Apart from liquid and gaseous states, solid state is a state of matter.

Solids have
very strong intermolecular interactions, and there are very few vacant spaces
between the atoms/ions/molecules. As a result, they have a predetermined shape and
volume.

Characteristic Properties of Solids

The following properties come under the category of solids:

Solids have high density.

Solids have low compressibility.

Solids are rigid in nature.

Solids have definite shape and volume.

Classification of Solids
On the basis of the following parameter, solids are broadly classified as:

Classification based on various properties.

Classification based on bonding present in building blocks.

On the Basis of Various Properties

On the basis of the various properties of solids, they can be classified as:

Crystalline solids

Amorphous solids

Amorphous solids have an uneven structure over long distances and lack sharp
properties, whereas crystalline solids have a regular structure throughout the
entire volume and sharp qualities. The table below shows the many differences.
Based on Bonding

Solids are classified according to the sort of bonding present in their building
units. The table below lists many types of solids as well as their properties.

The Different Properties of the Four Types of Solids are Listed as:
Structure of Crystalline Solids
Crystal Lattice and Unit Cell

The crystalline solid regular array of building pieces (atoms/ions/molecules) is

known as the "Crystal Lattice."

"Unit Cell" refers to the smallest component of a crystal lattice that can be
repeated in all directions to form the full crystal lattice.

Small spheres represent the atoms of ions or molecules in a unit cell. Variations
in the following parameters produce several lattices:

The edge along the 3 axis – a, b, c.

The interfacial angle - α,β,γ

Location of atoms/ions with respect to each other in crystal lattice.

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Primitive Unit Cells and Bravais Lattices

There are seven different types of unit cells, as well as various subtypes of unit
cells. Primitive Unit Cells or Crystal Habits are the names given to these seven
unit cells. The following are listed in the table below:
For these 7 types of unit cells, 14 types of Lattices exist in nature. These 14
lattices are named as “Bravais Lattices”.
The focus will primarily be on cubic unit cells and their arrangements.

Cubic Unit Cells

The most common unit cell is this one. The atoms or spheres in a cubic unit cell
can be found at the following locations.

Corners

Body centre

Face centres

The contributions of a sphere stored at various locations are as follows:

Types of Cubic Unit Cells

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The following factors distinguish these unit cells from one another:
The positions of the spheres within the unit cell.

The unit cell's rank (effective number of spheres inside a unit cell).

The relationship between the radius and the edge length of a single sphere.

Fractional packing (fraction of volume occupied by spheres in a unit cell).

The following parameters are provided in the table below for all three unit cells:

Calculations Involving Unit Cell Dimensions: Density of Cubic Crystals

Unit cell is a three-dimensional structure that has one or more than one atom. The
density of cubic crystals can be determined using the below-given formulas.

If there are z number of atoms in the unit cell and m is the mass of each atom,
then

Mass of a unit cell = Number of atoms in unit cell × Mass of each atom

Mass of a unit cell = z × m

Mass of an atom can be given with the help of Avogadro number and molar mass as:

m = M/NA
where M = molar mass and NA = Avogadro’s number

Also, we know that the volume of the unit cell, V = a3

Therefore, Density of unit cell = mass of unit cell/ volume of the unit cell

Density of unit cell = z × mV =z × ma3 =z ×M a3 × NA.

Close Packing in Solids: Origin of Unit Cells

Assume we have a set of spheres of identical size that we must arrange in a single
layer with the requirement that the spheres be in close proximity to one another.
There are two sorts of layers that can be used:

Square Packing

Hexagonal Packing

Spheres are arranged in square packing in such a way that the rows are both
horizontal and vertical. The Co-ordination number is 4 in this situation.

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It is more efficient to pack hexagonally. It has a Coordination number of 6 and has

fewer voids than square packing.

If we add another layer to the square packing, we can do the following:

A comparable layer is placed just above the foundation layer, with the second
layer's spheres appearing just above the first layer's spheres, and the layers are
repeated. If the first layer is designated as A, the packing is of the type AA, and
the unit cell is simple cubic.

On the other hand, we get BCC unit cells and ABAB type of packing when spheres from
the second layer are inserted in depressions from the first layer.

The following are examples of hexagonal foundation layer arrangements:

When we place the second hexagonal layer A in the depressions of the first
hexagonal layer A, we get two sorts of voids. Hollow and through voids of layer A
and layer B are the X kind of voids. Layer B voids that are directly above spheres
in layer A are referred to as Y type voids. When the spheres of the second layer
are placed over Y voids, layer 1 is repeated, and ABABAB type packing is obtained.
The hexagonal unit cell is obtained in this arrangement, and the packing is known
as hexagonal close packing (HCP). This packing has a 74 percent efficiency.

When the third layer is applied to X-type voids, a new layer C is created, and the
process is repeated. Packing of the ABCABCABC type will be obtained. The FCC unit
cell is used in this design, and the packing efficiency is 74%.

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Voids
Definition
Voids are the empty spaces inside a sphere. The amount and shape of voids is
determined by the unit cell and packing used.

Radius Ratio

The radius ratio of a sphere that can be perfectly fit in the void to the radius of
surrounding spheres is used to determine the size of the void. This is written as:

Radius ratio = rR

Types of Voids

Trigonal Void

It is the void formed of equal radii which touches each other as shown in the
figure.

Tetrahedral Void

It is formed by the contact of four spheres and is located in the centre of a

tetrahedron formed by the contact of four spheres.

Octahedral Void

Cubic Void

The voids formed by the close contact of eight spheres.

The following are the key points:

Radius ratio is equal to rR=0.732

Number of voids in a cubic crystal is 1.

Position is at the body centre.

Coordination number is 8.

Rank 1.

It is clear from the above details that:

Trigonal < Tetrahedral < Octahedral < Cubic

Classification of Ionic Structures

The simultaneous arrangement of cations and anions in a lattice/unit cell produces
ionic compounds. The larger of two species takes up major places in a unit cell,
while the lesser species takes up vacancies in proportion to their size. Which is
determined by the radius ratio. Below is a list of the various ratios.

On the basis of these ratio ranges, the ionic crystal is classified into five
categories which are as follows:

NaCl Type Structure

ZnS Type Structure

Fluorite Type Structure

Anti Fluorite Structure

CsCl Type Structure

Imperfections in Solids
At 0 K, crystals are generally in perfectly ordered order. And, as the temperature
increases, the electrons start moving, and cause imperfections in solids. It is
called defects.

Generally, these defects or imperfections are of two types:

Electronic imperfections

Atomic imperfections (Point defects)

Electronic Imperfection in Solids
Electrons are in lowest energy levels at absolute 0 K, and as the temperature
increases electrons jump to upper or higher energy levels.

It creates holes in the lattice, and that causes Electronic Imperfection in Solids.

In general, the number of holes and electrons are equal in a lattice.

Atomic Imperfections (Point defects)

It is caused due to improper or irregular arrangements of atoms or ions.

So, the defects which are caused by misplaced or missing atoms are point defects.

Types of Point Defects

Points defects can be categorised as follows:

Stoichiometric point defects

Schottky defects

Interstitial defects

Frenkel defects

Non-stoichiometric point defects

Metal excess defects due to anion vacancies

Metal excess defects due to interstitial cations

Metal deficiency due to cation vacancies

1. Stoichiometric Point Defects:

The stoichiometry of solids are not disturbed by these defects.The ratio of

positive ions and negative ions is called stoichiometry of solids.

a. Schottky Defects: In ionic solids, it is a vacancy defect. Electrical neutrality

is maintained because the number of missing cations and anions is equal. The
density of the substance is reduced as a result of this flaw. Ionic compounds with
almost identical cation and anion sizes demonstrate the flaw. Examples are: KCl,
NaCl, AgBr.

b. Interstitial Defect: Ions or atoms occupy vacant interstitial sites and cause
interstitial defects. Interstitial sites are the sites located between regular
positions and are empty.

c. Frenkel Defect: When an ion leaves its existing/correct lattice site and
occupies an interstitial site, it causes frenkel defect. It mostly occurs in the
compounds having a large size difference between the positive and negative ions.
Examples are: ZnS, AgCl, AgI.
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2. Non-stoichiometric Point Defects

The defects which make changes to the stoichiometry of the compounds are called 2.
Non-stoichiometric point defects.

Non-stoichiometric or Berthollide compounds are those in which the ratio of

positive and negative charges of ions is different from the ideal chemical formula
of the compounds.

a. Metal Excess Defects due to Anion Vacancies: These defects generally found in
the crystals possess Schottky defects. In it, the negative ion leaves its lattice
site and generates a hole which could occupy the negative ion, i.e., the electron.

F-centres are those holes occupied by the negative ion, i.e., electron.

b. Metal Excess Defects due to Interstitial Cations: These defects generally found
in the crystals possess Frenkel defects. In it, an extra positive ion or hole is
present in an interstitial site. An extra electron neutralises a positive ion.

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c. Metal Deficiency due to Cation Vacancies: These are the defects caused due to
the absence of a metal ion from its actual lattice site.

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Properties of Solids: Electrical Properties and Magnetic Properties

Electrical Properties of Solids
Solids can be classified into three types based on their electrical properties.

Conductors or metals

Semiconductor

Insulator

Range of Electrical Conductivity of Solids

Effect of Temperature on Electrical Conductivity

Reason of Conductivity in Solids

Magnetic Properties of Solids

Solids can be classified into five types based on their behaviour towards magnetic
fields.

Diamagnetic substances

Paramagnetic substances

Ferromagnetic substances

Anti-ferromagnetism substances

Ferrimagnetism substances

Difference between Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, Ferromagnetic, Anti-ferromagnetism

and Ferrimagnetism substances
Revision Notes of Chemistry Class 12 Chapter 1- The Solid State
Notes of Chemistry Class 12 Chapter 1
Class 12 Chapter 1 Chemistry The Solid State introduces students to the basic
concept of Solids, their types and characteristics. To understand all the essential
concepts covered in Chemistry Chapter 1, students first understand what is meant by
solids. The definition of Solids, along with its types and other crucial concepts
related to it are covered in the well-explained and straightforward way in Class
12th Chemistry Chapter 1 notes.

Solids: Such chemical substances which have definite size, shape, volume and
rigidity are known as Solid substances. These substances have high density and low
compressibility.

There Are Two Types of Solids

Amorphous Solids

Crystalline Solids

Other Crucial Concepts Covered Under Class 12 Chemistry Ch 1 Notes:

Classification of Solids

Structure of Crystalline Solids

Different types of Solids

Square Packing

Hexagonal Packing

Types of Cubic Unit Cells

Voids

Types of Voids

Trigonal Voids

Octahedral Voids

Cubic Voids

Ionic Structure

Fluorite Structure

Metal Excess Defect

Metal Deficiency Effect

Some Important Questions of Chapter 1 Chemistry Class 12

1. Define the term 'amorphous'. Give a few examples of amorphous solids.

2. What makes a glass different from a solid such as quartz? Under what conditions
could quartz be converted into glass?
3. How many e lattice points are there in one unit sale of each of the following
lattices?

Face centred cubic

Face centred tetragonal

Body-centred

4. Define the structure of crystalline solids.

5. Define the types of cubic unit cells.

6. Classify the ionic structures.

7. Explain the metal deficiency defect

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