BASIC ELECTRICAL MACHINES

ECE 261

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 DISCLAIMER
THIS DOCUMENT DOES NOT CLAIM ANY ORIGINALITY AND
CANNOT BE USED AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR PRESCRIBED COURSE
TEXTBOOKS. THE INFORMATION PRESENTED HERE IS A
COLLECTION FROM VARIOUS SOURCES THAT INCLUDES BOOKS
AS WELL AS FREELY AVAILABLE INTERNET MATERIALS. THE
NOTES SERVE AS A GUIDE AND STUDENTS ARE THEREFORE
ADVICED TO MAKE REFERENCE TO THE CORE COURSE TEXT
BOOKS

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Core Reading Materials
1. Electrical and Electronic Technology; Hughes Edward, Pearson
Education Limited.
2. Electrical Engineering, Principles and Applications; Allan R.
Hambley.
3. Foundations of Electrical Engineering; 2nd Ed., John R. Cogdell,
Prentice Hall

Lecture 1

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Understand the meaning, source and application of magnetism

2. Review laws pertaining to analysis of electric circuits and magnetic circuits
3. Understand the meaning and significance of self and mutual inductance and the
energy stored
4. Perform calculations related to magnetic circuits

INTRODUCTION

Magnetism refers to the physical phenomenon by which materials assert a force or

influence on other material and mobile electric charges. The force is conveyed
through a magnetic field. It plays very many important roles in modern everyday life.
In telecommunications, magnets are used in sound speakers to transform electrical
signal to sound waves. Magnetism has also found immense use in large industries
where they are used in motors that convert electrical energy to mechanical energy. In
computer industry, magnetic storage media store data in the form of magnetised dots.
In medicine magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has become an important equipment
for diagnosing ailments, while in transportation, electric trains convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy using traction motors. For home use, the door bell
operates by electric current magnetising a member that pulls a ringer which strikes the
chime.
We therefore study magnetism because the phenomena is applicable across many
fields.

BASIC CONCEPTS

Magnetic moments.
The source of magnetism in permanent magnets is the electric charge. Electrons
which are subatomic particles carry negative electric charge. The movement of the
electrons or the negatively charged particles around the nucleus of the atom forms a
circular orbit (which looks like a current loop) which generates microscopic electric
current (and the associated magnetic moments) that causes the atom to act as
microscopic magnets.
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Because the electron in an atom may have two types of angular momentums, spin and
orbital angular momentums, there are two sources of magnetic moments. The sources
contribute to the resultant atomic magnetic moment and hence making the atom a tiny
permanent magnet on its own.

Orbital magnetic moment

In an atom, electrons revolve around the nucleus in different orbits, these revolving
electrons constitute an electric current in the orbits which is equivalent to current in a
closed circuit. The direction of the current in the loop is opposite to the direction of
the revolution of the electrons. Thus, if the electron revolves in the clockwise
direction, it constitutes an anticlockwise current, and vice versa. It can be shown that
the orbital magnetic moment due to the rotating electron is directly proportional to the
magnitude the charge (hence generated current) and area enclosed by the loop. It is
also proportional to the angular momentum of the electron.

Spin magnetic moment:

In addition to orbital motion, the electrons also possess spins about there own axis
which results in spin magnetic moments. Magnetic moment due to spin is caused by
spin angular momentum of the electrons.

The spin and orbital magnetic moments of atoms combine vectorially in a sample to
produce the net magnetic moment of that particular sample. It is these magnetic
moments obtained by the combination of orbital and spin magnetic moments that
determine the magnetic properties of the materials.
A net non-zero magnetic moment can be created by a number of such magnetic
moments aligning themselves in various directions. As a result, the type of
magnetization produced is determined by the quantity of unpaired valence electrons
present in the solids' atoms and their relative orientations to neighbouring magnetic
moments.

Electric and Magnetic Fields

Magnetic and Electric Dipoles

Magnetic dipoles are found to exist in magnetic materials, which, in some respects,
are analogous to electric dipoles . Magnetic dipoles may be thought of as being small
bar magnets composed of north and south poles instead of positive and negative
electric charges for electric dipoles.
Magnetic dipoles are influenced by magnetic fields in a manner similar to the way in
which electric dipoles are affected by electric fields. Within a magnetic field, the
force of the field itself exerts a torque that tends to orient the dipoles with the field. A
familiar example is the way in which a magnetic compass needle lines up with the
earth’s magnetic field.

Electric Field
An electric field is basically a concept used to describe electric forces due to a voltage.
Whenever there is a voltage, there is also a field. An electric field is said to exist in a
space if a charged particle placed in the space experiences a force that would not be
felt by uncharged particle. The force is usually as a result of a charged body. Hence
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the charged body produces a field of strength E that asserts a force on nearby charged
body q equivalent to F=qE. The direction of the field is the direction of the force on a
negatively charged particle. Electric field E is therefore defined as electric force per
unit charge which depends on how strong the voltage . We say that electric field is
uniform if its magnitude and direction does not change from point to point.

Electric dipole moment

An electric dipole is a pair of charges of opposite sign (±q) of same magnitude and
separated by a distance d which is usually small. The product qd is a vector which
points from the −q charge to the +q charge and is known as the electric dipole
moment for the pair denoted p.
An isolated charge q in a uniform electric field experiences a force F = qE. We note
that when q is positive the force points in the same direction as the field, but when q is
negative, the force is opposite the field direction. When an electric dipole p is placed
in a uniform external field E, it experiences no net force. It does however, experience
a torque.
If the direction of the electric field is positive, then the direction of the torque is
clockwise.

The torque is given by: τ= Fd

τ= qdEsinθ

Electric Field Lines

Electric field lines are used to get an overall visual picture of the electric fields due to
a particular distribution of charge. The arrows of tangents at any point represent the
direction of the electric field. The following are properties of electric field lines:
• Electric field lines originate on positive charges (they point away from the positive
charge) and end on negative charges (they point toward the negative charge).
• Field lines cannot cross one another. Whereas a diagram of field lines can contain as
many lines as one wishes, for an accurate representation of the field, the number of
lines originating from a charge should be proportional to the charge. Therefore the
spacing of the lines should represent the strength of the field.

Electric Circuits

Kirchoff’s current law

The Kirchhoff’s current law, states that at every instant of time the sum of the
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currents flowing into any node of a circuit must equal the sum of the currents leaving
the node, where a node is any spot where two or more wires are joined.

Kirchoff’s voltage law

The second of Kirchhoff’s fundamental laws states that the sum of the voltages
around any loop of a circuit at any instant is zero. This is known as Kirchhoff’s
voltage. As long as we are consistent in writing Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the
algebraic solution for the circuit will automatically take care of signs.

Ohm’s law

Ohm's law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the
current flowing through it, provided all physical conditions and temperatures remain
constant. In the equation, the constant of proportionality, R, is called Resistance.

Magnetic Field
The region where magnetic force is felt is called its magnetic field and is represented
using magnetic field lines called flux which show the direction and intensity of the
field at any point within the region of influence.
Magnetic fields act as a medium in the energy conversion and transfer process.
Whenever magnetic fields interact with charges, a transfer or conversion of energy
occurs. Energy transfer and conversions takes place in equipment and machines such
as transformers and generators with the help of magnetic fields which makes the study
and analysis of magnetic circuits important.

Magnetic Force
To define the magnetic field at a point, we consider a particle of charge q and moving
at a velocity v. The magnetic field exerts a force F on the moving charged particle
with velocity v. Experimentally we find that F=qvB sinθ
Where F is the force vector, q is the charge of the moving particle, v is the velocity
vector of the moving particle, and B is the magnetic field vector. θ is the angle
between v and B
To determine the direction of the magnetic force on a positive moving charge, you
point the thumb of the right hand in the direction of v , the fingers in the direction of
B , and a perpendicular to the palm points is the direction of F. The force on a
negative charge is in exactly the opposite direction to that on a positive charge.

Current and Magnetic fields

A current going through a conductor gives rise to magnetic fields. The flux (B) form
concentric circles around the conductor. The direction of magnetic fields is given by
the right hand rule, where the thumb points at the direction of the current and fingers
at the direction of flux lines B.

If we consider the two dimensional view;

The magnitude of the magnetic field B at a point d from the (measured perpendicular
to the conductor) is given by:
B=µi/2πd
Where µ is the property of the material surrounding the conductor called permeability.
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Similarly, for a current i flowing through a solenoid of length l and area A, the
magnetic field B is given by
B=µ Ni/l
where µ is permeability of the core material

Magnetic field lines

As with electric fields, the pictorial representation of magnetic field lines is very
useful for visualizing the strength and direction of the magnetic field.
The direction of magnetic field lines is defined to be the direction in which the north
pole of a compass needle points. If you place a compass near the north pole of a
magnet, the north pole of the compass needle will be repelled and point away from the
magnet. Thus, the magnetic field lines point away from the north pole of a magnet
and toward its south pole.
Like the electric field, the magnetic field is stronger where the lines are denser.

Properties of Magnetic field lines

 The Magnetic field lines enter the south pole and comes out of the north pole
forming closed loops.
 The magnetic field lines are strong near the poles of the magnet.
 Magnetic field lines do not intersect each other.
 More the closeness of the magnetic field lines, more is the strength of magnetic
field

Magnetic flux (Φ)

Magnetic flux is quantified first by establishing an imaginary surface. This surface is

strictly a mathematical construction. Magnetic flux is a measure of the amount of
magnetic field lines produced by a magnetic source passing through a given surface
area. The symbol for magnetic flux is Φ . The SI unit is the weber, Wb
The magnetic flux through a plane of area A that is placed in a uniform magnetic field
of magnitude B and the angle between the area vector and field vector B is 90ᵒ,
is very low and when the angle is equal to 0ᵒ, the resulting flux is maximum.
Therefore, if magnetic flux is constant and perpendicular to the surface then

Φ=BA

Otherwise, Magnetic flux is given by Φ=BA Cos θ

Where
Φ = Magnetic flux
B = Magnetic field
A = Area of the surface
θ = angle between B and A vectors

Magnetic flux density (B)

Magnetic flux density is the amount of flux passing through a unit area that is
perpendicular to the direction of the flux. The unit is Nm/A or Tesla.
Mathematically B can be represented as
B=Φ/A
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Where Φ is the magnetic flux (Wb) and A is the area of cross section measured in
m2

Magnetic field intensity (H)

Magneto motive force per unit length of the magnetic circuit is also called magnetic
field strength or magnetic field intensity or magnetizing force. It is the amount (and
direction) of magnetizing force that the magnetic field exerts on a standard body. The
force is directly proportional to the current flowing through the conductor and the
length of the conductor. If the magnetic field is generated by means of a cylindrical
coil (or solenoid) consisting of N closely spaced turns, having a length l, and carrying
a current of magnitude I, Then magnetic field intensity:

H=Ni/l (Units, A/m)

For practical purposes, magnetic flux density and magnetic field intensity are
related by a simple relationship:

B=μH
where μ is a constant called the relative permeability

Magnetic permeability (μ)

Permeability describes the nature of the material i.e. it is a material property. It is the
ease with which the material allows magnetic filed lines of force to pass through it or
the degree to which magnetic field can penetrate a given medium or the ability of a
material to conduct magnetic flux through it.
The value of permeability of free space or μo = 4π x 10-7 H/m

Magnetisation
Magnetisation refers to the process of converting a non-magnetic material into a
magnetic material by use of an external source of magnetic field. The Intensity of
magnetisation (M or I) is defined as the vector sum of magnetic moments of the atoms
(or molecules) per unit volume of the material. Its unit is A/m. In an un-magnetised
state, M = 0, but some of the domains remain aligned over small regions in the
material once the magnetic field is removed. The effect of applying a magnetising
force to the material is to align the domains to produce a non-zero magnetisation
value. It is totally dependent on the nature of material. Thus we can say that
magnetisation is a measure of the degree to which materials respond to an applied
field B. Diamagnetic materials produce magnetization that opposes the applied field.
Paramagnetic materials produce a magnetization in the same direction as the applied
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field as will be explained later in this document.
Magnetization of a material is usually proportional to the magnetic field intensity (H)
applied.

M=Magnetic moment/Volume
The S.I unit of magnetisation is Ampere/ meter or A/m

Magnetic Susceptibility (χ )
Susceptibility describes the ease with which a magnetic material can be magnetised
by the magnetising force. It is the ratio of intensity of magnetisation (M) produced in
the sample to the magnetic field intensity (H) which produces magnetization. The
intensity of magnetisation for a material is proportional to the magnetising field . It
has no units
χ =M/H

Magnetic Reluctance: (ℛ) is a measure of the opposition offered by a magnetic

circuit to the setting up of flux.

ℛ=MMF/Φ =Ni/Φ Hence unit ampere-turns per weber (A-t/wb)

Like resistance, reluctance changes in direct proportion to the core material's length
and in inverse proportion to its area and permeability. Permeability (μ) is a material's
ability to carry magnetic lines of force

ℛ=l/μ0μrA

Although the reluctance measure of a coil with an air gap is linear, reluctance measure
using a magnetic substance is non-linear. A permeability chart is used to obtain
reluctance values. Magnetic circuits that combine a magnetic material with an air gap
are common. In a magnetic circuit, reluctances add together in the same way as
resistances in an electric circuit .

MAGNETIC MATERIALS

To some extent all materials are magnetic -the ability of a material to respond to
external field. Only certain materials, such as iron, cobalt, nickel, and gadolinium,
carry permanent magnetic dipoles and hence exhibit strong magnetic effects. Such
materials are called ferromagnetic, after the Latin word for iron, ferrum. A group of
materials made from the alloys of the rare earth elements are also used as strong and
permanent magnets. Other materials exhibit weak magnetic effects, which are
detectable only with sensitive instruments.
All materials can be classified based on the magnetic properties of their atomic
dipoles and interaction between themselves.

Diamagnetic Materials
Diamagnetic material does not possess permanent magnetic dipole moments and so
net magnetic moment is zero. The magnetic effects of the materials are relatively mild
or weak. Dipoles are induced only in presence of external magnetic field and becomes
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zero when the external field is removed. The induced magnetic moment produce
magnetization (M) which is extremely small, and in a direction opposite to that of the
applied field and hence tends to decrease the magnetic induction present in the
material repelling the external field around it. Thus diamagnetism is the phenomenon
by which the induced magnetic moment is always in the opposite direction of the
applied field and relative permeability is less than unity. Examples: Gold, water,
mercury, B, Si, P, S, ions like Na+, Cl- and their salts, diatoms like H2, N2 etc

Properties of diamagnetic materials

1. An atom of this material does not contain permanent dipoles.
2. An atom of this material has no permanent magnetic dipole moment.
3. The effect is weak and often masked by other kinds of magnetism.
4. A Dia-magnet is weakly repelled by a normal magnet.
5. Relative permeability is less than 1, but only slightly .
6. Magnetic susceptibility is minimal and negative and only slightly less than unity.
7. Magnetic susceptibility is independent of temperature.
8. Magnetic susceptibility is independent of applied magnetic field strength.
9. Atomic orbitals are completely filled. (no electron is un-paired).

Paramagnetic Materials
A paramagnetic material contains permanent dipoles which are as a result of
incomplete cancellation of electron spin and orbital magnetic moments with a
resultant magnetic moment even in the absence of applied field. The elements' atoms
contain some incomplete inner electron shells that give rise to unpaired electrons. As
a result, certain atoms, ions, or molecules have randomly oriented magnetic moments.
These randomly aligned magnetic moments produce no net magnetization in the
absence of any field. When external magnetic field is applied, some of the permanent
dipoles try to align in the direction of the magnetic field. Since few dipoles try to
align in the direction of the magnetic field the net magnetic moment produced in the
material is small so the material is feebly magnetised. The relative permeability is
greater than unity. Examples of materials include: Aluminium, Platinum,
Manganese, Copper Chloride, Oxygen, solutions of salts of iron

Properties of paramagnetic materials

1. In the absence of external magnetic field the dipoles are randomly oriented.
2. An atom of this material possesses a non-zero magnetic dipole moment.
3. Possess permanent dipole moment.
5. Relative permeability is slightly greater than unity.
6. Magnetic susceptibility is positive and small.
7. Magnetic susceptibility is independent of applied magnetic field strength but
depend on temperature.
8. With increase in temperature the susceptibility of the material decreases.

Ferromagnetic Materials
In response to a high external magnetic field, these materials are easily magnetised,
and the magnetization achieves a constant value known as saturation. Ferro
magnetism, like para magnetism, is associated with the presence of permanent dipoles,
but unlike para magnetism, the magnetic moments are aligned in a particular direction
even in the absence of any applied magnetic field. As a result, a ferromagnetic
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material exhibits magnetic moment even in the absence of any applied magnetic field,
a phenomenon known as spontaneous magnetization, which occurs below a
temperature known as the Curie temperature . When a magnetizing force is applied,
the domains are aligned to produce a strong magnetic field .
A ferromagnetic material exhibits two different properties. Below a particular
temperature called Curie temperature it behaves as a ferromagnetic and above that
Curie temperature it behaves as a paramagnetic material. The relative permeability is
very large.
Examples of materials include: Iron, Nickel, Cobalt

Properties of ferromagnetic materials

1. The origin for magnetism in ferromagnetic materials is because of spin magnetic

moment.
2. The materials possess permanent dipoles.
3. The dipoles or spins of the adjacent atoms interact with each other and due to this
interaction all dipoles are aligned parallel to each other. This interaction between the
adjacent atoms is called exchange interaction or exchange coupling. Since all dipoles
are aligned along the same direction the material possess net dipole moment.
4. Materials shows magnetic properties even in the absence of the external magnetic
field.
5. When a ferromagnetic material is placed in external magnetic field the material get
strongly magnetised resulting in saturation magnetisation i.e. the material gets
strongly magnetised. Spontaneous magnetisation is another characteristic feature of
ferromagnetic materials.
6. The susceptibility of ferromagnetic materials is positive and very large.
7. The susceptibility of ferromagnetic materials is dependent on temperature and
independent of applied magnetic field.
8. Inside the ferromagnetic material the material is divided into small regions or
volumes called domains. Within each domain all the dipoles are aligned along the
same direction resulting in spontaneous magnetisation.
9. In ferromagnetic materials the flux density (B) or magnetisation (M) is not directly
proportional to applied magnetic field (H), i.e. the ferromagnetic material possess
magnetisation for sometime even when magnetizing field is removed thus exhibiting
the property of hysteresis. This is a characteristic feature of ferromagnetic materials.

Anti-ferromagnetic Materials
This is a special class of ferromagnetic material. The material contains permanent
dipoles. Like Ferro-magnetism, anti-Ferro-magnetism is associated with domain
structure and exchange coupling between adjacent spins but the alignment of spins
within a domain is anti. The spins are of equal magnitude. So the net magnetisation in
a domain is zero and over all domains is very small. In anti-ferromagnetic materials
the distance between the interacting atoms is small such that the exchange forces
results in anti-parallel alignment of the dipoles. The susceptibility of anti-
ferromagnetic material is temperature dependent. The characteristic feature of anti-
ferromagnetic material is the occurrence of sharp maximum in the susceptibility
versus temperature curve. As temperature increases this spin alignment is disturbed
and magnetization increases.

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Properties of anti-ferromagnetic materials

1. Electron spins of neighbouring atoms in a domain are aligned anti-parallel.

2. Anti ferromagnetism depends on temperature.
3. The adjacent dipoles are aligned in anti-parallel direction.

Ferrimagnetic Materials or Ferrites

It is a special case of both ferromagnetic and anti-ferromagnetic materials. Some sub-
sets of moments are opposing each other but are un-equal like in anit-ferromagnetic
materials leaving random net magnetization. These are also ceramic and ionic in
nature. They exhibit permanent magnetisation. Similar to ferromagnetic materials,
ferrimagnetic materials also possess spontaneous magnetisation and saturation
magnetisation. They also exhibit hysteresis curve. Magnetic susceptibility of
ferrimagnetic materials is very large and positive. The magnetic susceptibility is
temperature dependent.

Properties of ferrimagnetic materials

1. Ferrimagnetic materials possess net magnetic moment.

2. Above Curie temperature it becomes paramagnetic.
3. Magnetic susceptibility is very large.
4. Spin alignment is anti parallel of different magnitudes.
5. They have the characteristic property like spontaneous magnetisation and saturation
magnetisation.
6. Ferromagnetic materials behave like Ferromagnetic materials and have hysteresis,
domain structure etc., but being oxide compounds they have large resistivities.

What is Hysteresis?
Definition:
For ferromagnetic materials, the ratio of flux density to the field strength ( B/H )
varies proportionally up to saturation point. This ratio is however, constant for air
and is known as permeability of free space, ( μo = 4.π.10-7 H/m ).

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In general all magnetic materials shows a non-linear B-H curve depending on the
value of their permeability.Below the Curie temperature all ferromagnetic materials
exhibit the well-known hysteresis phenomena.
The hysteresis loop is a plot of the relationship between the magnetic flux density (B)
and the magnetizing field strength (H). The loop is generated by measuring the
magnetic flux coming out of the ferromagnetic substance while changing the
magnitude and direction of the external magnetizing field.

 On application of a magnetic field on the ferromagnetic material there is a

non linear rise where B varies reversibly with H for small fields. Since there is
no hysteresis in this region, one defines the initial permeability µr, in the same
way as the permeability of a paramagnetic material. As H is increased, the
material reaches saturation when all the domains align parallel to the applied
field.
 On reaching saturation, a decrease in the value of the magnetic field,
results in a decrease in the value of magnetism. But at H equal to zero,
there is some domain alignment with the external field resulting in residue
magnetism. Since H=0, the material must be permanently magnetised; in fact,
the magnetisation corresponding to Br is equal to Br/µo at the point called
retentivity .
With the decrease in the magnetic field towards the negative side, magnetism
also decreases. At some point, the material is completely demagnetized. The
force required to remove the retentivity of the material is known as Coercive
force or coercivity.

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 Reducing H to zero brings the curve to point "e." It will have a level of
residual magnetism equal to that achieved in the other direction.
Increasing H back in the positive direction will return B to zero. Notice that
the curve did not return to the origin of the graph because some force is
required to remove the residual magnetism. The curve will take a different
path from point "f" back the saturation point where it with complete the loop.
Due to the forward and opposite direction process, the cycle is complete and
this cycle is called the hysteresis loop.

Retentivity
This ability for a coil to retain some of its magnetism within the core after the
magnetisation process has stopped is called retentivity while the amount of flux
density still remaining in the core is called residual magnetism.
The reason for this is that some of the tiny molecular magnets do not return to a
completely random pattern and still point in the direction of the original magnetising
field giving them a sort of “memory”.
Since a coercive force must be applied to overcome this residual magnetism, work
must be done in closing the hysteresis loop with the energy being used being
dissipated as heat in the magnetic material. This heat is known as hysteresis loss, the
amount of loss depends on the material’s value of coercive force.
Coercive force and remnant flux density depend on the imperfections in the material
while the saturation value of the flux density depends on the chemical composition
and temperature. As the material becomes more pure magnetically, the area of the
hysteresis loop becomes smaller. By adding additive’s to the iron metal such as
silicon, materials with a very small coercive force can be made that have a very
narrow hysteresis loop. Materials with narrow hysteresis loops are easily magnetised
and demagnetised and known as soft magnetic materials.
Hysteresis losses will always be a problem in AC transformers where the current is
constantly changing direction and thus the magnetic poles in the core will cause losses
because they constantly reverse direction.

Eddy current loss

Voltages are induced in conducting material when the magnetic flux linking that
material changes. Since the magnetic material is a conducting material, these voltage
circulate current within the body of the material. These circulating currents are called
Eddy Currents. They will occur when the conductor experiences a changing magnetic
field.
When the magnetic flux in a medium is changing, an emf is induced. According to
Lenz’s law, the induced emf is proportional to the frequency of the alternating current.
The induced emf sets up eddy currents in the medium and the power loss due to these
eddy currents is equal to V2 /R where V is the induced emf and R is the resistance of
the medium. Eddy current losses can be minimized by increasing the resistivity of the
magnetic medium.
The eddy currents produce a magnetic field of their own which opposes the main
magnetic field. As the effect of eddy currents
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is not uniform over the cross section of
the material, these results in a flux distribution which is not uniform, the flux density
in the outer portions being greater than that at the centre. Thus there is a reduction in
effective cross section. So, the magnetic materials used for varying magnetic fields
are laminated ( made up of thin sheets insulated from each other) so as to reduce eddy
currents and associated losses. Due to lamination, the area of path of eddy currents is
reduced giving rise to a large value of resistance.

Advantages of Hysteresis Loop

1. A smaller region of the hysteresis loop is indicative of less power losses as the
process involves loss of energy in the form of heat which is proportional to the area of
the B-H loop. Loss of energy per unit volume of the substance is equal to the area of
the hysteresis curve,
2. Hysteresis loop provides a material with the importance of retentivity and
coercivity. Therefore the way to select the right material to make a permanent magnet
is made simpler. The greater the area the better the magnetism produced and vice
versa.
3. Residual magnetism can be calculated from the B-H graph which makes it simpler
to choose material for electromagnets.

Soft Magnetic Materials

Both ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are classified as either soft or hard on
the basis of their hysteresis characteristics. Soft magnetic materials are used in
applications requiring frequent reversals of the directions of magnetization such as
cores of transformers, motors, inductors and generators.
In soft magnetic materials the hysteresis losses must be small. Moreover the soft
magnetic materials are characterised by low remnant magnetisation, low coercivity,
low hysteresis losses, high magnetic permeability, high initial permeability and high
susceptibility so that they can be easily magnetised and demagnetised. A material
possessing these properties can reach its saturation magnetization with low applied
field. Consequently the area is small and hysteresis loss are also reduced.

Points to Remember:

• The eddy current loss can be minimized by using thin laminated cores.

• Use of laminations increase the resistance of eddy current path and thereby
reduces its magnitude

• The hysteresis loss can be minimized by choosing the material having low
hysteresis coefficient. e.g: silicon steel

• The hysteresis loss and eddy current losses are together known as iron or core
losses

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Hard Magnetic Materials
Hard magnetic materials are used in permanent magnets, which must have a high
resistance to demagnetization. A hard magnetic material is characterised by a high
remnance, high coercivity, high saturation flux density as well as a low initial
permeability and high hysteresis energy losses.
The two most important characteristics relative to applications for these materials are
the coercivity and energy product (BH). The value of the energy product represents
the amount of energy required to demagnetize a permanent magnet. If (BH) is large,
that material will be hard in terms of its magnetic characteristics.

Example
The hysteresis loop of an iron ring was found to have an area of 10 cm2 on a scale of 1
cm = 1000 AT/m (X-axis); 1 cm = 0. 2 wb/ m2 (Y- axis). The ring has a mean length
of 100 cm and cross-sectional area of 5 cm. Compute the hysteresis loss in watts for a
frequency of 50 Hz.

Solution.
Area of hysteresis loop = 10 x 0.2 x 1000 ATwb/m 3 = 2000 ATwb/m 3.
Hysteresis loss = 2000 x 50 = 10,0000 J/m3/s [f= 50 cycle/s]

Volume = 1 x 5 x 104 m3
Hysteresis loss = 100,000 x 1 x 5 x 104 W = 50 W

Magnetic Circuits

A magnetic circuit consist of similar elements with electric circuits but with
different properties and magnetic circuit analysis is similar to electric circuits.
It is common to find sections of magnetic circuits having different materials such as
cast iron, steel and air gap.

Series magnetic circuit Parallel magnetic circuit

Magnetomotive Force (ℱ)

In the magnetic circuit the driving force, analogous to voltage, is called the magneto-
motive force (mmf), designated by ℱ. The magneto-motive force is the cause of the
existence of a magnetic flux in a magnetic
16 circuit and is created by wrapping N turns
of wire, carrying current i, around a coil.

Kirchoff’s Magnetomotive Force Law/Ampere’s Circuital Law

The Sum of the mmf drops around a closed loop is equal to the sum of the MMF
sources for that loop.
If we apply the “cause” analogy to Kirchhoff’s voltage law V =0 , we obtain the
following: Σℱ=0, which, in words, states that the algebraic sum of the rises and drops
of the mmf around a closed loop of a magnetic circuit is equal to zero; that is, the sum
of the rises in mmf equals the sum of the drops in mmf around a closed loop.

This equation is referred to as Ampère’s circuital law.

NI is an mmf source
Hl is an mmf drop

Example

Consider the circuit shown.

(a) What is the value of I, required to develop a flux of 4x10-4 Wb.
(b) What is the relative permeability

Solution

(a) Working out the Flux density B in the material

B=Φ/A= 4x10-4 Wb/ 2x10-3m2
=0.2 T
17
Using the B-H curves, we can determine the magnetizing force H corresponding to the
flux density B above
H (cast steel) = 170 At/m

Using amperes law/Kirchofff magnetomotive force law

NI=Hl , So I=Hl/N= 170x 0.16/400=68mA

(b) The permeability of the material can be found as

B=µH
µ=0.2/170=1.176x10-3 Wb/Am

µr=1.176x10-3 Wb/4πx10-7=935.83

Example

Determine the secondary current I2 for the transformer of Figure below if the resultant
clockwise flux in the core is 1.5x10-3Wb

Solution

18
The flux density for each section is
B = Φ/A = 1.5x10-5/0.5x10-3 = 0.1 T
Magnetizing force H for Steel = 20 At/m

Applying Ampère’s circuital law

N1l1-N2l2 = Hlabcda = 20x0.16 = 3.2 At

I2 = (120-3.2)/30 = 3.89 A

Kirchoff’s Flux Law:

It shows that the algebraic sum of the flux at a node of a magnetic circuit is zero

Ohm's Law for Magnetic Circuits (Hopkinson's or Rowland's Law)

The magnetic flux created is proportional to the mmf force and inversely proportional
to a quantity called reluctance ℛ, which is analogous to electrical resistance
Reluctance depends on the dimensions of the core as well as the materials.
ℱ=Φℛ

Where

ℱ is the magnetomotive force (or MMF) in amp-turns,

Φ is the magnetic flux in webers,

ℛ is the reluctance of the material in amp-turns/weber.

Reluctance = ℛ = l /µA (A-t/W b) The unit of reluctance is 1/H (or H1) or A/Wb

Example

The electromagnet of Figure below has picked up a section of cast iron. Determine the
current I required to establish the indicated flux in the core, if
lab=lcd=lef=lfa=101.6x10-3m, lbc=lde=12.7x10-3m, Φ = 3.5x10–3 Wb and A = 6.452x10-
m
4 2

19
Solution

The flux density for each section is B=Φ/A = 0.542 T and the magnetising force;

H (Steel sheet) = 70 At/m, H (Cast iron) =1600 At/m

Determining Hl for each section :

lefab=lef+lfa+lab=3x101.6x10-3m=304.8x10-3m
lbcde=lbc+lcd+lde=101.6x10-3+ 2(12.7x10-3) = 127x10-3m
Hefablfab=70x304.8x10-3 = 21.34 At
Hebcdelbcde=1600x127x10-3= 203.3 At/m
NI=Hl =(21.34+203) = 224.54 At
I =224/50 = 4.49 A

Example

Determine the secondary current I2 for the transformer of Figure below if the resultant
clockwise flux in the core is 1.5x10-3Wb

Solution:
The flux density for each section is B=Φ/A =1.5x10-5/0.5x10-3= 0.1 T
and the magnetizing force is H (sheet steel) = 20 At/m
Applying Ampère’s circuital law
20
 N1l1-N2l2=Hlabcda= 20x0.16=3.2 At
I2=(120-3.2)/30 = 3.89 A

SERIES-PARALLEL MAGNETIC CIRCUITS

Example

Determine the current I required to establish a flux of 1.5x10-4 Wb in the section of

the core

Solution:
The equivalent magnetic circuit and the electric circuit analogy.
We have :
The flux density for each section is
B2 = Φ2/A =1.5x10-4/6x10-4= 0.25 T
Σℱ=0
Hbelbe-Hbcdelbcde=0
Hbcde (Steel sheet) = 40 At/m
Hbe= Hbcdelbcde/lbe=40x0.2/0.05=160At/m

From the B-H curves,

B1=0.97T
Φ1=B1/A = 0.97x6x10-4 = 5.82x10-4 Wb
The total flux density can be expressed as
ΦT = Φ1+Φ2= (5.82+1.5)x10-4 Wb =7.32x10-4 Wb
BT = ΦT/A =7.32/6
= 1.22 T
Hbcde (Steel sheet ) = 40 At/m
21
Applying Ampère’s circuital law around loop 1
Σℱ=0

NI-Hbelbe-Hefablefab= 0
I = (160x0.05+200x0.2)/50 =1.78 A

Airgaps
The spreading of the flux lines outside the common area of the core for the air gap is
known as fringing. For most practical purposes, we shall neglect this effect and
assume the flux distribution to be uniform across the gap.
The permeability of air is taken to be equal to that of free space. The magnetizing
force of the air gap is then determined by mmf drop across the air gap which is
equal to Hglg. An equation for Hg is as follows:
He flux density of airgap
Bg=Φg/Ag

Where Φg=Φcore

For most practical purposes the magnetizing force is taken to be

Hg = Bg/ μo

And the mmf drop across the air gap is equal to Hglg.

Example

Find the value of I required to establish a magnetic flux of 0.75 X 10-4 Wb in

the following Figure.

22
Solution

The flux density for each section

B = Φ/A = 0.75x10-4/1.5x10-4=0.5 T

From the B-H curves,

H (Steel sheet) = 280 At/m

Hg = Bg/ μo=Bg/4ℼx10-7 = 7.96x105 Bg = 3,98x105

Applying Ampère’s circuital law,

NI-Hlabcda-Hglg= 0

I = (260x100x10-3+Hglg)/200

I = (260x100x10-3+3.98x10-5x10-3)/200 = 4.12 A

Example

Find the magnetic flux for the series magnetic circuit below for the specified
impressed mmf.

Solution
Assuming that the impressed mmf NI is across the air gap
NI-Hglg
Hg=NI/lg = 4x100/0.001= 4x10-5 At/m
Bg=µ0Hg =4 ℼx10-7x4x105= 0.503T
Φg=Φcore =BgA=0.503x0.003=1.51x10-3 Wb
Hcore(from B-H curve) =1500 At/m

INDUCTANCE

Inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic field. Any
conductor of electric current has inductive properties and may be regarded as an
inductor. Inductance is the tendency of an electrical conductor to oppose a change in
23
the electric current flowing through it. Symbol L is used to represent the inductance,
and Henry is the SI unit. 1 Henry is defined as the amount of inductance required to
produce an emf of 1 volt in a conductor when the current change in the conductor is at
the rate of 1 Ampere per second.

When a current flows through a conductor, the magnetic flux (ф) linking with the
coil/circuit, at any instant, would be proportional to the current (I) flowing through it
at that instant.

Mathematically, it implies that

ΦαI
therefore
Φ = LI, where L is the constant of proportionality

The electric current flowing through a conductor creates a magnetic field around it.
The strength of the field depends upon the magnitude of the current. Faraday's law of
induction says that a changing magnetic flux through a circuit will induce an emf in
the circuit proportional to the change of the magnetic flux.
ℰ = dΦ/dt
where ε is the emf induced in a circuit and Φ is the total magnetic flux through an area
bounded by the circuit.
If the changing magnetic flux in the circuit is caused by changes in its own current, I,
the above equation can be re-written in terms of the self-inductance, L, as
ℰ = Ldi/dt
Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction states that the direction of this induced
current will be such that the magnetic field created by the induced current opposes the
initial changing magnet, hence the negative sign.
ℰ = -Ldi/dt
This phenomena is called self induction/Inductance
L is clearly a characteristic of the circuit involved. We call ‘L’ the coefficient of
self inductance for the given circuit. The above relation gives us a definition of L.
We have, ф = L when I = 1 unit.
Thus the coefficient of self inductance ‘L’ of a given circuit, may be defined as the
magnetic flux linked with it due to a unit current flowing through the circuit itself.
From this definition, we find that the SI unit of ‘L’ would be Wb/A.

The SI unit for the coefficient of self inductance is Henry (H). A coil/circuit would be
said to have a self inductance of one henry, if the magnetic flux linked with it, due to
a current of one ampere in itself, equals one weber (Wb). Alternatively, we can also
say: A coil/circuit, would be said to have a self inductance of one henry if the induced
24
emf, set up in it, when the current, in it itself, is changing at the rate of 1 As-1 , equal
one volt.

Energy stored in an inductor

Since an inductor in a circuit serves to oppose any change in the current through it,
work must be done by an external source such as a battery in order to establish a
current in the inductor. From the work-energy theorem, we conclude that energy can
be stored in an inductor.
Let a coil/circuit, having a coefficient of self inductance L, have a current, I, flowing
through it any instant, t. If this current were to change by an amount dI, in a time dt,
the instantaneous induced e.m.f would be:

ℰ = L di/dt

This self induced emf (ℰ) would tend to oppose this change in current. The main
source (battery etc.) supplying current to the circuit, would therefore have to do some
work dW against this self induced e.m.f. to force the current to flow.
The power, or rate at which an external emf ε works to overcome the self-induced emf
ℰ and pass current I in the inductor is Power is given by

P = dW/dt = ε I

If only the external emf and the inductor are present then ε = ℰ = Ldi/dt

The power (or rate at which an external emf ε ) works to overcome the self-induced
emf

Power is the rate of doing work

P = dW/dt
dW=Pdt = ℰI dt

By definition, we have:
dW = ℰ (Idt) = L di/dt Idt=LIdI

The total work done (W) by external source in increasing the current from 0 to I, in
the given coil/circuit, is, therefore given by:
�
W= 0
LI dI = ½ LI2

This is equal to the magnetic energy stored in the inductor.

From the work-energy theorem, we conclude that energy can be stored in an
inductor. The role played by an inductor in the magnetic case is analogous to that
of a capacitor in the electric case.
25
Mutual inductance
When there are two coils in the neighbourhood of each other, a change of current, in
one of them, would cause an induced e.m.f in the other. This induced e.m.f would last
only as long as the current in the other coil is changing. We can say that the
phenomenon of mutual induction implies the production of an induced e.m.f in one
coil due to changes of current in another neighbouring coil.

Coefficient of Mutual Inductance

Let there be two coils, say 1 and 2, in the neighbourhood of each other. The magnetic
flux, ф21, linked with coil 2, due to a current I1 in coil 1 will be proportional to I1.

According to Faradays law of mutual inductance, if we vary the current I1 with

respect to time, then there will be an induced emf ℰ2 in coil 2 given by:-.

ℰ2 = -N2dΦ21/dt

N2Φ21 α I1 ; where N2Φ21 is the total flux linked

N2Φ21 =M21I1

M21 is the constant of proportionality which is a factor of the two coils

called mutual inductance

M21=N2Φ21/I1

In a similar manner, induced emf ℰ1 in coil 1 due to current I2 flowing in coil 2 is

26
given by

ℰ1= - N1dΦ12/dt

N1Φ12 α I2

N1Φ12 =M12/I2

M12=N1Φ12/I2

From Ampere’s and Biot-Savart laws we can prove that the two constants, M21 and
M12, are equal in the absence of material medium between the two coils.
M12 = M21
This property is called reciprocity, and by using the reciprocity theorem, we can
simply write the mutual inductance between two coils as;
M12 = M21=M
Mutual inductance of the coils remains the same whether the current is flowing in first
or second coil. This is known as Reciprocity Theorem of mutual inductances

Induced emf
Considering the mutual inductance between two coils, we defined mutual inductances
M21 and M21 as,

M21 = N2Φ21/I1

And

M12I2 = N1Φ12

If I changes with time,

M21dI1/dt = N2dΦ21/dt

According to Faraday

ℰ = dΦ/dt
Thus induced emf in coil 2 due to current in coil 1 is given by

ℰ2 = - M21dI1/dt

And similarly

ℰ1= - M12dI2/dt

27
As noted earlier

M21 = M12 = M

Therefore

ℰ2 = - MdI1/dt
and

ℰ1 = - MdI2/dt

Mutual Conductance in terms of Self inductance

It was shown earlier that

L = Φ/I
L1 = N1Φ11/I1 = µoN12A/l

Where Φ11 is the magnetic flux through 1 turn due to the magnetic field produced by
I1
And N1Φ11 is the total magnetic flux linked through the coil
Similarly
L2 = N2Φ22/I2 = µoN22A/l

Coefficient of coupling
Consider 2 coils closely coupled having current I1 and 12
Magnetic flux produced due to current I1 is Φ11 which can link both coils .
Mutual induction is give by

M =N1Φ21/I1
Where Φ21 is part of flux linking coil 2
Hence
Φ21=k1Φ11
Therefore
M = N1k1Φ11/I1

Similarly
M = N2k2Φ22/I2

Multiplying the above two equations

M2 = {N1(k1Φ11)/I1}{N2(k2Φ21/I2)}
M2= k1k2L1L2
M = K(L1L2)1/2
K is the magnetic coupling coefficient, Where 0<K<1
K= 0 where there is no mutual flux linkage
k = 1 which means that all of the magnetic flux produced by the solenoid
28
passes through the outer coil, and vice versa

Example

Two coils have mutual inductance of 3.25 ×10 − 4 H. The current in the first coil
increases at a uniform rate of 830 A/s . A) What is the magnitude of induced emf in
the second coil? Is it constant?
B) Suppose that the current is instead in the second coil, what is the magnitude of the
induced emf in the 1st coil?

Solution

ε2 = −M (di1/dt)
-(3,25x10-4H)(830a/s)=-0.27 v
ε1 = −M (di2/dt)=-0.27 v

Example

Find the inductance of a core with effective length l = 0.1 m, cross-sectional area A =
0.001 m2, and relative permeability µr somewhere between 15,000 and 25,000. It is
wrapped with N = 10 turns of wire. What is the range of inductance for the core?

Solution.
When the core’s permeability is 15,000 times that of free space, it is µcore = µrµ0 =
15,000 × 4π × 10−7 = 0.01885 Wb/A-t-m
so its reluctance is
Rcore=1/µcore A=1/(0.1m/0.1885 (Wb/A-t-m)x0.001m2=5305 A-t/wb

And its inductance is

L = N2 /R
= 102 /5305
= 0.0188 henries = 18.8 mH
Similarly, when the relative permeability is 25,000 the inductance is
L = N2 /R
= N2µrµ0A /l
= 102 × 25,000 × 4π × 10−7 × 0.001 /0.1
= 0.0314 H = 31.4 mH

Example
Suppose the core of sample above is built with a 0.001-m2 air gap. Find the range of
inductances when the core’s relative permeability varies between 15,000 and 25,000.

Solution.
29
The reluctance of the ferromagnetic portion of the core when its relative permeability
is 15,000 is Rcore = lcore /µcoreA = 0.099 /15,000 × 4π×10-7 x 0.001 = 5252 A-t/Wb

And the air gap reluctance is

ℛg = lg /µ0A
= 0.001 /4π × 10−7 × 0.001 = 795,775 A-t/Wb

So the total reluctance of the series path consisting or Core and air gap is
ℛTotal = 5252 + 795,775 = 801,027 A-t/Wb
And the inductance is
L = N2 /R
= 102 /801,027
= 0.0001248 H = 0.1248 mH

When the core’s relative permeability is 25,000, its reluctance is ℛcore = lcore /µcoreA
= 0.099 /25,000 × 4π×10-7 x 0.001 = 3151A-t/Wb

And the new total inductance is

L = N2 /R
= 102 /3151=795775
= 0.0001251H = 0.1251 mH

This is an insignificant change in inductance. A very precise inductance has been

achieved at the expense of a sizeable decrease in inductance compared to the core
without an air gap.

Example

Consider a solenoid with 500 turns which are wound on an iron core whose relative
permeability is 800. 40 cm is the length of the solenoid, while 3 cm is the radius. The
change in current is from 0 to 3 A. Calculate the average emf induced for this change
in the current for a time of 0.4 seconds.

Solution:
Given:
No.of turns, N = 500 turns
Relative permeability, μr = 800
Length, l = 40 cm = 0.4 m
Radius, r = 3 cm = 0.03 m
Change in current, di = 3 – 0 = 3 A
Change in time, dt = 0.4 sec
Self-inductance is given as
30
 L = μN2Al = μ0μrN2I/l
Substituting the values we get
{(4)(3.14)(10-7)(800)(5002)(3.14)(3×10-2)2}/0.4
L = 1.77 H
Magnitude of induced emf, ε = L di/dt = 1.77×3/0.4
ε = 13.275 V
Example
There are two coils such that the current flowing through the first coil experiences a
change in current flow from 2 A to 10 A in 0.4 sec. Calculate mutual inductance
between the two coils when 60 mV emf is induced in the second coil. Determine the
induced emf in the second coil if the current changes from 4 A to 16 A in 0.03 sec in
the first coil.
Solution:
Given:
Case 1:
Change in current, di = 10 -2 = 8 A
Change in time, dt = 0.4 sec
Magnitude of induced emf, ε2 = 60×10-3 V
Case 2:
Change in current, di = 16 – 4 = 12 A
Change in time, dt = 0.03 sec
Mutual inductance of the second coil with respect to the first coil is given as:
M21 = ε2/(di/dt) = 60×10-3×0.4/8 = 3×10-3H
Induced emf in the second coil due to change in the rate of current in the first coil is
given as:
ε2 = M21 di/dt = 3×10-3×12/0.03 = 1.2V

Energy stored in a mutual inductor

When currents are increasing in a circuit, the induced emf as from faradys law is
given by

ℰ2 = L1dI1/dt+M21dI1/dt
ℰ1 = L2dI2/dt+M12dI2/dt
Where + sign appears depending on the geometry of the coils with respect to one
another and presence of current 31
Work done dW in maintaining currents in each of the circuit
Now P = dW/dt= ε I
dW = Pdt =ℰ1I1 dt +ℰ2I2 dt
dW = (L1dI1/dt+M21dI1/dt)I1 dt+(L2dI2/dt+MdI1/dt)I2 dt
dW =L1I1dI1+M21I1dI1+L2I2dI2+MI2dI1
dW = L1I1dI11+L2I2dI2+(MI2dI1+M2dI1)
Integrating both sides
W = L1I12+ L2I22+MI1I2

32