ME-331 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Introduction & Basic concepts (chapter #1)

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

Objectives
• Understand how thermodynamics and heat transfer are related to each
other.

• Distinguish thermal energy from other forms of energy, and heat transfer
from other forms of energy transfer.

• Perform general energy balances as well as surface energy balances.

• Understand the basic mechanisms of heat transfer, which are conduction,

convection, and radiation, and Fourier's law of heat conduction, Newton's
law of cooling, and the Stefan–Boltzmann law of radiation.

• Identify the mechanisms of heat transfer that occur simultaneously in

practice.

• Develop an awareness of the cost associated with heat losses.

• Solve various heat transfer problems encountered in practice.

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-1 Thermodynamics And Heat Transfer 1

 Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from one system to
another as a result of temperature difference.
 Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a
system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another.
 Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of such
energy transfers as well as variation of temperature.
 The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-temperature
medium to the lower-temperature one.
 Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
 Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
 conduction, convection, radiation

3
 1-1 Thermodynamics And Heat Transfer 1

4
Courtesy: Courses.ansys.com
 1-1 Thermodynamics And Heat Transfer 1

5
Courtesy: Courses.ansys.com
 1-1 Thermodynamics And Heat Transfer 1

6
Courtesy: Courses.ansys.com
 1-1 Thermodynamics And Heat Transfer 2

 We are normally interested in how  Heat flows in the

long it takes for the hot coffee in direction of
decreasing
a thermos bottle to cool to a temperature.
certain temperature, which cannot
be determined from a
thermodynamic analysis alone.
7

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 1-1 Thermodynamics And Heat Transfer 3

 Application Areas of Heat Transfer

 Some application areas of heat

transfer.
8

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 1-2 Engineering Heat Transfer 1

 Heat transfer equipment such as heat exchangers, boilers, condensers, radiators, heaters,
furnaces, refrigerators, and solar collectors are designed primarily on the basis of heat
transfer analysis.
 The heat transfer problems encountered in practice can be considered in two groups: (1)
rating and (2) sizing problems.
 The rating problems deal with the determination of the heat transfer rate for an existing
system at a specified temperature difference.
 The sizing problems deal with the determination of the size of a system in order to
transfer heat at a specified rate for a specified temperature difference.
 An engineering device or process can be studied either experimentally (testing and
taking measurements) or analytically (by analysis or calculations).
 The experimental approach has the advantage that we deal with the actual physical
system, and the desired quantity is determined by measurement, within the limits of
experimental error. However, this approach is expensive, timeconsuming, and often
impractical.
 The analytical approach (including the numerical approach) has the advantage 9
that it is
fast and inexpensive, but the results obtained are subject to the accuracy of the
assumptions, approximations, and idealizations made in the analysis.
Ref: McGraw Hill Education
 1-2 Engineering Heat Transfer 2

 Modeling in Engineering

 Modeling is a powerful
engineering tool that provides
 Mathematical modelling of great insight and simplicity at
the expense of some accuracy.
physical problems.
10

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 1-3 Heat And Other Forms Of Energy 1

 Energy can exist in numerous forms such as:

 thermal
 mechanical
 kinetic
 potential
 electrical
 magnetic
 chemical
 nuclear

 Their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a unit mass basis) of a system.
The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a system.

11

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 1-3 Heat And Other Forms Of Energy 2

• Internal energy: May be viewed as the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of
the molecules.
• Sensible heat: The kinetic energy of the molecules.
• Latent heat: The internal energy associated with the phase of a system.
• Chemical (bond) energy: The internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a
molecule.
• Nuclear energy: The internal energy associated with the bonds within the nucleus of
the atom itself.

12

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 1-3 Heat And Other Forms Of Energy 3

• In the analysis of systems that

involve fluid flow, we frequently
encounter the combination of
properties u and Pv.
• The combination is defined as
enthalpy (h = u + Pv).
• The term Pv represents the flow
energy of the fluid (also called the
flow work).

 The internal energy u represents the

microscopic energy of a nonflowing
fluid, whereas enthalpy h represents
the microscopic energy of a flowing
fluid.
13

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-3 Heat And Other Forms Of Energy 4

 Specific Heats of Gases,

Liquids, and Solids
Specific heat: The energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one
degree.
 Specific heat is the energy required to
 Two kinds of specific heats: raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
 specific heat at constant volume cv . substance by one degree in a specified
way.
 specific heat at constant pressure cp.

The specific heats of a substance, in general,

depend on two independent properties such as
temperature and pressure.
At low pressures all real gases approach ideal  The specific heat of a substance
gas behavior, and therefore their specific heats changes with temperature.
depend on temperature only.
14
 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-3 Heat And Other Forms Of Energy 5

1 kJ/kg. C  1 J/g. C  1 KJ/kg.K  1 J/g.k

du = cv dT and dh = cpdT
u = cv ,avg T and h = cp ,avg T (J/g)

u = mcv ,avg T and H = mcp ,avg T (J)

• Incompressible substance: A substance

whose specific volume (or density) does not
change with temperature or pressure.
• The constant-volume and constant-pressure
specific heats are identical for
incompressible substances.
• The specific heats of incompressible  The cv and cp values of
substances depend on temperature only. incompressible substances are
identical and are denoted by
 ΔU = mcavg ΔT (J) c.
15

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-3 Heat And Other Forms Of Energy 6

t
 Energy Transfer Q =  Qdt
0
( J)
Wh
 Energy can be transferred to or from a given mass by two

en Q is 
mechanisms: Q = Qt ( J) consta
 heat transfer and work. nt:

 Heat transfer rate: The amount of heat transferred per unit q=

Q
A
( w/m2 )
time.
 Heat flux: The rate of heat transfer per unit area normal to the
direction of heat transfer.
 Power: The work
done per unit time.

Q 24W
q= = 2
= 4W / m2
A 6m

 The sensible and latent forms of internal energy  Heat flux is heat transfer
can be transferred as a result of a temperature per unit time and per unit
difference, and they are referred to as heat or area, and is equal to
thermal energy. q = Q / A when Q
16
 is uniform over the
area A.
Ref: McGraw Hill Education
1-4 The First Law Of Thermodynamics 1

 The first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy principle) states

that energy can neither be created nor destroyed during a process; it can only
change forms.

 Total energy   Total energy   Change in the   The net change (increase or decrease)
      in the total energy of the system
 entering the  −  Leaving the  =  total energy of 
 system   system   the system  during a process is equal to the
     
difference between the total energy
entering and the total energy leaving
the system during that process.
Ein − Eout = Esystem (J )
Net energy transfer by Change in internal,kinetic,  The energy balance for any system
heat, work,and mass Potential, etc., energies undergoing any process in the rate form.

Ein − Eout = dEsystem / dt (W)

Net energy transfer by Rate of Change in internal
heat, work,and mass kinetic,potential,etc.,energies

17

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-4 The First Law Of Thermodynamics 2

steady, rate form : Ein = Eout

Rate of net energy transfer in Rate of net energy transfer out
by heat,work, and mass by heat,work, and mass

 In heat transfer problems it is

convenient to write a heat balance
and to treat the conversion of nuclear,
chemical, mechanical, and electrical
energies into thermal energy as heat
generation.

Qin − Qout + Egen = Ethermal,system (J )

Net hear tranmsfer Heat Change in thermal
generation energy of the system
 In steady operation, the rate of
energy transfer to a system is equal
to the rate of energy transfer from
the system.

18

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-4 The First Law Of Thermodynamics 3

 Energy Balance for Closed Systems (Fixed Mass)

 A closed system consists of a fixed mass.
 The total energy E for most systems
encountered in practice consists of the
internal energy U.
 This is especially the case for stationary
systems since they don’t involve any
changes in their velocity or elevation during
a process.

 Starionary closed system:

Ein − Eout = U = mcv T (J )

 In the absence of any work  Stationary closed system, no work:
interactions, the change in the
energy content of a closed system Q = mcv T (J )
is equal to the net heat transfer.
19

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-4 The First Law Of Thermodynamics 4

 Energy Balance for Steady-Flow

 Systems
A large number of engineering devices
such as water heaters and car radiators
involve mass flow in and out of a system,
and are modeled as control volumes.
 The mass flow rate of a fluid at a cross section
 Most control volumes are analyzed under is equal to the product of the fluid density,
steady operating conditions. average fluid velocity, and the cross-sectional
 The term steady means no change with area.
time at a specified location.
 Mass flow rate: The amount of mass
flowing through a cross section of a flow
device per unit time.
 Volume flow rate: The volume of a fluid
flowing through a pipe or duct per unit  Under steady conditions, the net rate of
time.
m = pVA (
kg / s
c ) energy transfer to a fluid in a control
volume is equal to the rate of increase in
m
v = VAc =
p
(m / s)
3
the energy of the fluid stream flowing
through the control volume. 23
Q = mh = mc p T ( kJ/s )
Ref: McGraw Hill Education
1-4 The First Law Of Thermodynamics 5

 Surface Energy
Balance
 A surface contains no volume or mass,
and thus no energy. Thereore, a surface
 can be viewed as a fictitious system
whose energy content remains constant
during a process.

Surface energy balance : Ein = Eout

 This relation is valid for both steady  Energy interactions at the outer
and transient conditions, and the wall surface of a house.
surface energy balance does not
involve heat generation since a surface
does not have a volume.
Q1 = Q1 + Q3
 When the directions of interactions are not known, all energy interactions can be
assumed to be towards the surface, and the surface energy balance can be expressed as E
in = 0.
 Note that the interactions in opposite direction will end up having negative values,
and balance this equation. 24

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 Practice Problem

25

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 Practice Problem

26

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 Practice Problem

1–38 A 5-m x 6-m x 8-m room is to be heated by an electrical resistance heater

placed in a short duct in the room. Initially, the room is at 15°C, and the local
atmospheric pressure is 98 kPa. The room is losing heat steadily to the outside
at a rate of 200 kJ/min. A 200-W fan circulates the air steadily through the duct
and the electric heater at an average mass flow rate of 50 kg/min. The duct can
be assumed to be adiabatic, and there is no air leaking in or out of the room. If
it takes 15 minutes for the room air to reach an average temperature of 25°C,
find (a) the power rating of the electric heater and (b) the temperature rise
that the air experiences each time it passes through the heater.

Assumptions
 Air is an ideal gas at high T and low P
 Δke ≈Δpe≈0
 Const. specific heat at room temperature for air
 Heat loss from duct is negligible
 House is airtight so no air leaking in or out of
 room
27

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 28

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 Lecture 2 End

29

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-5 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
 Heat as the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a
result of temperature difference.
 A thermodynamic analysis is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system
undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to another.
 The science that deals with the determination of the rates of such energy transfers is
the heat transfer.
 The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-temperature medium to the
lower-temperature one, and heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
 Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:
 Conduction.
 Convection.
 Radiation.

 All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a temperature difference.

30

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-6 Conduction 1

 Conduction: The transfer of energy from the

more energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as a result of
interactions between the particles.
 In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the
collisions and diffusion of the molecules during
their random motion.
 In solids, it is due to the combination of
vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the
energy transport by free electrons.
 The rate of heat conduction through a plane
layer is proportional to the temperature
difference across the layer and the heat transfer
area, but is inversely proportional to the
thickness of the layer.
Rate of heat conduction 
( Area )( Temperature difference )  Heat conduction through
Thickness a large plane wall of
T1 − T2 T thickness x and area A.
Qcond = kA = − kA (W)
x x  Access the text alternative for slide 31
images.

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-6 Conduction 2

When x → 0
dT  Fourier’s law of
Qcond = −kA heat conduction
dx
 Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of
the ability of a material to conduct
heat.
 Temperature gradient dT / dx :
 The slope of the temperature curve on a T-x
diagram.
 Heat is conducted in the direction of
decreasing temperature, and the temperature
gradient becomes negative when temperature
decreases with increasing x. The negative sign  The rate of heat conduction
in the equation ensures that heat transfer in the through a solid is directly
positive x direction is a positive quantity. proportional to its thermal
conductivity.

32

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 1-6 Conduction 3

 In heat conduction
analysis, A represents the
area normal to the
direction of heat transfer.
33

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 1-6 Conduction 4

 Thermal Conductivity
 Thermal conductivity: The rate of heat
transfer through a unit thickness of the
material per unit area per unit
temperature difference.
 The thermal conductivity of a material is
a measure of the ability of the material to
conduct heat.
 A high value for thermal conductivity
indicates that the material is a good heat L
k= Q
conductor, and a low value indicates that A (T1 − T2 )
the material is a poor heat conductor or
insulator.  A simple experimental setup to
determine the thermal conductivity
of a material.

34

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-6 Conduction 5

Material K,W/m.K*
 Table 1-1 Diamond 2300
Silver 429
 The thermal
Copper 401
conductivities of some
Gold 317
materials at room
temperature Aluminum 237
Iron 80.2
Mercury (l) 8.54
Glass 0.78
Brick 0.72
Water (l) 0.607
 *Multiply by 0.5778 to Human skin 0.37
convert to Btc/h.ft.°F. Wood (oak) 0.17
Helium (g) 0.152
Soft rubber 0.13
Glass fiber 0.043
Air (g) 0.026
35
Urethane, rigid foam 0.026

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-6 Conduction 5

36

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-6 Conduction 5

37

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-6 Conduction 5

38

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 1-6 Conduction 6

 The range of
thermal
conductivity of
various
materials at
room
temperature.

 The range of thermal conductivity of

 various materials at room
temperature.
39

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-6 Conduction 7

 The thermal conductivities of gases such as air vary by

4
10of
a factor
 from those of pure metals such as copper.
 Pure crystals and metals have the highest thermal
conductivities, and gases and insulating materials the lowest.

 Table  The thermal conductivity of an alloy is

usually much lower than the thermal
1-2 conductivity of either metal of which it is
composed

Pure Metal or K, W/m.k

Alloy at 300 k
Copper 401
Nickel 91
Constantan
(55% cu, 45% Ni) 23
Copper 401
 The mechanisms of Aluminum 237
heat conduction in Commercial bronze
different phases of a (90% Cu, 10% A1) 52
substance. 40

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-6 Conduction 8

 Table 1-3

 Thermal conductivities of
materials vary with temperature

 The variation of the thermal

 The variation of the thermal conductivity of conductivity of various
various solids, liquids, and gases with solids, liquids, and gases
temperature. with temperature.
41

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 1-6 Conduction 9

 Table 1-4: The thermal diffusivities of

 Thermal Diffusivity some materials at room temperature
Material a, m 2 / s *
 cp Specific heat, J/kg·°C: Heat capacity per unit mass Silver 149 10−6
 cp Heat capacity, J/m 3 . C:  Gold 127 10−6
Heat capacity per
unit volume Copper 113 10−6
  Thermal diffusivity, m /s: Represents how fast

2
Aluminum 97.5 10−6
heat diffuses through a material Iron 22.8 10−6
Mercury (l) 4.7 10−6
Heat conduction k
=
Heat storage
=
pc p
(m / s)
2
Marble 1.2 10−6
Ice 1.2 10−6
 A material that has a high thermal conductivity
Concrete 0.75 10−6
or a low heat capacity will obviously have a
Brick 0.52 10−6
large thermal diffusivity.
Heavy Soil (dry) 0.52 10−6
 The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the
Glass 0.34 10−6
propagation of heat into the medium.
Glass Wool 0.23 10−6
 A small value of thermal diffusivity means that
Water (l) 0.14 10−6
heat is mostly absorbed by the material and a
Beef 0.14 10−6
small amount of heat is conducted further. 42

Wood (oak) 0.13 10−6

Ref: McGraw Hill Education
1-7 Convection 1

 Convection: The mode of energy transfer

between a solid surface and the adjacent
liquid or gas that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
 The faster the fluid motion, the greater the
convection heat transfer.
 In the absence of any bulk fluid motion,
heat transfer between a solid surface and
the adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.

 Heat transfer from a hot surface to

air by convection.

43
 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-7 Convection 2

 Forced convection: If the fluid is

forced to flow over the surface by
external means such as a fan,
pump, or the wind.
 Natural (or free) convection: If
the fluid motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are induced
by density differences due to the
variation of temperature in the
fluid.  The cooling of a boiled
egg by forced and natural
convection.

 Heat transfer processes that involve change of phase of a fluid are also considered to
be convection because of the fluid motion induced during the process, such as the rise
of the vapor bubbles during boiling or the fall of the liquid droplets during
condensation. 44
 Access the text alternative for slide images.

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-7 Convection 3

Qconv = hAs (Ts − T ) (W)  Newton’s law of cooling

 h convection heat transfer W/m 2 . C.

 Acoefficient,
s the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes
place.
 Ts the surface temperature.
 T the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.
 The convection heat transfer
 Table 1-5: Typical values of
coefficient h is not a property of the
convection heat transfer
fluid.
coefficient
 It is an experimentally determined Type of Convection h, W/m 2 .k *
parameter whose value depends on all
Free convection of gases 2-25
the variables influencing convection
such as, Free convection of liquids 10-1000
Forced convection of gases 25-250
• the surface geometry.
Forced convection of liquids 50-20,000
• the nature of fluid motion.
Boiling and condensation 2500-100,000
• the properties of the fluid.  *Multiply by 0.176 to
45
convert to Btu/h.ft 2 . F.
• the bulk fluid velocity.
Ref: McGraw Hill Education
1-8 Radiation 1

• Radiation: The energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or
photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or
molecules.
• Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of heat by radiation does not require
the presence of an intervening medium.
• In fact, heat transfer by radiation is fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no
attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches the earth.
• In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the form of
radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature.
• All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation.
• Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases emit, absorb,
or transmit radiation to varying degrees.
• However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon for solids.

48

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-8 Radiation 2

 Table 1-6: Emissivities of some materials at

Qemit,max =  AsTs4 (W)  Stefan–Boltzmann law 300 k
Material Emissivity
Aluminum foil 0.07
 = 5.670 10−8 W/m 2 .K 4  Stefan–Boltzmann constant
Anodized aluminum 0.82
 Blackbody: The idealized surface that Polished copper 0.03
emits radiation at the maximum rate. Polished gold 0.03
Qemit =  AsTs4 ( W ) Polished silver 0.02
 Radiation emitted by real surfaces Polished stainless steel 0.17
Black paint 0.98
 Emissivity  : A measure of how closely
a surface approximates a blackbody for White paint 0.90

which  = 1 of the surface. 0   1. White paper 0.92−0.97

Asphalt pavement 0.85−0.93
Red brick 0.93−0.96
Human skin 0.95
Wood 0.82−0.92
 Blackbody radiation represents the Soil 0.93−0.96
maximum amount of radiation that can be Water 0.96
emitted from a surface at a specified Vegetation
49
0.92−0.96
temperature.
Ref: McGraw Hill Education
1-8 Radiation 3

 Absorptivity : The fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface that is

absorbed by the surface. 0   1.
 A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it ( = 1).
 Kirchhoff’s law: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface at a given
temperature and wavelength are equal.

Qabsorbed =  Qincident (W)

 The absorption of radiation incident on an opaque surface of absorptivity

.
50

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

1-8 Radiation 4

 Net radiation heat transfer: The  When a surface is completely enclosed by

a much larger (or black) surface at
difference between the rates of temperature Tsurr separated by a gas (such
radiation emitted by the surface and as air) that does not intervene with
the radiation absorbed. radiation, the net rate of radiation heat
transfer between these two surfaces is
 The determination of the net rate of given by
heat transfer by radiation between
Qrad =  As (Ts4 − Tsurr
4
) (W)
two surfaces is a complicated
matter since it depends on,
• the properties of the surfaces.
• their orientation relative to each
other.
• the interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with radiation.

 Radiation is usually significant relative  Radiation heat transfer between a

to conduction or natural convection, surface and the surfaces surrounding it.
but negligible relative to forced 51
convection.  Access the text alternative for slide
images.

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 1-8 Radiation 5

 When radiation and convection occur simultaneously

between a surface and a gas:

Qtotal = hcombined As (Ts − T ) ( W )

 Combined heat transfer coefficient hcombined
 Includes the effects of both convection and radiation

Qtotal = Qconv + Qrad = hconv As (Ts − Tsurr ) +  As (Ts4 − Tsurr

4
)
Qtotal = hcombined As (Ts − T ) ( W )
hcombined = hconv + hrad = hconv +  (Ts + Tsurr ) (Ts2 + Tsurr
2
)

52

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 53

Ref: McGraw Hill Education

 Lecture 3 Ends

54

Ref: McGraw Hill Education