
(a) n (b) n2
1
(c) n (d) none of these
2 (Kumaun 2014)
2. If the dual basis of the basis set B = {(1, 0 , 0 ), (0 , 1, 0 ), (0 , 0 , 1)} for V3 (R) is
B ′ = { f1, f2 , f3 }, then
(a) f1 (a, b, c ) = a, f2 (a, b, c ) = b, f3 (a, b, c ) = c
(b) f1 (a, b, c ) = b, f2 (a, b, c ) = c , f3 (a, b, c ) = a
(c) f1 (a, b, c ) = c , f2 (a, b, c ) = a, f3 (a, b, c ) = b
(d) None of these.
3. If V ( F ) is a vector space and f be a linear functional from V → F , then
(a) f (0) = 0 (b) f (0) ≠ 0
(c) f (0 ) = 0 (d) f (0 ) ≠ 0
4. If V ( F ) is a vector space and f is a linear functional from V → F , then
(a) f (− x) = f ( x) (b) f (− x) = − f ( x)
(c) f (− x) ≠ − f ( x) (d) f (− x) ≠ f ( x)
5. Let V be a vector space over a field F. A linear functional on V is a linear
mapping from
(a) F into V (b) V into F
(c) V into itself (d) none of these
6. If S is any subset of a vector space V ( F ), then S 0 is a subspace of
(a) V (b) V ′
(c) V ′ ′ (d) none of these.
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7. Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F. If S is any subset of V,
then S00 =
(a) S (b) L (S )
0
(c) [ L (S )] (d) none of these.
8. Let V ( F ) be a vector space over the field F. Then the set V ′ of all linear functional
on V is also a vector space over the field F. The vector space V ′ is called :
(a) Dual space of V (b) Null space of V
(c) Subspace of V (d) none of these
9. Let V be a finite dimensional vector space of dimension n. If V ′ is the dual space of

V then dimension of V ′ will be:
(a) n 2 (b) 2n
n
(c) (d) n
2
10. Let V ( F ) be a vector space. A function f from V to F which satisfies the condition
f (a α + b β) = a f (α) + b f (β) ∀ a , b ∈ F and α , β ∈V is called :
(a) linear transformation (b) linear operator
(c) linear functional (d) none of these
11. If W1 and W2 are subspaces of a vector space V ( F ) and W2 ⊂ W1 then

(a) W10 ⊂ W20 (b) W10 ⊃ W20
(c) W10 = W20 (d) none of these
12. If S0 denote the annihilator of subspace S of vector space V ( F ), then :

(a) dim S + dim S0 < dim V (b) If S = V , S0 = V 0
(c) If S is the zero subspace of V, then S0 = V
(d) S ⊂ S0 0
13. Let { f1, f2 } be the dual basis for the basis set {(2 ,1),(3 ,1)} for R 2 . Then:
(a) f1(a , b) = 3 b − a , f2 (a , b) = a − 2 b
(b) f1(a , b) = a − 3 b , f2 (a , b) = a − 2 b
(c) f1(a , b) = a − 3 b , f2 (a , b) = 2 b − a
(d) f1(a , b) = a − 3 b , f2 (a , b) = a + 2 b
14. If W1 and W2 are subspaces of a vector space V ( F ), then (W1 ∩ W2 )0 =

(a) W10 ∪ W20 (b) W10 ∩ W20
(c) W10 + W20 (d) (W1 + W2 )0
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correct.
1. Let V be a vector space over the field F. The dual space of V is also called the ……
space of V.
2. If V is an n-dimensional vector space over the field F, then V is …… to its dual
space V ′ .
3. Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F, and let W be a
subspace of V. Then dim W + dim W 0 = …… .
4. Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F and let W be a subspace
of V. Then W 00 = …… .
True or False
1. Let V ( F ) be a vector space. A linear functional on V is a vector valued function.
2. Every finite dimensional vector space is not reflexive.
3. If V ( F ) is a vector space, then mapping f : V → F : f (α) = 0, then f is a linear
functional.
4. If V is finite-dimensional and W is a subspace of V then W ′ is isomorphic to
V ′ /W 0 .
5. If T is a linear transformation from a vector space U into a vector space V then
ρ ( T ′ ) ≠ ρ ( T ).
A nswers

1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (b)
6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (b) 13. (a) 14. (c)

1. conjugate 2. isomorphic 3. dim V 4. W
True or False
1. F 2. F 3. T 4. T 5. F
¨
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4
E igenvalues and E igenvectors
1 Matric Polynomials
efinition: An expression of the form
D F (λ ) = A0 + A1λ + A2 λ2 + … + A m − 1λ m − 1 + A m λ m ,
where A0 , A1, A2 , ..., A m are all square matrices of the same order, is called a Matric
polynomial of degree m provided A m is not a null matrix. The symbol λ is called
indeterminate. If the order of each of the matric coefficients A0 , A1, …, A m is n, then we
say that the matric polynomial is n-rowed. According to this definition of a matric
polynomial, each square matrix can be expressed as a matric polynomial with zero
degree. For example, if A be any square matrix, we can write
A = λ0 A.
Equality of Polynomials: Two matric polynomials are equal iff (if and only if), the
coefficients of the like powers of λ are the same.
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Theorem: Every square matrix whose elements are ordinary polynomials in λ, can essentially be
expressed as a matric polynomial in λ of degree m, where m is the highest power of λ occurring in
any element of the matrix. We shall illustrate this theorem by the following example.
Consider the matrix
1 + 2 λ + 3 λ2 λ2 4 − 6λ 
 3
A =  1 + λ3 3 + 4λ 2
1 − 2λ + 4λ 
2 − 3 λ + 2 λ3 5 6 
 
in which the highest power of λ occurring in any element is 3. Rewriting each element
as a cubic in λ, supplying missing coefficients with zeros, we get
1 + 2 . λ + 3 . λ2 + 0 . λ3 0 + 0 . λ + 1 . λ2 + 0 . λ3

A = 1 + 0 . λ + 0 . λ2 + 1 . λ3 3 + 0 . λ + 4. λ2 + 0 . λ3
2 − 3 . λ + 0 . λ2 + 2 . λ3 5 + 0 . λ + 0 . λ2 + 0 . λ3

4 − 6 . λ + 0 . λ2 + 0 . λ3 

1 − 2 . λ + 0 . λ2 + 4 . λ3 
6 + 0 . λ + 0 . λ2 + 0 . λ3 
Obviously A can be written as the matric polynomial

1 0 4  2 0 −6 3 1 0 0 0 0
  2  3  
A = 1 3 
1 + λ 0 0 −2 + λ 0 4 0  + λ 1 0 4.
 
2 5 6 −3 0 0  0 0 0  2 0 0 
  
2 Characteristic Values and Characteristic

Vectors of a Matrix
Let A = [aij]n × n be a given n-rowed square matrix. Let
 x1 
x 
 2
A = … 
… 
 
 xn 
be a column vector. Consider the vector equation
AX = λX. ..(1)
where λ is a scalar (i.e., number).
It is obvious that the zero vector X = O is a solution of (1) for any value of λ. Now let us
see whether there exist scalars λ and non-zero vectors X which satisfy (1).
If I denotes the unit matrix of order n, then the equation (1) may be written as
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AX = λIX
or (A − λI) X = O. ...(2)
The matrix equation (2) represents the following system of n homogeneous equations
in n unknowns :
(a11 − λ ) x1 + a12 x2 + … + a1n xn = 0 

a21 x1 + (a22 − λ ) x2 + … + a2 n xn = 0 
 ...(3)
… … … … … … … … 
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + … + (ann − λ ) xn = 0 
The coefficient matrix of the equations (3) is A − λI. The necessary and sufficient
condition for equations (3) to possess a non-zero solution (X ≠ O) is that the
coefficient matrix A − λI should be of rank less than the number of unknowns n. But
this will be so if and only if the matrix A − λI is singular i. e., if and only if| A − λI| = 0.
Thus the scalars λ for which
| A − λI| = 0
are of special importance.
Definitions: (Lucknow 2009; Gorakhpur 11)

Let A = [aij]n × n be any n-rowed square matrix and λ an indeterminate. The matrix
A − λI is called the characteristic matrix of A where I is the unit matrix of order n.
Also the determinant
a11 − λ a12 ... a1n
a21 a22 − λ ... a2 n
| A − λI| = ,
... ... ... ...
an1 an2 ... ann − λ
which is an ordinary polynomial in λ of degree n, is called the characteristic
polynomial of A. The equation| A − λI| = 0 is called the characteristic equation of A
and the roots of this equation are called the characteristic roots or characteristic
values or eigenvalues or latent roots or proper values of the matrix A. The set of the
eigenvalues of A is called the spectrum of A.
If λ is a characteristic root of the matrix A, then
| A − λI| = 0
and the matrix A − λI is singular. Therefore there exists a non-zero vector X such that
(A − λI) X = O
or AX = λX.
Characteristic vectors. Definition: If λ is a characteristic root of an n × n matrix A, then
a non-zero vector X such that AX = λX is called a characteristic vector or eigenvector of A
corresponding to the characteristic root λ. (Lucknow 2009)
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3 Certain Relations between Characteristic Roots and

Characteristic Vectors
Theorem 1: λ is a characteristic root of a matrix A if and only if there exists a non-zero vector X
such that AX = λX.
Proof: Suppose λ is a characteristic root of the matrix A. Then | A − λI| = 0 and the
matrix A − λI is singular. Therefore, the matrix equation (A − λI) X = O possesses a
non-zero solution i. e., there exists a non-zero vector X such that (A − λI)X = O or
AX = λX.
Conversely suppose there exists a non-zero vector X such that AX = λX
i. e., (A − λI) X = O. Since the matrix equation (A − λI) X = O possesses a non-zero
solution, therefore the coefficient matrix A − λI must be singular i. e.,| A − λI | = 0.
Hence λ is a characteristic root of the matrix A.
Theorem 2: If X is a characteristic vector of a matrix A corresponding to the characteristic
value λ, then kX is also a characteristic vector of A corresponding to the same characteristic value
λ. Here k is any non-zero scalar.
Proof: Suppose X is a characteristic vector of A corresponding to the characteristic
value λ. Then X ≠ O and AX = λX.
If k is any non-zero scalar, then k x ≠ O. Also
A ( kX) = k (AX) = k (λX) = λ (kX).
Now kX is a non-zero vector such that A(kX) = λ (kX). Hence kX is a characteristic
vector of A corresponding to the characteristic value λ. Thus corresponding to a
characteristic value λ, there corresponds more than one characteristic vectors.
Theorem 3: If X is a characteristic vector of a matrix A, then X cannot correspond to more than
one characteristic values of A.
Proof: Let X be a characteristic vector of a matrix A corresponding to two
characteristic values λ1 and λ 2 . Then AX = λ1X and AX = λ 2 X. Therefore
λ1 X = λ 2 X
⇒ (λ1 − λ 2 ) X = O
⇒ λ1 − λ 2 = 0 [∵ X ≠ O]
⇒ λ1 = λ 2 .
Hence the result.
4 Nature of the Characteristic Roots of Special Types of

Matrices
Theorem 1: The characteristic roots of a Hermitian matrix are real.
(Kumaun 2010, 11, 13; Meerut 11; Lucknow 05, 11)
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Proof: Suppose A is a Hermitian matrix, λ a characteristic root of A and X a

corresponding eigenvector. Then
AX = λX. ...(1)
Premultiplying both sides of (1) by X θ , we get
X θ AX = λX θ X. ...(2)
Taking conjugate transpose of both sides of (2), we get
(X θ AX)θ = (λX θ X)θ
or X θ A θ (X θ )θ = λX θ (X θ )θ
or X θ AX = λX θ X ...(3)
θ θ θ
[ ∵(X ) = X and A = A, A being Hermitian]
λX θ X = λX θ X
or (λ − λ )X θ X = O.
But X is not a zero vector, therefore X θ X ≠ O.
Hence λ − λ = 0, so that λ = λ and consequently λ is real.

Corollary 1: The characteristic roots of a real symmetric matrix are all real.
If the elements of a Hermitian matrix A are all real, then A is a real symmetric matrix.
Thus a real symmetric matrix is Hermitian and therefore the result follows.
Corollary 2: The characteristic roots of a skew-Hermitian matrix are either pure imaginary or
zero. (Lucknow 2010)
Suppose A is a skew-Hermitian matrix. Then iA is Hermitian. Let λ be a characteristic
root of A. Then
AX = λX
or (iA)X = (iλ )X.
From this it follows that iλ is a characteristic root of iA which is Hermitian. Hence iλ is
real. Therefore either λ must be zero or pure imaginary.
Corollary 3: The characteristic roots of a real skew-symmetric matrix are either pure
imaginary or zero, for every such matrix is skew-Hermitian.
Theorem 2: The characteristic roots of a unitary matrix are of unit modulus.
Proof: Suppose A is a unitary matrix. Then A θ A = I.
Let λ be a characteristic root of A and X a corresponding eigenvector. Then
AX = λX. ...(1)
Taking conjugate transpose of both sides of (1), we get
(AX) θ = (λX)θ
or X θ A θ = λX θ . ...(2)
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( X θ A θ )(AX) = λλX θ X
or X θ (A θ A) X = λλX θ X [∵ A θ A = I ]
or X θIX = λλX θ X
or X θ X = λλX θ X
or X θ X(λλ − 1) = O. ...(3)
Since X θ X ≠ O, therefore, (3) gives
λλ − 1 = 0
or λ λ =1
or | λ |2 = 1.
Corollary: The characteristic roots of an orthogonal matrix are of unit modulus.
We know that if the elements of a unitary matrix A are all real, then A is said to be an
orthogonal matrix. Hence the result follows.
5 The Process of Finding the Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

of a Matrix
Let A = [aij]n × n be a square matrix of order n. First we should write the characteristic
equation of the matrix A i. e., the equation| A − λI| = 0. This equation will be of degree n
in λ. So it will have n roots. These n roots will give us the eigenvalues of the matrix A. If
λ1 is an eigenvalue of A, then the corresponding eigenvectors of A will be given by the
non-zero vectors
X = [ x1, x2 , ..., xn]′
satisfying the equation AX = λ1X
or (A − λ1I) X = O.
Example 1: Determine the characteristic roots of the matrix

0 1 2
A = 1 0 −1.
 
2 −1 0  (Meerut 2010)
Solution: The characteristic matrix of A
= A − λI
0 1 2 1 0 0
   
= 1 0 −1 − λ 0 1 0
2 −1 0  0 0 1
 
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0 − λ 1 2 
 
= 1 0−λ −1  .
 2 −1 0 − λ 

It should be noted that in order to obtain the characteristic matrix of a matrix A, we
should simply subtract λ from each of its principal diagonal elements.
The characteristic polynomial of A
= | A − λI|
− λ 1 2
= 1 −λ −1
 
 2 −1 −λ
= − λ (λ2 − 1) − 1(− λ + 2) + 2(−1 + 2 λ )
= − λ3 + λ + λ − 2 − 2 + 4 λ
= − λ3 + 6 λ − 4.
∴ The characteristic equation of A is
| A − λI| = 0
i. e., λ3 − 6 λ + 4 = 0
i. e., (λ − 2)(λ2 + 2 λ − 2) = 0 .
The roots of this equation are λ = 2, − 1 ± 3 .
Hence the characteristic roots of the matrix A are 2, − 1 ± 3 .
a h g
Example 2: Determine the eigenvalues of the matrix A = 0 b 0 .
 
0 c c 
(Kumaun 2007; Kanpur 09; Meerut 10B)
a − λ h g 
Solution: Here | A − λI| = 0 b−λ 0 
 
 0 c c − λ
= (a − λ )(b − λ ) (c − λ ) .
The characteristic equation of A is
| A − λI| = 0
i. e., (a − λ )(b − λ )(c − λ ) = 0.
The roots of this equation are λ = a, b, c . Hence the eigenvalues of A are a, b, c .
Example 3: Determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix
5 4
A= .
1 2 (Bundelkhand 2006)
Solution: The characteristic equation of A is
| A − λI| = 0
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5 − λ 4 
i. e.,  = 0
 1 2 − λ
i. e., (5 − λ ) (2 − λ ) − 4 = 0
i. e., λ2 − 7 λ + 6 = 0 .
The roots of this equation are λ1 = 6, λ 2 = 1. Therefore the eigenvalues of A are 6,
1.
 x1 
The eigenvectors X =   of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 6 are given by the
 x2 
non-zero solutions of the equation
5 − 6 4   x1  0 
(A − 6 I) X = O or  1  x  = 0 
 2 − 6  2  
−1 4  x1  0 
or  1  =
 −4  x2  0 
−1 4  x1  0 
or  0 0   x  = 0 , applying R2 → R2 + R1.
   2  
The coefficient matrix of these equations is of rank 1. Therefore these equations have
2 − 1 i. e., 1 linearly independent solution. These equations reduce to the single
equation − x1 + 4 x2 = 0. Obviously x1 = 4, x2 = 1 is a solution of this equation.
4
Therefore X1 =   is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 6. The set of
1 
all eigenvectors of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 6 is given by c1X1 where c1 is any
non-zero scalar.
The eigenvectors X of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 1 are given by the non-zero
solutions of the equation
(A − 1I) X = O
4 4  x1  0 
or 1 1  x  = 0 
   2  
or 4 x1 + 4 x2 = 0 , x1 + x2 = 0 .
 1
From these x1 = − x2 . Let us take x1 = 1, x2 = − 1. Then X2 =   is an eigenvector of A
−1
corresponding to the eigenvalue 1. Every non-zero multiple of the vector X2 is an
eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 1.
Example 4: Determine the characteristic roots and the corresponding characteristic vectors of
the matrix
 8 −6 2
A = −6 7 −4.
 
 2 −4 3 (Purvanchal 2010; Bundelkhand 08;
Rohilkhand 05; Agra 07; Kanpur 09; Avadh 05)
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Solution: The characteristic equation of the matrix A is

| A − λI| = 0
8 − λ −6 2 
i. e.,  −6 7−λ −4  = 0
 
 2 −4 3 − λ
or (8 − λ ){(7 − λ )(3 − λ ) − 16} + 6 { −6 (3 − λ ) + 8} + 2 {24 − 2(7 − λ ) } = 0
or λ3 − 18 λ2 + 45 λ = 0
or λ (λ − 3) (λ − 15) = 0.
Hence the characteristic roots of A are 0, 3, 15.
The eigenvectors X = [ x1, x2 , x3 ]′ of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 0 are given by
the non-zero solutions of the equation
(A − 0I)X = O
 8 −6 2  x1  0 
or −6 7 −4  x2  = 0 
    
 2 −4 3  x3  0 
 2 −4 3  x1  0 
or −6 7 −4  x  = 0  , by R ←→ R
   2   1 3
 8 −6 2  x3  0 
2 −4 3  x1  0 
.or 0 −5 5  x  = 0  , by R → R + 3 R , R → R − 4 R
   2   2 2 1 3 3 1
0 10 −10   x3  0 
2 −4 3  x1  0 
or 0 −5 5  x  = 0  , by R → R + 2 R .
   2   3 3 2
0 0 0  x 0
 3   
3 − 2 = 1 linearly independent solution. Thus there is only one linearly independent
eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue 0. These equations can be written as
2 x1 − 4 x2 + 3 x3 = 0 , − 5 x2 + 5 x3 = 0 .
From the last equation, we get x2 = x3 . Let us take x2 = 1, x3 = 1. Then the first equation
1 1 ′
gives x1 = . Therefore X1 =  1 1 is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the
2 2 
eigenvalue 0. If c1 is any non-zero scalar, then c1X1 is also an eigenvector of A
corresponding to the eigenvalue 0.
The eigenvectors of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 3 are given by the non-zero
(A − 3 I)X = O
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 5 −6 2  x1  0 
or −6 4 −4  x  = 0 
   2  
 2 −4 0   x3  0 
 −1 −2 −2  x1  0 
or −6 4 −4  x  = 0  , by R → R + R
   2   1 1 2
 2 − 4 0 x 0
  3   
−1 −2 −2  x1  0 
 
or 0 16 8  x2  = 0  , by R2 → R2 − 6 R1, R3 → R3 + 2 R1
   
0 −8 −4  x3  0 

−1 −2 −2  x1  0 
  1
or 0 16 8  x2  = 0  , by R3 → R3 + R2 .
    2
0 0 0   x3  0 

3 − 2 = 1 linearly independent solution. These equations can be written as
− x1 − 2 x2 − 2 x3 = 0 , 16 x2 + 8 x3 = 0 .
1
From the second equation we get x2 = − x3 . Let us take x3 = 4, x2 = − 2. Then the first
2
equation gives x1 = − 4. Therefore X2 = [−4 − 2 4]′
is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 3. Every non-zero multiple of
the X2 is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 3.
(A − 15 I) X = O
8 − 15 −6 2   x1  0 
or  −6 7 − 15 −4   x  = 0 
   2  
 2 −4 3 − 15  x3  0 
−7 −6 2  x1  0 
or −6 −8 −4  x  = 0 
   2  
 2 −4 −12  x3  0 
 −1 2 6  x1  0 
or −6 −8 −4  x  = 0 , by R → R − R
   2   1 1 2
 2 −4 −12  x3  0 
−1 2 6  x1  0 
or 0 −40   x  = 0 , by

−20
  2   R2 → R2 − 6 R1, .
 0 0 0  x 0
 3    R3 → R3 + 2 R1.
3 − 2 = 1 linearly independent solution. These equations can be written as
− x1 + 2 x2 + 6 x3 = 0 , − 20 x2 − 40 x3 = 0 .
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The last equation gives x2 = − 2 x3 . Let us take x3 = 1, x2 = − 2. Then the first equation
gives x1 = 2. Therefore
X3 = [2 − 2 1]′
is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 15. If k is any non-zero scalar,
then kX3 is also an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 15.
Example 5: Determine the characteristic roots and the corresponding characteristic vectors of
the matrix
 6 −2 2

A = −2 3 −1.
 
 2 −1 3 (Meerut 2006B, 09; Purvanchal 07)
|A − λI| = 0
6 − λ −2 2 
 
or  −2 3−λ −1  = 0
 2 −1 3 − λ 

6 − λ −2 0 
 
or  −2 3−λ 2 − λ  = 0 , by C3 → C3 + C2
 2 −1 2 − λ 

6 − λ −2 0
 
or (2 − λ )  −2 3−λ 1 = 0
 2 −1 1

6 − λ −2 0
 
or (2 − λ )  −4 4−λ 0  = 0 , by R2 → R2 − R3
 2 −1 1

or (2 − λ ) [(6 − λ ) (4 − λ ) − 8] = 0
or (2 − λ ) (λ2 − 10 λ + 16) = 0
or (2 − λ ) (λ − 2) (λ − 8) = 0 .
Therefore the characteristic roots of A are given by λ = 2, 2, 8.
The characteristic vectors of A corresponding to the characteristic root 8 are given by
the non-zero solutions of the equation
(A − 8 I) X = O
6 − 8 −2 2   x1  0 
or  −2 3 − 8 −1   x  = 0 
   2  
 2 −1 3 − 8  x3  0 
−2 −2 2  x1  0 
or −2 −5 −1  x  = 0 
   2  
 2 −1 −5  x3  0 
L-140
−2 −2 2  x1  0 
or  0 −3 −3  x  = 0 , by R → R − R , R → R + R
   2   2 2 1 3 3 1
 0 −3 −3  x3  0 
−2 −2 2  x1  0 
or  0 −3 −3  x  = 0  , by R → R − R .
   2   3 3 2
 0 0 0  x 0
 3   
The coefficient matrix of these equations is of rank 2. Therefore these equations
possess 3 − 2 = 1 linearly independent solution. These equations can be written as
−2 x1 − 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 0 ,
−3 x2 − 3 x3 = 0 .
The last equation gives x2 = − x3 . Let us take x3 = 1, x2 = − 1. Then the first equation
 2
gives x1 = 2. Therefore X1 = −1  is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the
 
 1 
eigenvalue 8. Every non-zero multiple of X1 is an eigenvector of A corresponding to
the eigenvalue 8.
(A − 2 I) X = O
 4 −2 2  x1  0 
or −2 1 −1  x2  = 0 
    
 2 −1 1  x3  0 
−2 1 −1  x1  0 
or  4 −2 2  x  = 0  , by R ←→ R
   2   1 2
 2 −1 1  x3  0 
−2 1 −1  x1  0 
or  0 0 0  x  = 0  , by R → R + 2 R , R → R + R .
   2   2 2 1 3 3 1
 0 0 0   x3  0 
The coefficient matrix of these equations is of rank 1. Therefore these equations
possess 3 − 1 = 2 linearly independent solutions. We see that these equations reduce to
the single equation
−2 x1 + x2 − x3 = 0 .
−1   1
Obviously X2 =  0  , X3 =  2 
   
 2   0 
are two linearly independent solutions of this equation. Therefore X2 and X3 are two
linearly independent eigenvectors of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 2. If c1, c2 are
scalars not both equal to zero, then c1X2 + c2 X3 gives all the eigenvectors of A
corresponding to the eigenvalue 2.
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Example 6: Show that 0 is a characteristic root of a matrix if and only if the matrix is singular.
Solution: We have 0 is an eigenvalue of A ⇒ λ = 0 satisfies the equation
| A − λI| = 0 ⇒| A| = 0 ⇒ A is singular.
Conversely, A is singular ⇒| A| = 0
⇒ λ = 0 satisfies the equation | A − λI| = 0
⇒ 0 is an eigenvalue of A.
Example 7: If λ1, ........., λ n are the eigenvalues of A, then show that kλ1, ..., kλ n are the
eigenvalues of kA.
Solution: If k = 0, then kA = O and each eigenvalue of O is 0. Thus 0 λ1, ...., 0 λ n are the
eigenvalues of kA if λ1, ..., λ n are the eigenvalues of A.
So let us suppose that k ≠ 0.
We have | kA − λkI| = | k (A − λI)|
= k n | A − λI|. [∵ | kB| = k n | B|]
∴ if k ≠ 0, then | kA − λkI| = 0 if and only if | A − λI| = 0
i. e., kλ is an eigenvalue of kA if and only if λ is an eigenvalue of A.
Thus kλ1, ...., kλ n are the eigenvalues of kA if λ1, ..., λ n are eigenvalues of A.
Example 8: If A is non-singular, prove that the eigenvalues of A −1 are the reciprocals of the
eigenvalues of A.
Solution: Let λ be an eigenvalue of A and X be a corresponding eigenvector. Then
AX = λX
⇒ X = A −1 (λX) = λ(A −1X)
1
⇒ X = A − 1X [∵ A is non-singular ⇒ λ ≠ 0]
λ
1
⇒ A − 1X = X
λ
1
⇒ is an eigenvalue of A −1 and X is a corresponding eigenvector.
λ
Conversely suppose that k is an eigenvalue of A −1. Since A is non-singular ⇒ A −1 is
non-singular and (A −1)−1 = A, therefore, it follows from the first part of this question
1
that is an eigenvalue of A. Thus each eigenvalue of A −1 is equal to the reciprocal of
k
some eigenvalue of A.
Hence the eigenvalues of A −1 are nothing but the reciprocals of the eigenvalues of A.
Example 9: If the characteristic roots of A are λ1, λ 2 ,… λ n , then the characteristic roots of
A2 are λ12, λ 22 , …, λ n2 . (Kumaun 2008)
Solution: Let λ be a characteristic root of the matrix A. Then there exists a non-zero
vector X such that
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AX = λX
⇒ A (AX) = A (λX)
⇒ A2 X = λ (AX)
⇒ A2 X = λ (λX) [∵ AX = λ X]
⇒ A2 X = λ2 X. …(1)
Since X is a non-zero vector, therefore from the relation (1) it is obvious that λ2 is a
characteristic root of the matrix A2 . Therefore if λ1, …, λ n are the characteristic roots
2 2
of A, then λ1 , … , λ n are the characteristic roots of A2 .
Example 10: The characteristic roots of an idempotent matrix are either zero or unity.
Solution: Let A be an idempotent matrix so that A2 = A. Let λ be a characteristic root
of the matrix A. Then there exists a non-zero vector X such that
AX = λX …(1)
⇒ A (AX) = A (λX)
⇒ A2 X = λ (AX)
⇒ AX = λ (λX) [∵ A2 = A and AX = λX]
⇒ AX = λ2 X. ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we get
λ2 X = λX
or (λ2 − λ ) X = O
or λ2 − λ = 0 [∵ X ≠ O]
or λ (λ − 1) = 0 .
∴ λ =0 or λ = 1.
Hence the characteristic roots of an idempotent matrix are either zero or unity.
Example 11: The product of the characteristic roots of a square matrix of order n is equal to the
determinant of the matrix.
Solution: Let A = [aij ]n × n be a square matrix of order n. Then the characteristic
polynomial f (λ ) of A is given by
f (λ ) = | A − λI|
a11 − λ a12 … a1n
a22 a22 − λ … a2 n
=
… … … …
an1 an2 … ann − λ
= (− 1)n [λ n + p1 λ n − 1 + p2 λ n − 2 + …+ pn], say.

If λ1, λ 2 , …, λ n are the characteristic roots of A, then λ1, λ 2 , …, λ n are the roots of the
equation | A − λI| = 0.
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∴ | A − λI| = (− 1)n [λ n + p1λ n − 1 + p2 λ n− 2 + … + pn]

= (− 1)n (λ − λ1) (λ − λ 2 ) … (λ − λ n). …(1)
Putting λ = 0 on both sides of (1), we get
| A| = (− 1)n (− λ1) (− λ 2 ) …(− λ n)
= (− 1)n (− 1)n λ1 λ 2 … λ n
= (− 1)2 n λ1 λ 2… λ n
= λ1 λ 2 … λ n
Hence λ1 λ 2 … λ n = | A|.
Example 12: Any two characteristic vectors corresponding to two distinct characteristic roots
of a:
(i) Hermitian, (ii) Real symmetric, (iii) Unitary matrix are orthogonal.
Solution : (i) A is Hermitian:
We have A θ = A.
Also, we have
AX 1 = λ1 X 1 and AX2 = λ 2 X2
θ θ θ θ
or λ1 X1 (X2 )θ = λ 2 X1 X2 ; [λ1 is real ⇒ λ1 = λ1]
θ θ
or λ1X1 X2 = λ 2 X 1 X2
θ
or (λ1 − λ 2 ) X1 X2 = O.
Since λ1 − λ 2 ≠ 0 , we have
θ
X1 X2 = O.
⇒ X1 and X2 are orthogonal with respect to each other.
(ii) A is real symmetric: The real symmetric matrix is always Hermitian, so the result
follows at once from (i).
(iii) A is unitary: We have A θ A = I.
Now, AX1 = λ1X1 and AX2 = λ 2 X2 ,
where λ1, λ 2 are characteristic roots of a unitary matrix which must be uni-modular
i. e., λ1λ1 = 1, λ 2 λ 2 = 1.
Now, AX2 = λ 2 X2
⇒ (AX2 )θ = (λ 2 X2 )θ
θ θ
⇒ X2 A θ = λ 2 A2
θ θ θ
⇒ X2 A θ AX1 = λ 2 X2 λ1 X1 = λ 2 λ1 X2 X1
Again A θ A = I, hence we get
θ θ
X2 X1 = λ 2 λ1 X2 X1
θ
⇒ (1 − λ 2 λ1) X2 X1 = O.
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But λ 2 λ1 ≠ 1 ; so 1 − λ 2 λ1 ≠ 0 .
θ
This implies that X2 X1 = O ⇒ X1 and X2 are orthogonal.
Example 13: Show that the two matrices A, C−1AC have the same characteristic roots.
(Lucknow 2005, 07)
−1
Solution: Let B = C AC.
Then B − λI = C−1AC − λI
= C−1AC − C−1λIC [∵ C−1(λI) C = λC−1C = λI ]
= C−1(A − λI) C.
∴ | B − λI| = |C−1|| A − λI||C|
= | A − λI|| C−1||C|
= | A − λI||C−1C|
= | A − λI|| I|
= | A − λI|.
Thus the two matrices A and B have the same characteristic determinants and hence
the same characteristic equations and the same characteristic roots.
6 The Cayley-Hamilton Theorem

Every square matrix satisfies its characteristic equation i.e., if for a square matrix A of order n,
| A − λI| = (−1)n [λ n + a1λ n − 1 + a2 λ n − 2 + … + an],
then the matrix equation X n + a1X n − 1 + a2 X n − 2 + a3 X n − 3 + … anI = O
is satisfied by X = A i. e., A n + a1A n − 1 + a2 A n − 2 + … + anI = O.

(Meerut 2000, 03, 05B, 06B, 09B, 10B; Rohilkhand 05, 08; Agra 07;
Avadh 05; Purvanchal 08; Lucknow 08, 09)
Proof: Since the elements of A − λI are at most of the first degree in λ, the elements of
Adj (A − λI) are ordinary polynomials in λ of degree n − 1 or less. Therefore Adj
(A − λI) can be written as a matrix polynomial in λ, given by
Adj (A − λI) = B0 λ n − 1 + B1λ n − 2 + … + B n − 2 λ + B n − 1,
where B0 , B1, ..., B n − 1 are matrices of the type n × n whose elements are functions of
aij’s.
Now (A − λI) Adj. (A − λI) = | A − λI| I. [∵ A . Adj A = | A| In| ]
∴ (A − λI) (B0 λ n − 1 + B1λ n − 2 + … + B n − 2 λ + B n − 1)
= (−1)n [λ n + a1λ n − 1 + … + an] I .

Comparing coefficients of like powers of λ on both sides, we get
− IB0 = (−1)n I,
L- 145
AB0 − IB1 = (−1)n a1I,

AB1 − IB2 = (−1)n a2 I,
..................................
..................................
AB n − 1 = (−1)n anI.
Pre-multiplying these successively by A n, A n −1, ..., I and adding, we get

O = (−1)n [A n + a1A n − 1 + a2 A n − 2 + … + anI].
Thus A n + a1A n − 1 + a2 A n − 2 + … + an − 1 A + anI = O. ...(1)
Corollary 1: If A be a non-singular matrix, then | A| ≠ 0 . Also | A| = (−1)n an and

therefore an ≠ 0.
Pre-multiplying (1) by A −1, we get
A n − 1 + a1A n − 2 + a2 A n − 3 + … + an − 1 I + anA −1 = O
or A −1 = − (1 / an) [A n−1 + a1A n−2 + … + an−1 I].

Corollary 2: If m be a positive integer such that m ≥ n, then multiplying the result (1)
by A m − n, we get
A m + a1A m − 1 + … + anA m − n = O,
showing that any positive integral power A m (m ≥ n) of A is linearly expressible in terms
of those of lower order.
 2 −1 1
Example 14: Find the characteristic equation of the matrix A = −1 2 −1 and verify that
 
 1 −1 2
it is satisfied by A and hence obtain A −1.
(Meerut 2002, 05; Bundelkhand 05, 08, 10, 11;
Kanpur 10; Lucknow 05,11; Gorakhpur 15; Kumaun 15)
Solution: We have
2 − λ −1 1 

| A − λI| = −1 2 − λ −1 
 
 1 −1 2 − λ
= (2 − λ ){(2 − λ )2 − 1} + 1{ −1(2 − λ ) + 1} + 1{ 1 − (2 − λ )}
= (2 − λ ) (3 − 4 λ + λ2 ) + (λ − 1) + (λ − 1)
= − λ3 + 6 λ2 − 9 λ + 4.
∴ the characteristic equation of the matrix A is
L-146
λ3 − 6 λ2 + 9 λ − 4 = 0 .
We are now to verify that
A3 − 6 A2 + 9 A − 4 I = O. ...(1)
1 0 0  2 −1 1
   
We have I = 0 1 0  , A = −1 2 −1,
0 0 1  1 −1 2
 
 6 −5 5
2  
A = A × A = −5 6 −5,
 5 −5 6

 22 −21 21
3 
2 
A = A A = −21 22 −21.
 21 −21 22

Now we can verify that
A3 − 6 A2 + 9A − 4I
 22 −21 21  6 −5 5
   
= −21 22 −21 − 6 −5 6 −5
 21 −21 22  5 −5 6
 
 2 −1 1 1 0 0
   
+ 9 −1 2 −1 − 4 0 1 0
 1 −1 2 0 0 1
 
0 0 0
 
= 0 0 0 .
0 0 0 

Multiplying (1) by A −1, we get

A2 − 6 A + 9 I − 4 A −1 = O.
1 2
∴ A −1 = (A − 6 A + 9 I)
4
Now A2 − 6 A + 9 I
 6 −5 5 −12 6 −6 9 0 0
     
= −5 6 −5 +  6 −12 6 + 0 9 0
 5 −5 6  −6 6 −12 0 0 9

 3 1 −1
 
= 1 3 1 .
−1 1 3

L- 147
 3 1 −1
−1 1 
∴ A =  1 3 1.
4
−1 1 3

1 0 2
 
Example 15: Obtain the characteristic equation of the matrix A = 0 2 1 and verify that
2 0 3

it is satisfied by A and hence find its inverse.
(Meerut 2001, 10B; Bundelkhand 09, 11;
Kanpur 07; Kumaun 07; Purvanchal 10; Lucknow 07, 10; Gorakhpur 12)
Solution: We have
1 − λ 0 2 
 
| A − λI| =  0 2−λ 1 
 2 0 3 − λ 

= (1 − λ )(2 − λ ) (3 − λ ) + 2 [0 − 2 (2 − λ )]
= (2 − λ ) [(1 − λ ) (3 − λ ) − 4]
= (2 − λ ) [λ2 − 4 λ − 1]
= − (λ3 − 6 λ2 + 7 λ + 2).
∴ the characteristic equation of A is
λ3 − 6 λ2 + 7 λ + 2 = 0 . …(1)
By the Cayley-Hamilton theorem
A3 − 6 A2 + 7 A + 2 I = O. ...(2)
Verification of (2). We have
1 0 2 1 0 2 5 0 8
2      
A = 0 2 1 × 0 2 1 = 2 4 5 .
2 0 3 2 0 3 8 0 13
   
Also A3 = A . A2
1 0 2 5 0 8
   
= 0 2 1 × 2 4 5
2 0 3 8 0 13

21 0 34
 
= 12 8 23 .
34 0 55

Now A 3 − 6 A 2 + 7 A + 2I
21 0 34 5 0 8 1 0 2 1 0 0
       
= 12 8 23 − 6 2 4 5  + 7 0 2 1 + 2 0 1 0
34 0 55 8 0 13 2 0 3 0 0 1
   
L-148
21 0 34 30 0 48  7 0 14 2 0 0

       
= 12 8 23 − 12 24 30  +  0 14 7  + 0 2 0
34 0 55 48 0 78 14 0 21 0 0 2

30 0 48 30 0 48

   
= 12 24 30  − 12 24 30 
48 0 78 48 0 78

0 0 0
 
= 0 0 0  = O.
0 0 0 

Hence Cayley-Hamilton theorem is verified. Now we shall compute A −1.
Multiplying (2) by A −1, we get
A 2 − 6 A + 7I + 2 A − 1 = O.
1 2
∴ A −1 = − (A − 6 A + 2I )
2
−3 0 2
 1 1
=  −1 .
2 2
 2 0 −1

 0 c − b
 
Example 16: Show that the matrix A = − c 0 a satisfies Cayley-Hamilton theorem.
 b −a 0  (Meerut 2006B; Kumaun 09)

Solution: We have
0 − λ c −b 
 
| A − λI | =  − c 0−λ a 
 b −a 0 − λ 

= − λ (λ2 + a2 ) − c (cλ − ab) − b (ac + bλ )
= − λ3 − λ (a2 + b2 + c 2 ).
∴ The characteristic equation of the matrix A is
λ3 + λ (a2 + b2 + c 2 ) = 0 .
We are to verify that
A 3 + (a2 + b2 + c 2 ) A = O.
 0 c − b  0 c − b
2    
We have A = − c 0 a × − c 0 a
 b −a 0   b −a 0 

L- 149
 − c 2 − b2 ab ac 
 2 2 
= ab −c − a bc  .
 ac bc − b2 − a2 
 
∴ A 3 = A 2A
 − c 2 − b2 ab ac   0 c − b
 2 2   
= ab −c − a bc  × − c 0 a
 ac bc − b2 − a2   b −a 0 

 0 − c 3 − b2 c − a2 c bc 2 + b3 + a2 b
 3 
=  c + a c + b2 c
2
0 − ab2 − ac 2 − a3 
− bc 2 − b3 − a2 b ac + ab2 + a3
2
0 
 
 0 c − b
2 2  2 
= − (a + b + c ) − c 0 a
 b −a 0 

= − (a2 + b2 + c 2 )A.
∴ A3 + (a2 + b2 + c 2 ) A = − (a2 + b2 + c 2 )A + (a2 + b2 + c 2 )A

= 0 A = O.
Hence A satisfies Cayley-Hamilton theorem.
1 2 0
 
Example 17: Find the characteristic equation of the matrix A = 2 −1 0  and hence find
0 0 −1

−1
A . (Rohilkhand 2009, 10; Kumaun 11, 14)
Solution: The characteristic equation of the matrix A is
| A − λI| = 0
1 − λ 2 0 
 
or  2 −1 − λ 0  =0
 0 0 −1 − λ 

or (1 − λ )(− 1 − λ ) (−1 − λ ) − 2 [2 (−1 − λ )] = 0
or (1 − λ ) (1 + λ )2 + 4 (1 + λ ) = 0
or (1 − λ )(1 + 2 λ + λ2 ) + 4 + 4 λ = 0
or 1 + 2 λ + λ2 − λ − 2 λ2 − λ3 + 4 + 4 λ = 0
or − λ3 − λ2 + 5 λ + 5 = 0
or λ3 + λ2 − 5 λ − 5 = 0 . ...(1)
Now by Cayley-Hamilton theorem the matrix A must satisfy its characteristic
equation (1). Therefore we have
L-150
A 3 + A2 − 5A − 5I = O
or 5I = A3 + A2 − 5 A ...(2)
−1
Pre-multiplying both sides of (2) by A , we have
5 A −1I = A −1A3 + A −1A2 − 5 A −1A

or 5 A −1 = A2 + A − 5 I
1 2
or A −1 = (A + A − 5 I ) …(3)
5
1 2 0  1 2 0 5 0 0
2     
Now A = 2 −1 0  2 −1 0 = 0 5 0 .
0 0 −1 0 0 −1 0 0 1
 
5 0 0  1 2 0  5 0 0
2      
∴ A + A − 5 I = 0 5 0  + 2 −1 0  − 0 5 0
0 0 1 0 0 −1 0 0 5

1 2 0
 
= 2 −1 0 .
0 0 −5

1 2 0
−1 1 
Hence from (3), A = 2 −1 0 .
5
0 0 −5

Example 18: State Cayley-Hamilton theorem. Use it to express 2 A5 − 3 A4 + A2 − 4 I as a

 3 1
linear polynomial inA, when A =  .
−1 2 (Lucknow 2005)
Solution: Statement of Cayley-Hamilton Theorem. Every square matrix satisfies
its characteristic equation.
Now let us find the characteristic equation of the matrix A. We have
3−λ 1
| A − λI| = = (3 − λ ) (2 − λ ) + 1
−1 2−λ
= λ2 − 5 λ + 7.
The characteristic equation of A is | A − λI| = 0 i.e., is
λ2 − 5 λ + 7 = 0 ...(1)
By Cayley-Hamilton theorem,the matrix A must satisfy (1). Therefore we have
A2 − 5 A + 7 I = O. …(2)
From (2), we get
A2 = 5 A − 7 I … (3)
Multiplying both sides of (3) by A, we get
L- 151
A3 = 5 A2 − 7 A …(4)
∴ A4 = 5 A3 − 7 A2 …(5)
5 4 3
and A = 5A − 7A …(6)
5
Now 2A − 3 A4 + A 2 − 4 I = 2 (5 A4 − 7 A3 ) − 3 A4 + A2 − 4 I
[Substituting for A5 from (6)]
= 7 A4 − 14 A3 + A2 − 4 I
= 7 (5 A3 − 7 A2 ) − 14 A3 + A2 − 4 I [By (5)]
3 2
= 21A − 48 A − 4 I
= 21 (5 A2 − 7 A) − 48 A2 − 4 I [By (4)]
2
= 57 A − 147 A − 4 I
= 57 (5 A − 7 I) − 147 A − 4 I [By (3)]
= 138 A − 403 I, which is a linear polynomial in A.
7 Diagonalization of Square Matrices with Distinct Eigen

Values
Similarity of Matrices: Definition: Let A and B be square matrices of order n. Then B is
said to be similar to A if there exists a non-singular matrix P such that
B = P–1AP.
Theorem 1: Similarity of matrices is an equivalence relation.
Theorem 2: Similar matrices have the same determinant.
Theorem 3: Similar matrices have the same characteristic polynomial and hence the same
eigenvalues. If X is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue λ , then P–1X is an
eigenvector of B corresponding to the eigenvalue λ, where
B = P–1AP.
Corollary: If A is similar to a diagonal matrix D , the diagonal elements of D are the eigenvalues
of A.
Diagonalizable matrix: Definition: A matrix A is said to be diagonalizable if it is similar
to a diagonal matrix.
Thus a matrix A is diagonalizable if there exists an invertible matrix P such that
P-1AP = D where D is a diagonal matrix. Also the matrix P is then said to diagonalize A
or transform A to diagonal form.
Theorem 1: An n × n matrix is diagonalizable if and only if it possesses n linearly independent
eigenvectors.
Proof: Suppose A is diagonalizable. Then A is similar to a diagonal matrix D = dia.
[λ1, λ 2 ,…, λ n].Therefore there exists an invertible matrix P = [X1, X 2, …, X n ] such that
L-152
P−1AP = D
i. e., AP = PD
i. e., A[X1, X 2, …, X n ] = [X1, X 2, …, X n ] dia.[λ1, λ 2 ,…, λ n]
i. e, [AX1, AX2 ,…, AX n] = [λ1X1, λ 2 X2 ,…, λ nX n]
i. e., AX1 = λ1X1, AX2 = λ 2 X2 ,…, AX n = λ nX n.
Therefore X1, X 2, …, X n are eigenvectors of A corresponding to the eigenvalues
λ1, λ 2 ,…, λ n respectively. Since the matrix P is non-singular, therefore its column
vectors X1, X 2,…, X n are linearly independent. Hence A possesses n linearly
independent eigenvectors.
Conversely, suppose that A possesses n linearly independent eigenvectors
X1, X 2, …, X n and let λ1, λ 2 ,…, λ n be the corresponding eigenvalues. Then
AX1 = λ1X1, AX2 = λ 2 X2 ,…, AX n = λ nX n.
Let P = [X1, X2 ,…, X n] and D = dia. [λ1, λ 2 ,..., λ n].
Then AP = [X1, X 2 ,…, X n] = [AX1, AX2 ,…, AX n]
= [λ1X1, λ 2 X2 ,…, λ nX n]
= [X1, X2 ,…, X n] dia. [λ1, λ 2 ,…, λ n] = PD.
Since the column vectors X1 , X2 ,…, X n of the matrix P are linearly independent,
therefore X is invertible and X −1 exists.
Therefore AP = PD
⇒ P−1AP = P−1PD
⇒ P−1AP = D
⇒ A is similar to a diagonal matrix D
⇒ A is diagonalizable.
Remark: In the proof of the above theorem we have shown that if A is diagonalizable
and P diagonalizes A, then
 λ1 0 … 0
 
−1  0 λ2 … 0
P AP = =D
… … … …
 
 0 0 … λ n
if and only if the j th column of P is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue

λ j of A, ( j = 1, 2,…, n). The diagonal elements of D are the eigenvalues of A and they
occur in the same order as is the order of their corresponding eigenvectors in the
column vectors of P.
Theorem 2: If the eigenvalues of an n × n matrix are all distinct then it is always similar to a
diagonal matrix.
Proof: Let A be a square matrix of order n and suppose it has n distinct eigenvalues
λ1, λ 2 ,.…, λ n. We know that eigenvectors of a matrix corresponding to distinct
L- 153
eigenvalues are linearly independent. Therefore A has n linearly independent

eigenvectors and so it is similar to a diagonal matrix
D = dia. [λ1, λ 2 ,…, λ n].
Corollary: Two n × n matrices with the same set of n distinct eigenvalues are similar.
Proof: Suppose A and B are two n × n matrices with the same set of n distinct
eigenvalues λ1, λ 2 ,…, λ n. Let D = dia. [λ1, λ 2 ,…, λ n]. Then both A and B are similar to
D. Now A is similar to D and D is similar to B implies that A is similar to B.
Note that the relation of similarity is transitive.
Theorem 3: The necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix to be similar to a
diagonal matrix is that the geometric multiplicity of each of its eigenvalues coincides with the
algebraic multiplicity.
Proof: The condition is necessary. Suppose A is similar to a diagonal matrix D = dia.
[λ1, λ 2 ,…, λ n]. Then λ1, λ 2 ,…, λ n are the eigenvalues of A and there exists a
non-singular matrix P such that
P−1AP = D.
Let α be an eigenvalue of A of algebraic multiplicity k. Then exactly k among
λ1, λ 2 ,…, λ n, are equal to α.
Let m = rank (A − αI). Then the system of equations
(A − αI) X = O
have n − m linearly independent solutions and so n − m will be the geometric
multiplicity of α . We are to prove that k = n − m. We know that the rank of a matrix
does not change on multiplication by a non-singular matrix. Therefore
rank (A − αI) = rank [P−1 (A − αI)P]
= rank [P−1AP − αI]
= rank [D − αI] = rank dia. [λ1 − α, λ 2 − α,…, λ n − α]
= n − k , since exactly k elements of dia. [λ1 − α, λ 2 − α,…, λ n − α]
are equal to zero.
Thus rank (A − αI) = m = n − k. Therefore k = n − m.
Thus there are exactly k linearly independent eigenvectors corresponding to the
eigenvalue α.
The condition is sufficient. Suppose that the geometric multiplicity of each
eigenvalue of A is equal to its algebraic multiplicity. Let λ1,…, λ p be the set of p distinct
eigenvalues of A with respective multiplicities r1,…, rp . We have
r1 + … + rp = n.
To prove that A is diagonalizable.
C11, C12 , …, C1r 
1
… … … …

Let ...(1)
… … … …

Cp1, Cp2 , …, Cprp 

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be linearly independent sets of eigenvectors corresponding to the eigenvalues

λ1,…, λ p respectively. We claim that the n vectors given in (1) are linearly
independent. Let
(a11C11 + a12 C12 + … + a1r C1r ) + … + (ap1Cp1 + … + aprp Cprp ) = O …(2)
1 1
The relation (3) may be written as
X1 + X2 + … + X p = O, ...(3)
where X1, X2 ,…, X p denote the vectors written within brackets in (2) i. e.,
X1 = a11C11 + … + a1r C1r , and so on.
1 1
Now X1is a linear combination of eigenvectors of A corresponding to the eigenvalue λ1.
Therefore if X1 ≠ O, then X1 is also an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue
λ1 .
Similarly we can speak for X2 ,…, X p.
In case some one of X1,…, X p is not zero, then the relation (3) implies that a system of
eigenvectors of A corresponding to distinct eigenvalues of A is linearly dependent. But
this is not possible. Hence each of the vectors X1, X2…, X p must be zero.
Since C11, C12 ,…, C1r is a set of linearly independent vectors, therefore
1
O = X1 = a11 C11 + … + a1r C1r implies that
1 1
a11 = 0 ,…, a1r = 0 .
1
Similarly we can show that each of the scalars in relation (2) is zero. Therefore the n
vectors give in (1) are linearly independent. Thus A has n linearly independent
eigenvectors. So it is similar to a diagonal matrix.
Example 19: Show that the rank of every matrix similar to A is the same as that of A.
Solution: Let B be a matrix similar to A. Then there exists a non-singular matrix P such
that B = P−1AP. We know that the rank of a matrix does not change on multiplication
by a non-singular matrix.
Therefore, rank (P−1AP) = rank A ⇒ rank B = rank A.
Example 20: If U be a unitary matrix such that Uθ AU = diag [λ1,…, λ n], show that λ1,…, λ n
are the eigenvalues of A.
Solution: Let diag [λ1,…, λ n] = D. Since U is unitary, therefore Uθ = U−1. So
Uθ AU = D ⇒ U−1AU = D.
Thus A is similar to the diagonal matrix D. But similar matrices have the same
eigenvalues and eigenvalues of D are its diagonal elements. Therefore λ1,…, λ n are the
eigenvalues of A.
Example 21: Prove that if A is similar to a diagonal matrix, then AT is similar to A.

L- 155
Solution: Suppose A is similar to a diagonal matrix D. Then there exists a non-singular

matrix P such that
P−1 AP = D
⇒ A = P D P−1
⇒ AT = (P D P−1)T = (P−1)T DT PT
⇒ AT = (PT )−1 D PT [∵ D is diagonal ⇒ DT = D]
⇒ AT is similar to D
⇒ D is similar to AT .
Finally A is similar to D and D is similar to AT implies that A is similar to AT .
Example 22: Show that a non-zero matrix is nilpotent if and only if all its eigenvalues are equal
to zero.
Solution: Suppose A ≠ O and A is nilpotent. Then
A r = O, for some positive integer r
⇒ the polynomial λ r annihilates A
⇒ the minimal polynomial m(λ ) of A divides λ r
⇒ m(λ ) is of the type λ s , where s is some positive integer
⇒ 0 is the only root of m(λ )
⇒ 0 is the only eigenvalue of A
⇒ all eigenvalues of A are zero.
Conversely, each eigenvalue of A = 0
⇒ characteristic equation of A is λ n = 0
⇒ A n = O, since A satisfies its characteristic equation
⇒ A is nilpotent.
Note: A non-zero matrix A is said to be nilpotent, if for some positive integer r,

A r = O.
 1 2 −2
 
Example 23: A square matrix A is defined by A =  1 2 1.
−1 −1 0 

Find the modal matrix P and the resulting diagonal matrix D of A.

1− λ 2 −2
1 2−λ 1 =0
−1 −1 0−λ
or (1 − λ )(−2 λ + λ2 + 1) − 2 (− λ + 1) − 2(− 1 + 2 − λ ) = 0
L-156
or (− λ + 1)(λ − 1)2 + (4 λ − 4) = 0
or (− λ + 1)(λ + 1)(λ − 3) = 0
The roots of this equation are 1, − 1, 3.
The eigenvectors X of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 1 are given by the equation
(A − 1 I) X = O
or (A − I) X = O
0 2 −2  x  0 
    
or  1 1 1  y = 0 
−1 −1 −1  z  0 
    
0 2 −2  x  0 
    
or 1 1 1  y = 0 , by R3 → R3 + R1
0 0 0   z  0 
  
The coefficient matrix of these equations is of rank 2. So these equations have 1
linearly independent solution. These equations can be written as
0 x + 2 y − 2z = 0 , x + y + z = 0
From these, we get y = z = 1, say. Then x = − 2.
−2
 
Therefore X1 =  1 is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 1.
 1
 
Now the eigenvectors of A corresponding to the eigenvalues −1 are given by
(A + I) X = O
 2 2 −2  x  0 
    
i. e.,  1 3 1  y = 0 
−1 −1 1  z  0 

2 2 −2  x  0 
    
or 1 3 1  y = 0  , by R3 → 2 R3 + R1
0 0 0   z  0 
  
The coefficient matrix of these equations is of rank 2. So these equations have 1
linearly independent solution.
These equations can be written as
2 x + 2 y − 2z = 0 , x + 3 y + z = 0
−2 
 
Let us take z = − 1 , then y = 1 and x = − 2. Therefore, X2 =  1 
 −1 
 
is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue −1.
Now the eigenvectors of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 3 are given by
L- 157
(A − 3 I) X = O
−2 2 −2  x  0 
    
i. e.,  1 −1 1  y = 0 
 −1 −1 −3  z  0 
    
−2 2 −2  x  0 
    
or  −1 −1 −3  y = 0  , R2 ↔ R3
 1 −1 1  z  0 

Similarly, we have x = 2, y = 1, z = − 1.
 2
 
Therefore X3 =  1
−1
 
is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 3.
Let modal matrix
−2 −2 2
 
P = [X1, X2 , X3 ] =  1 1 1
 1 −1 1

 0 −4 −4
−1 Adj P 1 
∴ P = =−  2 0 4 .
|P | 8
−2 −4 0 

The matrix P will transform A to diagonal form D which is given by the relation
1 0 0
−1  
P A P = 0 −1 0  = D .
0 0 3

8 −8 − 2
 
Example 24: Show that the matrix A = 4 −3 − 2
3 −4 1

is diagonalizable. Also find the transforming matrix and diagonal matrix.
8−λ −8 −2
4 −3 − λ −2 =0
3 −4 1− λ
1− λ −1 + λ −1 + λ
or 4 −3 − λ −2 = 0 , applying R1 − ( R2 + R3 )
3 −4 1− λ
L-158
1 −1 −1
or (1 − λ ) 4 −3 − λ −2 =0
3 −4 1− λ
1 0 0
or (1 − λ ) 4 1− λ 2 = 0 , applying C2 + C1, C3 + C1
3 −1 4−λ
or (1 − λ )[(1 − λ )(4 − λ ) + 2] = 0
or (1 − λ )(λ2 − 5 λ + 6) = 0
or (1 − λ )(λ − 2)(λ − 3) = 0 .
The roots of this equation are 1, 2, 3.
Since the eigenvalues of the matrix A are all distinct, therefore A is similar to a diagonal
matrix. Since the algebraic multiplicity of each eigenvalue of A is 1, therefore there will
be one and only one linearly independent eigenvector of A corresponding to each
eigenvalue of A.
(A − 1I) X = O or (A − I) X = O
7 −8 −2  x1  0 
    
or 4 −4 −2  x2  = 0 
3 −4 0   x3  0 
  
 7 −8 −2  x1  0 
    
or −3 4 0   x2  = 0 , by R2 → R2 − R1
 3 −4 0   x3  0 

 7 −8 −2  x1  0 
    
or −3 4 0   x2  = 0 , by R3 → R3 + R2.
 0 0 0   x3  0 

The matrix of coefficients of these equations has rank 2. Therefore these equations
have only one linearly independent solution as it should have been because the
algebraic multiplicity of the eigenvalue 1 is 1. Note that the geometric multiplicity
cannot exceed the algebraic multiplicity. The above equations can be written as
7 x1 − 8 x2 − 2 x3 = 0 , − 3 x1 + 4 x2 = 0 . From the last equation, we get x1 = 4, x2 = 3.
4
 
Then the first gives x3 = 2. Therefore X1 = 3 is an eigenvector of A corresponding to
2
 
the eigenvalue 1.
(A − 2 I) X = O
L- 159
6 −8 −2  x1  0 
    
or 4 −5 −2  x2  = 0 
3 −4 −1  x3  0 

 6 −8 −2  x1  0 
    
or −2 3 0   x2  = 0  , applying R2 → R3 − R1,
 0 0 0   x3  0  1
 R3 → R3 − R1.
2
These equations can be written as 6 x1 − 8 x2 − 2 x3 = 0 , − 2 x1 + 3 x2 = 0 . From these, we
get x1 = 3, x2 = 2, x3 = 1.
3
 
Therefore X2 = 2 is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 2.
1
 
(A − 3 I) X =O
5 −8 −2  x1  0 
    
or 4 −6 −2  x2  = 0 
3 −4 −2  x3  0 

 5 −8 −2  x1  0 
    
or −1 2 0   x2  = 0  , applying R2 → R2 − R1,
0 0 0   x3  0  R3 → R3 + R1 − 2 R2 .

These equations can be written as
5 x1 − 8 x2 − 2 x3 = 0 , − x1 + 2 x2 = 0 .
From these, we get x1 = 2, x2 = 1, x3 = 1.
2
 
∴ X3 = 1 is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue 3.
1
 
Let P = [X1 X2 X3 ]
4 3 2
 
= 3 2 1.
2 1 1
 
The columns of P are linearly independent eigenvectors of A corresponding to the
eigenvalues 1, 2, 3 respectively. The matrix P will transform A to diagonal form D
which is given by the relation
1 0 0 
−1  
P A P = 0 2 0  = D.
0 0 3
 
L-160
1. (i) State Cayley-Hamilton theorem.

(Bundelkhand 2005; Agra 05; Lucknow 07; Gorakhpur 11)
1 2 3
(ii) Find the characteristic roots of the matrix A = 0 −4 2.
 
0 0 7
(Meerut 2009 B; Gorakhpur 10)
2. (i) If a + b + c = 0, find the characteristic roots of the matrix
a c b
 
A = c b a.
b a c 
 (Kumaun 2008; Kanpur 07, 08)
(ii) Prove that the matrices :
0 a b 0 b a
   
A = a 0 c  and B = b 0 c
b c 0  a c 0 
 
have same characteristic equation.
(Rohilkhand 2007; Purvanchal 06; Agra 05)
(iii) Verify that the matrices
0 h g  0 f h  0 g f 
A= h 0 f , B =  f 0 g , C =  g 0 h
     
 g f 0   h g 0   f h 0 
have the same characteristic equation
λ3 − ( f 2
+ g2 + h2 ) λ − 2 fgh = 0 .
1 1
3. (i) Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for matrix A, where A =  .
1 1
(Rohilkhand 2011)
(ii) Verify that the matrix A satisfies its characteristic equation, where
 1 2
A= .
−1 3
Express A6 − 4 A5 + 8 A4 − 12 A3 + 14 A2 as a linear polynomial in A.
(Gorakhpur 2014)
 1 2
(iii) Determine the characteristic roots for the matrix  
2 1 (Kumaun 2014)
L- 161
 1 4
4. Find the characteristic roots of the matrix A =   and verify Cayley-
2 3
Hamilton theorem for this matrix. Find the inverse of the matrix A and also
express A 5 − 4 A 4 − 7 A 3 + 11A 2 − A − 10 I as a linear polynomial in A .
(Gorakhpur 2011)
1 2 1
5. Verify that the matrix A = 0 1 −1 satisfies its characteristic equation and
 
3 −1 1
compute A −1. (Purvanchal 2009)
 1 1 3
6. Find the characteristic roots of the matrix A =  5 2 6 and verify
 
−2 −1 −3
Cayley-Hamilton theorem. (Agra 2008; Bundelkhand 11; Meerut 09B)
7. Determine the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix

 1 0 −2
A= 0 0 0 .
 
−2 0 4 (Kumaun 2008)
2 2 1
8. Show that the matrix A =  1 3 1 satisfies Cayley-Hamilton theorem.
 
 1 2 2
Also determine the characteristic roots (i. e., latent roots) and the corresponding
characteristic vectors of the matrix A. (Meerut 2007)
 0 0 1
9. Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix A =  3 1 0 .
 
−2 1 4
Hence or otherwise evaluate A −1.

(Meerut 2003, 09; Avadh 05; Kumaun 11)
1 3 7
10. Find the characteristic equation of the matrix A = 4 2 3 and show that
 
0 2 1
it is satisfied by A. Hence obtain the inverse of the given matrix A.
 1 2 1
11. Verify that the matrix A = −1 0 3 satisfies its own characteristic
 
 2 −1 1
equation. Is it true of every square matrix? State the theorem that applies here.
L-162
12. Verify Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the following matrix :

1 0 2
A = 0 −1 1 .
 
0 1 0  (Avadh 2008)
13. Find the characteristic roots and the characteristic spaces of the matrix
 1 2 3
0 2 3 .
 
0 0 2 (Meerut 2005; Rohilkhand 07)
14. Show that the characteristic roots of a triangular matrix are just the diagonal
elements of the matrix. (Gorakhpur 2011)
15. Let A and B be n-rowed square matrices and let A be non-singular. Show that
the matrices A −1B and BA −1 have the same eigenvalues.
16. If A and B are non-singular matrices of order n, show that the matrices AB and
BA are similar.
17. A and B are two n × n matrices with the same set of n distinct eigenvalues.
Show that there exist two matrices P and Q (one of them non-singular) such that
A = PQ, B = QP.
18. Prove that a non-zero nilpotent matrix cannot be similar to a diagonal matrix.
4 1
19. Find a matrix P which diagonalizes the matrix A =  . Verify that
2 3
P−1 AP = D, where D is the diagonal matrix.
1 −1 2
 
20. Reduce the matrix A = 0 2 −1 to diagonal form.
0 0 3

A nswers 1
1 /2
3
1. (ii) 1, –4, 7 2. (i) λ = 0, ±  ( a2 + b2 + c2 )
2 
3. (ii) −4 A + 5 I. (iii) −1, 3
1 −3 4
4. 5, − 1;  
5  2 −1
5. Characteristic equation is λ3 − 3 λ2 − λ + 9 = 0
0 3 3
1
A −1
= 3 2 −1
9 
3 −7 −1
L- 163
6. All the characteristic roots are zero.

7. Eigenvalues are 5, 0 , 0 . Corresponding to the eigenvalue 2 an eigenvector is
[1, 0 , − 2]′. Two linearly independent eigenvectors corresponding to the
eigenvalue 0 are [2, 0 , 1]′ and [0 , 1, 0 ]′
8. 5, 1, 1. Corresponding to the characteristic root 5 a characteristic vector is
[1, 1, 1]′. Two linearly independent characteristic vectors corresponding to the
characteristic root 1 are [1, 0 , − 1]′ and [1, 1, − 3]′
 4 1 −1
1
9. A −1 = −12 2 3
5 
 5 0 0 
−4 11 −5
1 
3 2
10. λ − 4 λ − 13 λ − 40 = 0 ; A −1
= −4 1 25
40  
 8 −2 −10 
13. Characteristic roots are 1, 2, 2. Corresponding to the characteristic root 1 a
characteristic vector is [1, 0 , 0 ]′. Corresponding to the characteristic root 2 a
characteristic vector is [2, 1, 0 ]′ . The characteristic space corresponding to the
characteristic root 1 consists of the vector c [1, 0 , 0 ]′, where c is any scalar.
Similarly for the other characteristic space
19. 2,5. Corresponding to the characteristic root 2 a characteristic vector is [1, − 2]′.
Corresponding to the characteristic root 5 a characteristic vector is [1 , 1]′ .
 1 1
P=  
−2 1
20. 1, 2, 3 corresponding to the characteristic root 1 a characteristic vector is
[1, 0 , 0 ]′ . Corresponding to the characteristic root 2 a characteristic vector is
[1, − 1, 0 ]′. Corresponding to the characteristic root 3 a characteristic vector is
[3, − 2, 2]′.

(b), (c) and (d).
1. If λ is a characteristic root of a matrix A, then a characteristic root of A −1 is
(a) 1 / λ (b) λ
2
(c) λ (d) 1 / λ2 (Bundelkhand 2001)
L-164
a h g
2. The eigenvalues of the matrix A = 0 b 0  are
 
0 c c 
(a) a, h, g (b) a, h, c
(c) a, g, c (d) a, b, c (Kanpur 2009, 11)
3. If λ is a characteristic root of the matrix A, then a characteristic root of the matrix

A + kI is
(a) λ (b) k + λ
(c) k − λ (d) none of these (Agra 2007)
 3 1
4. The characteristic equation of A =   is
−1 2
(a) λ2 − 5 λ + 7 = 0 (b) λ2 − 3 λ + 7 = 0
(c) λ2 − 2 λ + 7 = 0 (d) none of these
(Bundelkhand 2007)
5. At least one characteristic root of every singular matrix is :
(a) 1 (b) −1
(c) 0 (d) none of these
6. If A is a non-singular matrix, then the relationship between the eigen value of A

and A −1 is :
(a) they are same (b) they are equal but opposite
(c) reciprocal to each other (d) none of these
(Garhwal 2012)
 8 −6 2
 
7. If matrix A =  −6 7 −4 , then the characteristic roots of A are
 2 −4 3 

(a) 0 , 3 ,14 (b) 3 , 5 ,15
(c) 0 , 5 ,15 (d) none of these
(Garhwal 2013)
8. If A be the matrix,
 1 2 3 
 
A = 0 −4 2 ,
 0 0 7 

then its characteristic roots are
(a) 1, − 5 , 7 (b) 1, − 4 , 7
(c) −1, 4 , 7 (d) 1, 4 , − 7
(Garhwal 2014)
L- 165
 1 2
−1 3
(a) λ2 − 3 λ + 7 = 0 (b) λ2 − 4 λ + 5 = 0
(c) λ2 + 2 λ = 0 (d) λ2 + 3 λ + 7 = 0
1 1
1 1
(a) λ2 − 2 λ (b) λ2 + 2 λ = 0
(c) λ2 = 0 (d) λ2 = 1

Fill in the blanks ‘‘.........’’, so that the following statements are complete and correct.
1. If A is any n-rowed square matrix and λ an indeterminate, then the equation
| A − λI| = 0 is called the ......... of A and the roots of this equation are called the
......... of the matrix A.
2. If λ is a characteristic root of an n × n matrix A, then a non-zero vector X such
that AX = λX is called a ......... of A corresponding to the characteristic root λ.
3. The characteristic roots of a Hermitian matrix are ......... (Avadh 2005)
4. The characteristic roots of a skew-Hermitian matrix are either ......... or .........
5. The matrices A and A ′ have the ......... eigenvalues. (Agra 2008)
6. If λ1, ........., λ n are the eigenvalues of A, then kλ1, ........., kλ n are the
eigenvalues of ......... (Lucknow 2011)
7. If the characteristic roots of A are λ1, λ 2 , ........., λ n, then the characteristic roots
2 2 2
of ......... are λ1 , λ 2 , ........., λ n .
8. Every square matrix ..... its characteristic equation. (Meerut 2001)
1 0 2
9. The characteristic equation of the matrix A = 0 −1 1  is ......... .
 
0 1 0 
True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.
1. The characteristic roots of a real symmetric matrix are all real.
2. The characteristic roots of a real skew-symmetric matrix are all pure imaginary.
3. The characteristic roots of a unitary matrix are of unit modulus.
4. The characteristic roots of a diagonal matrix are just the diagonal elements of
the matrix.
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5. Two matrices A and C−1AC do not have the same characteristic roots.
6. Cayley-Hamilton theorem states that ‘Every square matrix satisfies its

characteristic equation’. (Rohilkhand 2006)
 3 1 2
7. The characteristic equation of A =   is λ − 3 λ + 7 = 0 .
−1 2
(Meerut 2003; Kumaun 08)
A nswers

1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (c)
6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (a)

1. characteristic equations; characteristic roots
2. characteristic vector 3. real 4. pure imaginary; zero
2
5. same 6. kA 7. A 8. satisfies
3
9. λ − 2 λ + 1 = 0
True or False
1. T 2. F 3. T 4. T 5. F
6. T 7. F
o
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5
B ilinear and Q uadratic F orms
1 External Direct Product of Two Vector Spaces

uppose U and V are two vector spaces over the same field F. Let
S W = U × V i. e., W = {(α, β) : α ∈ U , β ∈ V }.
If (α1, β1) and (α2 , β2 ) are two elements in W,then we define their equality as follows :
(α1, β1) = (α2 , β2 ) if α1 = α2 and β1 = β2 .
Also we define the sum of (α1, β1) and (α2 , β2 ) as follows :
(α1, β1) + (α2 , β2 ) = (α1 + α2 , β1 + β2 ).
If c is any element in F and (α, β) is any element in W, then we define scalar
multiplication in W as follows :
c (α, β) = (cα, cβ).
It can be easily shown that with respect to addition and scalar multiplication as defined
above, W is a vector space over the field F. We call W as the external direct product of
the vector spaces U and V and we shall write W = U ⊕ V .
Now we shall consider some special type of scalar-valued functions on W known as
bilinear forms.
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2 Bilinear Forms
Definition: Let U and V be two vector spaces over the same field F. A bilinear form on
W = U ⊕ V is a function f from W into F, which assigns to each element (α , β) in W a scalar
f (α , β) in such a way that
f (aα1 + bα2 , β) = a f (α1, β) + b f (α2 , β)
and f (α , aβ1 + bβ2 ) = a f (α, β1) + b f (α, β2 ).
Here f (α, β) is an element of F. It denotes the image of (α, β) under the function f .
Thus a bilinear form on W is a function from W into F which is linear as a function of
either of its arguments when the other is fixed.
If U = V , then in place of saying that f is a bilinear form on W = U ⊕ V , we shall
simply say that f is a bilinear form on V.
Thus if V is a vector space over the field F, then a bilinear form on V is a function f , which
assigns to each ordered pair of vectors α, β in V a scalar f (α , β) in F, and which satisfies
f (aα1 + bα2 , β) = a f (α1, β) + b f (α2 , β)
and f (α, aβ1 + bβ2 ) = a f (α, β1) + b f (α, β2 ).
Example 1: Suppose V is a vector space over the field F. Let L1, L2 be linear functionals on V.
Let f be a function from V × V into F defined as
f (α , β) = L1 (α) L 2 ( β).
Then f is a bilinear form on V. (Kumaun 2008)
Solution: If α, β ∈V , then L1 (α), L 2 ( β) are scalars. We have

f (aα1 + bα2 , β) = L1 (aα1 + bα2 ) L2 ( β)
= [a L1 (α1) + b L1 (α2 )] L2 ( β)
= aL1 (α1) L 2 ( β) + bL1 (α2 ) L2 ( β)
= af (α1, β) + bf (α2 , β).
Also f (α, aβ1 + bβ2 ) = L1 (α) L 2 (aβ1 + bβ2 )
= L1 (α) [a L 2 ( β1) + b L 2 ( β2 )]
= aL1 (α) L 2 ( β1) + b L1 (α) L 2 ( β2 )
= a f (α, β1) + b f (α, β2 ).
Hence f is a bilinear form on V.
Example 2:Suppose V is a vector space over the field F. Let T be a linear operator on V and f a
bilinear form on V. Suppose g is a function from V × V into F defined as
g (α , β) = f (Tα , T β).
Then g is a bilinear form on V.
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Solution: We have g (aα1 + bα2 , β) = f (T (aα1 + bα2 ), T β)

= f (aTα1 + bTα2 , T β)
= a f (Tα1, T β) + b f (Tα2 , T β)
= a g (α1, β) + b g (α2 , β).
Also g (α, aβ1 + bβ2 ) = f (Tα, T (aβ1 + bβ2 ))
= f (Tα, aT β1 + bT β2 )
= a f (Tα, T β1) + b f (Tα, T β2 )
= a g (α, β1) + b g (α, β2 ).
Hence g is a bilinear form on V.
3 Bilinear Form as Vectors

Suppose U and V are two vector spaces over the field F. Let L (U , V , F ) denote the set
of all bilinear forms on U × V . We can impose a vector space structure on L (U , V , F )
over the field F. For this purpose we define addition and scalar multiplication in
L (U , V , F ) as follows :
Addition of bilinear forms: Suppose f , g are two bilinear forms on U × V . Then
we define their sum as follows :
( f + g)( α , β ) = f ( α , β ) + g ( α , β ).
It can be easily seen that f + g is also a bilinear form on U × V . We have
( f + g)( aα1 + bα2 , β ) = f ( aα1 + bα2 , β ) + g ( aα1 + bα2 , β )
= [a f ( α1 , β ) + b f ( α2 , β )] + [a g ( α1 , β ) + b g ( α2 , β )]
= a [ f ( α1 , β ) + g ( α1 , β )] + b [ f ( α2 , β ) + g ( α2 , β )]
= a [( f + g)( α1 , β )] + b [( f + g)( α2 , β )].
Similarly, we can show that
( f + g)(α , a β1 + b β2 ) = a [( f + g)( α , β1)] + b [( f + g)( α , β2 )].
Hence f + g is a bilinear form on U × V .
Thus L (U , V , F ) is closed with respect to addition defined on it.
Scalar multiplication of bilinear forms. Suppose f is a bilinear form on U × V
and c is a scalar.
Then we define c f as follows :
(c f )( α , β ) = c f ( α , β ) V ( α , β ) ∈ U × V .
Obviously c f is a function from U × V into F. We have
(c f )( aα1 + bα2 , β ) = c f ( aα1 + bα2 , β )
= c [a f ( α1 , β ) + b f ( α2 , β )]
= c a f ( α1 , β ) + c b f ( α2 , β )
= a [ c f ( α1 , β )] + b [ c f ( α2 , β )]
= a [ (c f )( α1 , β )] + b [(c f )( α2 , β )].
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Similarly, we can show that

(c f )(α , a β1 + b β2 ) = a [ (c f )( α , β1 )] + b [(c f )( α , β2 )].
Therefore c f is also a bilinear form on U × V .
Thus L (U , V , F ) is closed with respect to scalar multiplication defined on it.
Important: It can be easily seen that the set of all bilinear forms on U × V is a vector space
over the field F with respect to addition and scalar multiplication just defined above.
The bilinear from 0 will act as the zero vector of this space. The bilinear form − f will
act as the additive inverse of the vector f .
Theorem 1: If U is an n-dimensional vector space with basis {α1, … , α n}, if V is an
m-dimensional vector space with basis { β1, … , β m }, and if { aij} is any set of nm scalars
(i = 1, … , n ; j = 1, … , m}, then there is one and only one bilinear form f on U ⊕ V such that
f (α i , β j) = aij for all i and j.
n m
Proof: Let α = Σ xi α i ∈ U and β = Σ y j β j ∈ V .
i =1 j =1
Let us define a function f from U × V into F such that

n m
f (α , β) = Σ Σ xi y j aij . …(1)
i =1 j =1
We shall show that f is a bilinear form on U × V .

Let a, b ∈ F and let α1, α2 ∈U .
n n
Let α1 = Σ ai α i, α2 = Σ bi α i .
i =1 i =1
n m
Then f (α1, β) = Σ Σ ai y j aij
i =1 j =1
n m
and f (α2 , β) = Σ Σ bi y j aij .
i =1 j =1
n n n
Also aα1 + bα2 = a Σ ai α i + b Σ bi α i = Σ (aai + bbi) α i .
i =1 i =1 i =1
n m
∴ f (aα1 + bα2 , β) = Σ Σ (aai + bbi) y j aij
i =1 j =1
n m n m
= Σ Σ aai y j aij + Σ Σ bbi y j aij
i =1 j =1 i =1 j =1
n m n m
=a Σ Σ ai y j aij + b Σ Σ bi y j aij
i =1 j =1 i =1 j =1
= af (α1, β) + bf (α2 , β).

Similarly, we can prove that if a, b ∈ F , and β1, β2 ∈V , then
f (α, aβ1 + bβ2 ) = a f (α, β1) + b f (α, β2 ).
Therefore f is a bilinear form on U × V .
Now α i = 0 α1 + … + 0 α i − 1 + 1α i + 0 α i + 1 + … + 0 α n
and β j = 0 β1 + … + 0 β j − 1 + 1β j + 0 β j + 1 + … + 0 β m .
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Therefore from (1), we have

f (α i , β j) = aij .
Thus there exists a bilinear form f on U × V such that
f (α i , β j) = aij .
Now to show that f is unique.
Let g be a bilinear form on U × V such that g (α i , β j) = aij . …(2)
n m
If α = Σ xi α i be in U and β = Σ y j β j be in V, then
i =1 j =1
 n m 
g (α , β) = g  Σ xi α i, Σ y j β j
 i = 1 j = 1 
n m
= Σ Σ xi y j g (α i, β j) [∵ g is a bilinear form]
i =1 j =1
n m
= Σ Σ xi y j aij [From (2)]
i =1 j =1
= f (α , β). [From (1)]

∴ By the equality of two functions, we have
g = f.
Thus f is unique.
4 Matrix of a Bilinear Form

Definition: Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space and let B = {α1, … , α n} be an ordered
basis for V. If f is a bilinear form on V, the matrix of f in the ordered basis B is the n × n
matrix A = [aij]n × n such that
f (α i , α j) = aij , i = 1, … , n ; j = 1, … , n.
We shall denote this matrix A by [ f ]B .
5 Rank of a Bilinear Form

Definition: The rank of a bilinear form is defined as the rank of the matrix of the form in any
ordered basis.
Let us describe all bilinear forms on a finite-dimensional vector space V of
dimension n.
n n
If α = Σ xi α i, and β = Σ y j α j are vectors in V, then
i =1 j =1
 n n  n n
f (α, β) = f  Σ xi α i , Σ y j α j = Σ Σ xi y j f (α i , α j)
 i =1 j =1  i =1 j =1
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n n
= Σ Σ xi y j aij = X ′ AY,
i =1 j =1
where X and Y are coordinate matrices of α and β in the ordered basis B and X ′ is the
transpose of the matrix X. Thus
f (α, β) = [ α ]B ′ A [ β ]B .
From the definition of the matrix of a bilinear form, we note that if f is a bilinear form
on an n-dimensional vector space V over the field F and B is an ordered basis of V, then
there exists a unique n × n matrix A = [ aij ]n × n over the field F such that
A = [ f ]B .
Conversely, if A = [ aij ]n × n be an n × n matrix over the field F, then from theorem 1,
we see that there exists a unique bilinear form f on V such that
[ f ]B = [ aij ]n × n .
n n
If α = Σ xi α i, β = Σ y j α j are vectors in V, then the bilinear form f is defined as
i =1 j =1
n n
f (α, β) = Σ Σ xi y j aij
i =1 j =1
= X ′ AY, …(1)
where X, Y are the coordinate matrices of α, β in the ordered basis B. Hence the bilinear
forms on V are precisely those obtained from an n × n matrix as in (1).
Example 3: Let f be the bilinear form on V2 (R) defined by

f (( x1, y1), ( x2 , y2 )) = x1 y1 + x2 y2 .
Find the matrix of f in the ordered basis
B = {(1, − 1), (1, 1)} of V2 (R).
Solution: Let B = {α1, α2 }
where α1 = (1, − 1), α2 = (1, 1).
We have f (α1, α1) = f ((1, − 1), (1, − 1)) = − 1 − 1 = − 2 ,
f (α1, α2 ) = f ((1, − 1), (1, 1)) = − 1 + 1 = 0 ,
f (α2 , α1) = f ((1, 1), (1, − 1)) = 1 − 1 = 0 ,
f (α2 , α2 ) = f ((1, 1), (1, 1)) = 1 + 1 = 2 .
 −2 0 
∴ [ f ]B =  .
 0 2
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6 Degenerate and Non-degenerate Bilinear Forms

Definitions: A bilinear form f on a vector space V is called degenerate if
(i) for each non-zero α in V , f ( α , β ) = 0 for all β in V and
(ii) for each non-zero β in V , f ( α , β ) = 0 for all α in V.
A bilinear form is called non-degenerate if it is not degenerate. In other words a bilinear
form f on a vector space V is called non-degenerate if
(i) for each 0 ≠ α ∈ V, there is a β in V such that f ( α , β ) ≠ 0 and
(ii) for each 0 ≠ β ∈ V, there is an α in V such that f ( α , β ) ≠ 0.
7 Symmetric Bilinear Form

Definition: Let f be a bilinear form of the vector space V. Then f is said to be symmetric if
f ( α , β ) = f ( β , α ) for all vectors α , β in V.
Theorem: If V is a finite-dimensional vector space, then a bilinear form f on V is symmetric if
and only if its matrix A in some (or every) ordered basis is symmetric, i. e., A ′ = A .
Proof: Let B be an ordered basis for V. Let α , β be any two vectors in V. Let X , Y be
the coordinate matrices of the vectors α and β respectively in the ordered basis B. If
f is a bilinear form on V and A is the matrix of f in the ordered basis B , then
f ( α , β ) = X ′ AY ,
and f ( β ,α ) = Y ′ A X
∴ f will be symmetric if and only if
X ′ AY = Y ′ A X
for all column matrices X and Y .
Now X ′ AY is a 1 × 1 matrix , therefore we have
X ′ AY = ( X ′ AY )′ = Y ′ A′ ( X ′)′ = Y ′ A′ X .
∴ f will be symmetric if and only if
Y ′ A′ X = Y ′ A X for all column matrices X and Y
i. e., A′ = A
i. e., A is symmetric.
Hence the theorem.
8 Quadratic Form Associated with the Bilinear Form

Definition : Let f be a bilinear form on a vector space V over the field F. Then the quadratic
form on V associated with the bilinear form f is the function q from V into F defined by
q ( α ) = f ( α , α ) for all α in V.
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Theorem 1: Let V be a vector space over the field F whose characteristic is not equal to
2 i. e., 1 + 1 ≠ 0 . Then every symmetric bilinear form on V is uniquely determined by the
corresponding quadratic form. (Kumaun 2008)
Proof: Let f be a symmetric bilinear form on V and q be the quadratic form on V

associated with f . For all α , β in V, we have
q (α + β ) = f (α + β , α + β )
= f (α , α + β ) + f (β , α + β )
= f (α , α ) + f (α , β ) + f (β , α ) + f (β , β )
= q (α ) + f (α , β ) + f (α , β ) + q (β )
= q ( α ) + (1 + 1) f ( α , β ) + q ( β )
∴ (1 + 1) f ( α , β ) = q ( α + β ) − q ( α ) − q ( β ). …(1)
Thus f ( α , β ) is uniquely determined by q with the help of the polarization identity
(1) provided 1 + 1 ≠ 0 i. e. F is not of characteristic 2.
Note : If F is a subfield of the complex numbers the symmetric bilinear form f is
completely determined by its associated quadratic form according to the polarization
identity
1 1
f ( α , β ) = q ( α + β ) − q ( α − β ).
4 4
As in theorem 1, we have
2 f ( α , β ) = q ( α + β ) − q ( α ) − q ( β ). …(1)
Also q (α − β ) = f (α − β , α − β ) = f (α , α − β ) − f (β , α − β )
= f (α , α ) − f (α , β ) − f (β , α ) + f (β , β )
= q ( α ) + q ( β ) − 2 f ( α , β ).
∴ 2 f ( α , β ) = q ( α ) + q ( β ) − q ( α − β ). …(2)
Adding (1) and (2) , we get
4 f (α , β ) = q (α + β ) − q (α − β )
1 1
⇒ f ( α , β ) = q ( α + β ) − q ( α − β ).
4 4
Theorem 2: Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space over a subfield of the complex numbers,
and let f be a symmetric bilinear form on V. Then there is an ordered basis for V in which f is
represented by a diagonal matrix. (Kumaun 2008)
Proof : In order to prove the theorem, we should find an ordered basis
B = { α1 ,…, α n } for V such that f ( α i , α j) = 0 for i ≠ j.
If f = 0$ or n = 1, the theorem is obviously true. So let us suppose that f ≠ 0$ and n > 1.
If f ( α , α ) = 0 for every α in V, then q (α) = 0 for every α in V where q is the quadratic

form associated with f . Therefore from the polarization identity
1 1
f ( α , β ) = q ( α + β ) − q ( α − β ) we see that f ( α , β ) = 0 for all α , β in V and thus
4 4
f = 0 which is a contradiction. Therefore, there must be a vector α1 in V such that
f ( α1 , α1) = q ( α1) ≠ 0 .
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Let W1 be the one-dimensional subspace of V spanned by the vector α1 and let W2 be

the set of all vector β in V such that f ( α1 , β) = 0 . Obviously W2 is a subspace of V.
Now we claim that V = W1 ⊕ W2 . We shall first prove our claim.
First we show that W1 and W2 are disjoint.
Let γ ∈W1 ∩ W2 . Then γ ∈W1 and γ ∈W2 .
But γ ∈ W1 ⇒ γ = c α1 for some scalar c.
Also γ ∈ W2 ⇒ f ( α1 , γ ) = 0
⇒ f ( α1 , c α1 ) = 0
⇒ c f ( α1 , α1 ) = 0
⇒ c =0 [∵ f ( α1 , α1) ≠ 0 ]
⇒ γ = 0 α1 = 0 .
∴ W1 and W2 are disjoint.
Now we shall show that V = W1 + W2 .
Let γ be any vector in V. Since f ( α1 , α1) ≠ 0 , so put
f ( γ , α1)
β= γ − α1.
f ( α1 , α1)
 f ( γ , α1) 
Thus f ( α1 , β ) = f  α1 , γ − α1
 f ( α1 , α1) 
f ( γ , α1)
= f ( α1 , γ ) − f ( α1 , α1)
f ( α1 , α1)
= f ( α1 , γ ) − f ( γ , α1)
= f ( α1 , γ ) − f ( α1 , γ ) [∵ f is symmetric]
= 0.
∴ β ∈W2 by definition of W2 .
f ( γ , α1)
Also by definition of W1 the vector α1 is in W1.
f ( α1 , α1)
f ( γ , α1)
∴ γ= α1 + β ∈W1 + W2 .
f ( α1 , α1)
Hence V = W1 + W2 .
∴ V = W1 ⊕ W2 .
So dim W2 = dim V − dim W1 = n − 1.
Now let g be the restriction of f from V to W2 . Then g is a symmetric bilinear form on
W2 and dim W2 is less than dim V.
Now we may assume by induction that W2 has a basis { α2 ,…, α n } such that
g (α i , α j) = 0 , i ≠ j ( i ≥ 2 , j ≥ 2 )
⇒ f (α i , α j) = 0 , i ≠ j ( i ≥ 2 , j ≥ 2 ) [ ∵ g is restriction of f ]
Now by definition of W2 , we have
f (α i , α j) = 0 for j = 2 , 3 ,…, n .
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Since { α1} is a basis for W1 and V = W1 ⊕ W2 , therefore { α1 , α2 ,…, α n } is a basis for

V such that
f (α i , α j) = 0 for i ≠ j .
Corollary : Let F be a subfield of the complex numbers, and let A be a symmetric n × n matrix
over F. Then there is an invertible n × n matrix P over F such that P ′ A P is diagonal.
Proof: Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F and let B be an
ordered basis for V. Let f be the bilinear form on V such that [ f ]B = A . Since A is a
symmetric matrix, therefore the bilinear form f is also symmetric. Therefore by the
above theorem there exists an ordered basis B′ of V such that [ f ]B ′ is a diagonal
matrix. If P is the transition matrix from B to B′, then P is an invertible matrix and
[ f ]B ′ = P ′A P
i. e. P ′A P is a diagonal matrix.
9 Skew-symmetric Bilinear Forms

Definition : Let f be a bilinear form on the vector space V. Then f is said to be
skew-symmetric if f ( α , β ) = − f ( β , α ) for all vectors α , β in V.
Theorem 1: Every bilinear form on the vector space V over a subfield F of the complex numbers
can be uniquely expressed as the sum of a symmetric and skew -symmetric bilinear forms.
(Kumaun 2007, 09)
Proof : Let f be a bilinear form on a vector space V. Let
1
g ( α , β ) = [ f ( α , β ) + f ( β , α )]
2 …(1)
1
h ( α , β ) = [ f ( α , β ) − f ( β , α )]
2 …(2)
for all α , β in V.
Then it can be easily seen that both g and h are bilinear forms on V. We have
1
g ( β , α ) = [ f ( β , α ) + f ( α , β )] = g ( α , β ).
2
∴ g is symmetric.
1 1
Also h ( β ,α ) = [ f ( β , α ) − f ( α , β )] = − [ f ( α , β ) − f ( β , α )]
2 2
= − h ( α , β ).
∴ h is skew-symmetric.
Adding (1) and (2), we get
g ( α ,β ) + h ( α ,β ) = f ( α ,β )
⇒ ( g + h)( α , β ) = f ( α , β ) for all α , β in V.
∴ g + h = f.
Now suppose that f = f1 + f2 where f1 is symmetric and f2 is skew-symmetric.
Then f ( α , β ) = ( f1 + f2 )( α , β )
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or f ( α , β ) = f1( α , β ) + f2 ( α , β ). …(3)
Also f ( β , α ) = ( f1 + f2 )( β , α )
or f ( β , α ) = f1( β , α ) + f2 ( β , α )
or f ( β , α ) = f1( α , β ) − f2 ( α , β ). …(4)
[ ∵ f1 is symmetric and f2 is skew-symmetric ]
Adding (3) and (4), we get
f ( α , β ) + f ( β , α ) = 2 f1( α , β )
1
i. e. f1( α , β ) = [ f ( α , β ) + f ( β , α )] = g ( α , β ).
2
∴ f1 = g.
Subtracting (4) from (3) , we get
f ( α , β ) − f ( β , α ) = 2 f2 ( α , β )
1
i. e. f2 ( α , β ) = [ f ( α , β ) − f ( β , α )] = h ( α , β ).
2
∴ f2 = h.
Thus the resolution f = g + h is unique.
Theorem 2: If V is a finite-dimensional vector space, then a bilinear form f on V is
skew-symmetric if and only if its matrix A in some (or every) ordered basis is skew-symmetric,
i. e., A ′ = − A .
Proof : Let B be an ordered basis for V. Let α , β be any two vectors in V. Let X , Y be
co-ordinate matrices for the vectors α and β respectively in the ordered basis B. If f
is a bilinear form on V and A is the matrix of f in the ordered basis B, then
f ( α , β ) = X ′ AY ,
and f ( β ,α ) = Y ′ A X
∴ f will be skew-symmetric if and only if
X ′ AY = − Y ′ A X
for all column matrices X and Y .
Now X ′ AY is a 1 × 1 matrix , therefore we have
X ′ AY = ( X ′ AY )′ = Y ′ A′ ( X ′)′ = Y ′ A′ X .
∴ f will be skew-symmetric if and only if
Y ′ A′ X = − Y ′ A X for all column matrices X and Y
i. e., A′ = − A
i. e., A is skew-symmetric.
10 Bilinear Form Corresponding to a Given Matrix

Bilinear Form. Definition: Let Vm and Vn be two vector spaces over the same field F and let
A = [aij]m × n be an m × n matrix over the field F.
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 x1   y1 
x  y 
 2  2
Let X =  ...  and Y =  ...  be any two elements of Vm and Vn respectively so that
 ...   ... 
   
 xm   yn
X T = the transpose of the column matrix X
= [ x1 x2 … … xm ]
T
and Y = [ y1 y2 … … yn].
Then an expression of the form

m n
b (X , Y ) = X T AY = Σ Σ aij xi y j …(1)
i =1 j =1
is called a bilinear form over the field F corresponding to the matrix A .

It should be noted that b (X , Y ) is an element of the field F and b (X, Y) is a mapping
from
Vm × Vn → F .
The matrix A is called the matrix of the bilinear form (1) and the rank of the matrix A
is called the rank of the bilinear form (1).
It should be noted that the coefficient of the product xi y j in (1) is the element aij of
the matrix A which occurs in the i th row and the j th column.
The bilinear form (1) is said to be symmetric if its matrix A is a symmetric matrix.
If the field F is the real field R, then the bilinear form (1) is said to be a real bilinear
form. Thus in a real bilinear form b (X , Y ) assumes real values.
If the vectors X and Y belong to the same vector space Vn over a field F, then A is a
square matrix and X T AY is called a bilinear form on the vector space Vn over the field
F.
In order to show that b (X , Y ) = X T AY given by (1) is a bilinear form, first we show
that the mapping b (X , Y ) is a linear mapping from Vm → F .
Let X1, X 2 be any two elements of Vm and α, β be any two elements of the field F and
let the vector Y be fixed. Then
b (αX1 + βX 2 , Y ) = (α X1 + βX 2 )T AY
= (α X1T + βX 2T ) AY
= α X1T AY + βX 2T AY
= αb (X1, Y ) + βb (X 2 , Y ).
∴ The mapping b (X , Y ) is a linear mapping from Vm → F .
Now we show that the mapping b (X , Y ) is a linear mapping from Vn → F .
Let Y1, Y2 be any two elements of Vn and α, β be any two elements of the field F and let
the vector X be fixed. Then
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b (X , αY1 + βY2 ) = X T A (αY1 + βY2 )

= α X T AY1 + βX T AY2
= α b (X , Y1) + βb (X , Y2 ).
∴ The mapping b (X , Y ) is a linear mapping from Vn → F .
m n
Hence, b (X , Y ) = X T AY = Σ Σ aij xi y j is a bilinear form.
i =1 j =1
Example of a real bilinear form

 y1 
 5 3 1  
Let b (X , Y ) = [ x1 x2 ]   y2
7 4 9  
 y3 
= 5 x1 y1 + 3 x1 y2 + x1 y3 + 7 x2 y1 + 4 x2 y2 + 9 x2 y3 .
Then b (X , Y ) is an example of a real bilinear form.
 5 3 1
The matrix   is the matrix of this bilinear form. The rank of this matrix is 2
7 4 9
and so the rank of this bilinear form is 2.
Equivalent Matrices. Definition: Let A and B be two m × n matrices over the same field
F. The matrix A is said to be equivalent to the matrix B if there exist non-singular matrices P and
Q of orders m and n respectively such that
B = P T AQ .
Equivalent Bilinear Forms. Definition: Let Vm and Vn be two vector spaces over the same
field F and let A and D be two m × n matrices over the field F.
The bilinear form b (X , Y ) = X T AY is said to be equivalent to the bilinear form
b (U, V ) = UT DV, where X and U are in Vm , Y and V are in Vn if there exist non-singular
matrices B and C of orders m and n respectively such that
D = BT AC
i. e., the matrices A and D are equivalent.
Thus, the bilinear form b (U, V ) equivalent to the bilinear b (X , Y ) is given by
b (U, V ) = UT (BT AC ) V = U T DV,
where D = BT AC and B and C are non-singular matrices of orders m and n respectively.
The transformations of vectors yielding these equivalent bilinear forms are
X = BU, Y = CV.
The matrices B and C are called the transformation matrices yielding these equivalent
bilinear forms.
Equivalent Canonical form of a given bilinear form.
Let Vm and Vn be two vector spaces over the same field F and let A be an m × n matrix
over the field F.
Let b (X , Y ) = X T AY ,
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where X T = [ x1 x2 … xm ],
T
Y = [ y1 y2 … yn]
be a given bilinear form over the field F.
If the matrix A is of rank r, then there exist non-singular matrices P and Q of orders m
and n respectively such that
I r O
P T AQ =  
O O
is in the normal form.
If we transform the vectors X and Y to U and V by the transformations
X = PU, Y = QV,
then the bilinear form b (U, V ) equivalent to the bilinear form b (X, Y) is given by
Ir O 
b (U, V ) = UT (P T AQ ) V = UT  V
O O
= u1 v1 + u2 v2 + … + ur vr ,
where U = [u1 u2 … um ]T and V = [v1 v2 … vn]T .
The bilinear form b (U, V ) = u1 v1 + … + ur vr is called the equivalent canonical form or
the equivalent normal form of the bilinear form
b (X , Y ) = X T AY .
Congruent Matrices. Definition: A square matrix B of order n over a field F is said to be
congruent to another square matrix A of order n over F, if there exists a non-singular matrix P
over F such that
B = P T AP .
Cogradient Transformations. Definition. Let X and Y be vectors belonging to the
same vector space Vn over a field F and let A be a square matrix of order n over F. Let
b (X , Y ) = X T AY
be a bilinear form on the vector space Vn over F.
Let B be a non-singular matrix of order n and let the vectors X and Y be transformed to the vectors
U and V by the transformations
X = BU, Y = BV.
Then the bilinear form b (X , Y ) transforms to the equivalent bilinear form
b (U, V ) = UT (BT AB ) V = UT DV,
where D = BT AB and U and V are both n-vectors.
The bilinear form UT DV is said to be congruent to the bilinear form X T AY . Under such
circumstances when X and Y are subjected to the same transformation X = BU and Y = BV, we
say that X and Y are transformed cogradiently.
Here, the matrix A is congruent to B because D = BT AB, where B is non- singular.
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Example 4: Find the matrix A of each of the following bilinear forms b (X , Y ) = X T AY .
(i) 3 x1 y1 + x1 y2 − 2 x2 y1 + 3 x2 y2 − 3 x1 y3
(ii) 2 x1 y1 + x1 y2 + x1 y3 + 3 x2 y1 − 2 x2 y3 + x3 y2 − 5 x3 y3
Which of the above forms is symmetric ?
Solution: (i) The element aij of the matrix A is the coefficient of xi y j in the
given bilinear form.
 3 1 −3 
∴ A = .
 −2 3 0 
The matrix A is not a symmetric matrix. So the given bilinear form is not symmetric.
(ii) The element aij of the matrix A which occurs in the i th row and the jth column is
the coefficient of xi y j in the given bilinear form.
2 1 1
∴ 
A = 3 0 −2  .
 
 0 1 −5 
The matrix A is not symmetric. So the given bilinear form is not symmetric.
Example 5: Transform the bilinear form X T AY to the equivalent canonical form where
2 1 1
A = 4 2 2.
 
 1 2 2 
Solution: We write A = I3 AI3 i. e.,
 2 1 1  1 0 0   1 0 0 
4 2 2 = 0 1 0  A 0 1 0  ⋅
     
 1 2 2   0 0 1   0 0 1 
Performing R1 ↔ R3 , we get
 1 2 2   0 0 1  1 0 0 
4 2 2 = 0 1 0  A0 1 0  ⋅
     
 2 1 1   1 0 0   0 0 1 
Performing R2 → R2 − 4 R1, R3 → R3 − 2 R1, we get
 1 2 2 0 0 1  1 0 0 
 0 −6 −6  =  0 1 −4  A  0 1 0  ⋅
     
 0 −3 −3   1 0 −2   0 0 1 
Performing C2 → C2 − 2 C1, C3 → C3 − 2 C1, we get
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 1 0 0  0 0 1   1 −2 −2 
 0 −6 −6  =  0 1 −4  A  0 1 0⋅
     
 0 −3 −3   1 0 −2   0 0 1 
1 1
Performing R2 → − R2 , R3 → − R3 , we get
6 3
 1 0 0  0 0 1   1 −2 −2 
 0 1 1 =  0 1 2  
1 0⋅
  
− 6 3  A0 
 0 1 1   − 13 0 2
3
  0 0 1 
Performing R3 → R3 − R2 , we get
1 0 0  0 0 1   1 −2 −2 
0 1 1 =  0 − 16 2  
1 0⋅
   3  A0 
 0 0 0   − 13 1
6
0   0 0 1 
Performing C3 → C3 − C2 , we get
1 0 0  0 0 1   1 −2 0 
0 1 0  =  0 1 2  
1 −1  ⋅
  
− 6 3  A0 
 0 0 0   − 13 1
6
0   0 0 1 
0 1
0 − 
 3
T I2 O  1 1
∴ P AQ =   , where P = 0 − 
O O  6 6
2
1 0
 3 
 1 −2 0 
and Q = 0 1 −1  ⋅
 
 0 0 0 
Hence if the vectors X = [ x1 x2 x3 ]T and Y = [ y1 y2 y3 ]T are transformed to

the vectors U = [u1 u2 u3 ]T and V = [v1 v2 v3 ]T respectively by the
transformations
X = PU, Y = QV,
then the bilinear form
 2 1 1   y1 
[ x1 x2 x3 ]  4 2 2   y2 
   
 1 2 2   y3 
transforms to the equivalent canonical form
 1 0 0   v1 
[u1 u2 u3 ]  0 1 0  v2  = u1v1 + u2 v2 .
  
 0 0 0  v3 
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11 Quadratic Forms
n n
Definition: An expression of the form Σ Σ aij xi x j, where aij’s are elements of a field F, is
i =1 j =1
called a quadratic form in the n variables x1, x2 ,……, xn over the field F.
Real Quadratic Form. Definition. An expression of the form
n n
Σ Σ aij xi x j,
i =1 j =1
where aij' s are all real numbers, is called a real quadratic form in the n variables x1, x2 ,…, xn.
For example,
(i) 2 x2 + 7 xy + 5 y2 is a real quadratic form in the two variables x and y.
(ii) 2 x2 − y2 + 2 z 2 − 2 yz − 4 zx + 6 xy is a real quadratic form in the three variables
x, y and z.
(iii) x12 − 2 x22 + 4 x32 − 4 x42 − 2 x1 x2 + 3 x1 x4 + 4 x2 x3 − 5 x3 x4 is a real quadratic
form in the four variables x1, x2 , x3 and x4 .
Theorem: Every quadratic form over a field F in n variables x1, x2 ,……, xn can be expressed
in the form X ′ BX where
X = [ x1, x2 ,……, xn]T
is a column vector and B is a symmetric matrix of order n over the field F.
n n
Proof: Let Σ Σ aij xi x j, …(1)
i =1 j =1
be a quadratic form over the field F in the n variables x1, x2 ,……, xn .

In (1) it is assumed that xi x j = x j xi . Then the total coefficient of xi x j in (1) is aij + a ji .
Let us assign half of this coefficient to xij and half to x ji . Thus we define another set of
1
scalars bij , such that bii = aii and bij = b ji = (aij + a ji), i ≠ j. Then we have
2
n n n n
Σ Σ aij xi x j = Σ Σ bij xi x j .
i =1 j =1 i =1 j =1
Let B = [bij ]n × n . Then B is a symmetric matrix of order n over the field F since
bij = b ji .
 x1
x 
 2
Let X =  ... ⋅ Then X T or X ′ = [ x1 x2 …… xn ].
 ...
 
 xn
Now X T BX is a matrix of the type 1 × 1. It can be easily seen that the single element of
n n
this matrix is Σ Σ bij xi x j . If we identify a 1 × 1matrix with its single element i. e., if
i =1 j =1
we regard a 1 × 1 matrix equal to its single element, then we have
n n n n
XT BX = Σ Σ bij xi x j = Σ Σ aij xi x j.
i =1 j =1 i =1 j =1
Hence the result.

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12 Matrix of a Quadratic Form

n n
Definition: If φ = Σ Σ aij xi x j is a quadratic form in n variables x1, x2 ,……, xn , then
i =1 j =1
there exists a unique symmetric matrix B of order n such that φ = XT BX where

X = [ x1 x2 …… xn]T . The symmetric matrix B is called the matrix of the quadratic form
n n
Σ Σ aij xi x j .
i =1 j =1
Since every quadratic form can always be so written that matrix of its coefficients is a
symmetric matrix, therefore we shall be considering quadratic forms which are so
adjusted that the coefficient matrix is symmetric.
13 Quadratic Form Corresponding to a Symmetric

Matrix
Let A = [aij ]n × n be a symmetric matrix over the field F and let
X = [ x1 x2 …… xn]T
n n
be a column vector. Then XT AX determines a unique quadratic form Σ Σ aij xi x j in
i =1 j =1
n variables x1, x2 ,……, xn over the field F.
Thus we have seen that there exists a one-to-one correspondence between the set of all
quadratic forms in n variables over a field F and the set of all n-rowed symmetric
matrices over F.
14 Quadratic Form Corresponding to any Given

Square Matrix
 x1 
x 
 2
Definition: Let X =  ... be any n-vector in the vector space Vn over a field F so that
 ...
 
 xn
X T = [ x1 x2 … xn].
Let A = [aij]n × n be any given square matrix of order n over the field F. Then any polynomial of
the form
n n
q ( x1, x2 , … , xn) = X T AX = Σ Σ aij xi x j
i =1 j =1
is called a quadratic form of order n over F in the n variables x1, x2 , … , xn .

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We can always find a unique symmetric matrix B = [bij]n × n of order n such that
1
X T AX = X T BX . We have bij = b ji = (aij + a ji).
2
Discriminant of a quadratic form. Singular and Non-singular Quadratic
forms. By the discriminant of a quadratic form X T AX , we mean det A . The
quadratic form X T AX is said to be non-singular if det A ≠ 0, and it is said to be singular
if det A = 0.
Example 6: Write down the matrix of each of the following quadratic forms and verify that they
can be written as matrix products XT AX :
(i) x12 − 18 x1 x2 + 5 x22 .
(ii) x12 + 2 x22 − 5 x32 − x1 x2 + 4 x2 x3 − 3 x3 x1.
Solution: (i) The given quadratic form can be written as

x1 x1 − 9 x1 x2 − 9 x2 x1 + 5 x2 x2 .
 1 −9 
Let A be the matrix of this quadratic form. Then A =  ⋅
 −9 5 
 x1 
Let X =   ⋅ Then X ′ = [ x1 x2 ] ⋅
 x2 
 1 −9 
We have X ′ A = [ x1 x2 ]  = [ x1 − 9 x2 − 9 x1 + 5 x2 ] .
 −9 5 
 x1 
∴ X ′ AX = [ x1 − 9 x2 − 9 x1 + 5 x2 ]  
 x2 
= x1 ( x1 − 9 x2 ) + x2 (−9 x1 + 5 x2 ) = x12 − 9 x1 x2 − 9 x2 x1 + 5 x22
= x12 − 18 x1 x2 + 5 x22 .
(ii) The given quadratic form can be written as
1 3 1 3
x1 x1 − x1 x2 − x1 x3 − x2 x1 + 2 x2 x2 + 2 x2 x3 − x3 x1
2 2 2 2
+ 2 x3 x2 − 5 x3 x3 .
Let A be the matrix of this quadratic form. Then
 1 − 12 − 32 
 
A =  − 12 2 2⋅
 − 32 2 −5 
Obviously A is a symmetric matrix.

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 x1 
Let X =  x2  ⋅ Then X ′ = [ x1 x2 x3 ].
 
 x3 
 1 − 12 − 32 
 
We have X ′ A = [ x1 x2 x3 ]  − 12 2 2
 − 32 2 −5 
1 3 1 3
= [ x1 − x2 − x3 − x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x3 − x1 + 2 x2 − 5 x3 ].
2 2 2 2
 x1 
1 3 1 3
∴ X ′AX = [x1 − x2 − x3 − x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x3 − x1 + 2 x2 − 5 x3 ]  x2  .
2 2 2 2  
 x3 
1 3 1
= x1 ( x1 − x2 − x3 ) + x2 (− x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x3 )
2 2 2
3
+ x3 (− x1 + 2 x2 − 5 x3 )
2
1 3 1 3
= x12 2
− x1 x2 − x1 x3 − x2 x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x2 x3 − x3 x1
2 2 2 2
+ 2 x3 x2 − 5 x32
= x12 + 2 x22 − 5 x32 − x1 x2 + 4 x2 x3 − 3 x3 x1.
Example 7: Obtain the matrices corresponding to the following quadratic forms :

(i) x + 2 y2 + 3 z 2 + 4 xy + 5 yz + 6 zx.
2
(ii) ax2 + by2 + cz 2 + 2 fyz + 2 gzx + 2 hxy. (Kumaun 2008)
Solution: (i) The given quadratic form can be written as

5 5
x2 + 2 xy + 3 xz + 2 yx + 2 y2 + yz + 3 zx + zy + 3 z 2 .
2 2
∴ If A is the matrix of this quadratic form, then
 
1 2 3 
 5
A =2 2  , which is a symmetric matrix of order 3.
 2
 5 
 3 2
3

(ii) The given quadratic form can be written as
ax2 + hxy + gxz + hyx + by2 + fyz + gzx + fzy + cz 2 .
∴ If A is the matrix of this quadratic form, then
a h g 
A=h b f ⋅
 
 g f c 
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Example 8: Write down the quadratic forms corresponding to the following matrices :
0 1 2 3
 0 5 −1   1 2 3 4
(i)  5 1 6 (ii)  ⋅
  2 3 4 5
 −1 6 2  3 4 5 6
 
Solution: (i) Let X = [ x1 x2 x3 ]T and A denote the given symmetric matrix. Then
XT AX is the quadratic form corresponding to this matrix. We have
 0 5 −1 
X T A = [ x1 x2 x3 ]  5 1 6 
 
 −1 6 2 
= [5 x2 − x3 5 x1 + x2 + 6 x3 − x1 + 6 x2 + 2 x3 ].
T
∴ X AX = x1 (5 x2 − x3 ) + x2 (5 x1 + x2 + 6 x3 ) + x3 (− x1 + 6 x2 + 2 x3 )
= x22 + 2 x32 + 10 x1 x2 − 2 x1 x3 + 12 x2 x3 .
(ii) Let X = [ x1 x2 x3 x4 ]T and A denote the given symmetric matrix. Then

XTAX is the quadratic form corresponding to this matrix. We have
0 1 2 3
1 2 3 4
X T A = [ x1 x2 x3 x4 ]  
2 3 4 5
3 4 5 6 

= [x2 + 2 x3 + 3 x4 x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 + 4 x4 2 x1 + 3 x2 + 4 x3 + 5 x4
3 x1 + 4 x2 + 5 x3 + 6 x4 ]
∴ XTAX = x1 ( x2 + 2 x3 + 3 x4 ) + x2 ( x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 + 4 x4 )
+ x3 (2 x1 + 3 x2 + 4 x3 + 5 x4 ) + x4 (3 x1 + 4 x2 + 5 x3 + 6 x4 )
= 2 x22 + 4 x32 + 6 x42 + 2 x1 x2 + 4 x1 x3 + 6 x1 x4
+ 6 x2 x3 + 8 x2 x4 + 10 x3 x4 .
C omprehensive Exercise 1
1. Which of the following functions f , defined on vectors α = ( x1, x2 ) and

β = ( y1, y2 ) in R 2 , are bilinear forms ?
(i) f (α, β) = x1 y2 − x2 y1 (Kumaun 2007, 08, 09, 12)

2
(ii) f (α, β) = ( x1 − y1) + x2 y2 ⋅ (Kumaun 2007, 08, 09)
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2. Find the matrix A of each of the following bilinear forms b (X , Y ) = X T AY .
(i) − 5 x1 y1 − x1 y2 + 2 x2 y1 − x3 y1 + 3 x3 y2
(ii) 4 x1 y1 + x1 y2 + x2 y1 − 2 x2 y2 − 4 x2 y3 − 4 x3 y2 + 7 x3 y3 ⋅
Which of the above forms is symmetric ?

3. Determine the transformation matrices P and Q so that the bilinear form
X T AY = x1 y1 + x1 y2 + 2 x1 y3 + x2 y1 + 2 x2 y2 + 3 x2 y3 − x3 y2 − x3 y3
is equivalent to a canonical form.
4. Obtain the matrices corresponding to the following quadratic forms
(i) ax2 + 2 hxy + by2 (ii) 2 x1 x2 + 6 x1 x3 − 4 x2 x3 .
(iii) x12 + 5 x22 − 7 x3 2 (iv) 2 x12 − 7 x32 + 4 x1 x2 − 6 x2 x3 .

5. Obtain the matrices corresponding to the following quadratic forms :
(i) a11 x12 + a22 x22 + a33 x32 + 2 a12 x1 x2 + 2 a23 x2 x3 + 2 a31 x3 x1.
(ii) x12 − 2 x22 + 4 x32 − 4 x42 − 2 x1 x2 + 3 x1 x3 + 4 x2 x3 − 5 x3 x4 .
(iii) x1 x2 + x2 x3 + x3 x1 + x1 x4 + x2 x4 + x3 x4 .
(iv) x12 − 2 x2 x3 − x3 x4 .
(v) d1 x12 + d2 x22+ d3 x32 + d4 x42 + d5 x52 .
6. Find the matrix of the quadratic form

x12 − 2 x22 − 3 x32 + 4 x1 x2 + 6 x1 x3 − 8 x2 x3 .
and verify that it can be written as a matrix product X ′A X.

7. Write down the quadratic forms corresponding to the following symmetric
matrices :
1 2 3
(i) 2 0 3 (ii) diag. [λ1, λ 2 , ......, λ n]
 
 3 3 1 
8. Write down the quadratic form corresponding to the matrix
0 a b c 
 a 0 l m
 ⋅
b l 0 p
c m p 0
 
9. Write down the quadratic form associated with the matrix
 2 1 2

B = −3 −3 −1  .
 
 4 1 3 
Rewrite the matrix A of the form so that it is symmetric.

L-189
A nswers 1
1. (i) f is a bilinear form on R 2
(ii) f is not a bilinear form on R 2
 −5 −1 
2. (i) A =  2 0  ⋅ The given bilinear form is not symmetric.
 
 −1 3 
4 1 0

(ii) A = 1 −2 −4  ⋅ The given bilinear form is symmetric.
 
 0 −4 7 
 1 −1 −1   1 −1 −1 
3. 
P= 0 
1 1 , Q = 0 1 −1 
   
 0 0 1   0 0 1 
0 1 3
a h
4. (i) h b (ii)  1 0 −2 
   
 3 −2 0 
 1 0 0 2 2 0
(iii)  0 5 0  (iv)  2 0 −3 
   
 0 0 −7   0 −3 −7 
 1 −1 0 3 
2
 a11 a12 a31   
a −1 −2 2 0
5. (i) a22 a23  ⋅ (ii) 
 12   0 2 4 − 52 
 a31 a23 a33   3 
 2 0 − 52 −4 
 0 12 12 12   1 0 0 0
1   0 0 −1 0
0 1 1
(iii)  21 1 2 21  (iv)  
2 2 0 2  0 −1 0 − 12 
1 1 1  0 0 − 1 0 
2 2 2 0  2
(v) diag. [d1, d2 , d3 , d4 , d5 ]
1 2 3
6.  2 −2 −4 
 
 3 −4 −3 
7. (i) x12 + x32 + 4 x1 x2 + 6 x1 x3 + 6 x2 x3
(ii) λ1 x12 + λ 2 x22 + ..... + λ n x2n

L-190
8. 2 ax1 x2 + 2 bx1 x3 + 2 cx1 x4 + 2 lx2 x3 + 2 mx2 x4 + 2 px3 x4
9. 2 x12 − 3 x22 + 3 x32 − 2 x1 x2 + 6 x1 x3

 2 −1 3 
A =  −1 −3 0 
 
 3 0 3 

Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter from
(a), (b), (c) and (d).
1. Let f be the bilinear form on V2 ( R) defined by
f {( x1 , y1 ),( x2 , y2 )} = x1 y1 + x2 y2 . Then then matrix of f in the ordered
basis B = {(1, − 1), (1,1)} of V2 ( R) is
2 0   −2 0 
(a)   (b) 
0 2   0 2 
 2 0   0 2 
(c)   (d) 
 0 −2   −2 0 
2. Let f be a bilinear form of the vector space V. Then f is said to be
symmetric if …… for all vectors α , β in V.
(a) f (α , β ) = f ( β , α) (b) f (α , β ) = − f ( β , α)
(c) f (α , β ) = f ( − β , − α) (d) f (α , β ) = − f ( α , β)
3. The matrix corresponding to the following quadratic form a x 2 + 2 hxy + by2 is
h a a h
(a)  (b) 
h b  h b 
a b a h
(c)  (d) 
h h  b h 
n n
4. An expression of the form ∑ ∑ a ij xi y j , where a ij' s are elements of a field F, is
i=1 j=1
called a:
(a) real quadratic form in x1 , x 2 ,…, x n
(b) quadratic form in x1 , x 2 ,…, x n
(c) bilinear form in x1 , x 2 ,…, x n
(d) diagonal form in x1 , x 2 ,…, x n
L-191
2 2
5. The matrix of quadratic form x1 − 18 x1 x2 + 5 x2 is :
 1 −9   1 −18 
(a)  (b) 
−9 5  5 0 
 1 5
(c)  (d) none of these
−18 0 

Fill in the blanks ‘‘……’’ so that the following statements are complete and correct.
1. If the bilinear form
b ( X , Y ) = X T AY = 2 x1 y1 + x1 y2 − 2 x2 y1 + 3 x2 y2 − 3 x1 y3 ,
then the matrix A = …… .
2. The bilinear form b ( X , Y ) = X T AY is said to be a symmetric bilinear form if the
matrix A is a …… matrix.
n n
3. An expression of the form Σ Σ aij xi x j, where aij’s are elements of a field F, is
i =1 j =1
called a …… in the n variables x1, x2 , … , xn over the field F.
4. There exists a one-to-one correspondence between the set of all quadratic forms
in n variables over a field F and the set of all n-rowed …… matrices over F.
True or False
Write ‘T’ for true and ‘F’ for false statement.
1. The bilinear form
3 x1 y1 + x1 y2 + x2 y1 − 2 x2 y2 − 4 x2 y3 − 4 x3 y2 + 3 x3 y3
is symmetric.
2. The matrix corresponding to the quadratic form
d1 x12 + d2 x22 + d3 x32 + d4 x42
is a diagonal matrix.
3. Every real quadratic form over a field F in n variables x1, x2 , … , xn can be
expressed in the form X ′B X where X′ = [ x1, x2 , … , xn]′ is a column vector and B is
a skew-symmetric matrix of order n over the field F.
A nswers
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a)

L-192

 2 1 −3 
1.  −2 3 0  2. symmetric
 
3. quadratic form 4. symmetric
True or False
1. T 2. T 3. F

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Kumaun University Semester Syllabus w.e.f. 2018-19

A.R. Vasishtha A.K. Vasishtha

KRISHNA Prakashan Media (P) Ltd.

Jai Shri Radhey Shyam

Linear Transformations: Linear transformations, rank and nullity, Linear operators,

Chapter 1: Linear Transformations.................................................L-01—L-50

Chapter 2: Matrices and Linear Transformations.............................L-51—L-84

Chapter 3: Linear Functionals and Dual Space..............................L-85—L-128

Chapter 4: Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors...................................L-129—L-166

Chapter 5: Bilinear and Quadratic Forms....................................L-167—L-192

2. Matrices and Linear Transformations

3. Linear Functionals and Dual Space

4. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

1 Linear Transformation or Vector Space Homomorphism

Illustration 1: The function

then T is a linear transformation from V into V.

2 Some Particular Transformations

∴ − T is a linear transformation from U into V. The linear transformation − T is called

3 Properties of Linear Transformations.

4 Range and Null Space of a Linear Transformation

Let a, b ∈ F . Then aα1 + bα2 ∈ U and

5 Rank and Nullity of a Linear Transformation

Since {α1, α2 , … , α k} is a linearly independent subset of U, therefore we can extend it to

Example 1: Show that the mapping T : V3 (R) → V2 (R) defined as

The vectors T (1, 0 ), T (0 , 1) span the range of T .

Let α = (a1, b1), β = (a2 , b2 ) ∈ V2 (R) and let x, y ∈ R.

Let T : R 3 → R 2 be defined as T (α1) = (1, 0 ), T (α2 ) = (2 , − 1), T (α3 ) = (4, 3).

1. Show that the mapping T : V3 (R) → V2 (R) defined as

6 Linear Transformations as Vectors

(T1 + T2 ) (α) = T1 (α) + T2 (α) V α ∈ U . …(1)

[(ab) T ] (α) = (ab) T (α) [By (2)]

α = x1α1 + … + xn α n and β = y1α1 + … + yn α n .

Uniqueness of T: Let T ′ be a linear transformation from U into V such that

i. e., Tpq (α i) = δ iq β p , …(1)

Obviously S is a linear combination of elements of B1 which is a subset of L (U , V ).

⇒ bpq = 0 where 1≤ p ≤ m and 1≤ q ≤ n

7 Product of Linear Transformations

Theorem 2: Let V ( F ) be a vector space and A, B, C be linear transformations on V.Then

( A + B ) (α) = A (α) + B (α) …(1)

= c [ A ( B (α))] [By (3)]

Example 7: Let T1 and T2 be linear operators on R2 defined as follows :

8 Ring of Linear Operators on a Vector Space

9 Algebra or Linear Algebra

11 Invertible Linear Transformations

⇒ C [ A (α1)] = C [ A (α2 )] ⇒ (CA ) (α1) = (CA ) (α2 )

Theorem 5: Uniqueness of inverse: Let A be an invertible linear transformation on a

Theorem 6: Let V ( F ) be a vector space and let A, B be linear transformations on V. Then

Also  1 A−1 (aA) = 1 [ A−1 (aA)] = 1 [a ( A−1 A)]

12 Singular and Non-singular Transformations

Theorem 2: Let T be a linear transformation from U into V. Then T is non-singular if and

To prove that B ′ is linearly independent.

Thus the image of B under T is linearly independent.

Example 10: Describe explicitly the linear transformation T : R 2 → R 2 such that

T (1, 0 , 0 ) = (1, 0 , − 1),

Example 13: A linear transformation T is defined on V2 ( C ) by

⇒ T (α) ∈ null space of T V α ∈ V .

Example 16: If T : U → V is a linear transformation and U is finite dimensional, show

Example 18: If A is a linear transformation on a vector space V such that

We have A [α − A (α)] = A (α) − A2 (α)

Example 20:Let V be a finite dimensional vector space over the field F.

1. Describe explicitly the linear transformation T from F 2 to F 2 such that