UNIT 4 LEARNING ACTIVIY

1. Intra-alveolar pressure-

Intrapulmonary pressure, also known as alveolar pressure, is the pressure inside the lung.

If the glottis is open, the alveolar pressure becomes equal to the pleural pressure (the negative suction
pressure between the thin layers of pleura) because no air is going inside the lungs.

The intrapulmonary pressure changes during inspiration and expiration:

During inspiration, the alveolar pressure falls to about -1 cm of H2O, which is enough to pull 500ml of air
inside the lungs within 2–3 seconds.

During expiration, the alveolar pressure increases to about +1 cm of H2O, which forces the 500ml of
inspired air to move out of the lungs within 2–3 seconds.

(NOTE: 0 cm of H2O is taken as the normal reference pressure).

To simply define-(intrapulmonary pressure) pressure of the air within the lungs specifically in the alveoli.

2. Inspiratory reserve volume- The amount of extra air inhaled — above tidal volume — during a
forceful breath in. When you exercise, you have a reserve volume to tap into as your tidal volume
increases. The average inspiratory reserve volume is about 3000 mL in males and 2100 mL in females.

To simply define, it is an Amount of air that enters the lungs due to deep inhalation past the tidal
volume.

3. Expiratory reserve volume- The extra volume of air that can be expired from the lungs with
determined effort following a normal tidal volume expiration.”

Let’s make that easier to understand.

Picture yourself sitting normally and breathing as you do when you are not exerting yourself or
exercising. The amount of air you breathe in is your tidal volume.

After you breathe out, try to exhale more until you are unable to breathe out any more air. The amount
of air you can force out after a normal breath (think about blowing up a balloon) is your expiratory
reserve volume.

You can tap into this reserve volume when you exercise and your tidal volume increases.

To sum up: Your expiratory reserve volume is the amount of extra air — above abnormal breath —
exhaled during a forceful breath out.

The average ERV volume is about 1100 mL in males and 800 mL in females.
4. Forced vital capacity (FVC) represents the total air volume moved in one breath from full Inspiration
to maximum expiration, or vice versa. FVC varies considerably with body size and body Position during
the measurement; values usually average 4 to 5 L in healthy young men and 3 to 4 L in healthy young
women. FVCs of 6 to 7 L are not uncommon for tall individuals,

The forced vital capacity (FVC) measurement shows the amount of air a person can forcefully and
quickly exhale after taking a deep breath. In other words, Forced vital capacity (FVC) is the amount of air
that can be forcibly exhaled from your lungs after taking the deepest breath possible, as measured by
spirometry. This test may help distinguish obstructive lung diseases, such as asthma and COPD, from
restrictive lung diseases, such as pulmonary fibrosis and sarcoidosis.

FVC can also help doctors assess the progression of lung disease and evaluate the effectiveness of
treatment. An abnormal FVC value may be chronic, but sometimes the problem is reversible and the FVC
can be corrected.

FVC is used to evaluate your lung function. It measures the effect that your lung disease has on your
ability to inhale and exhale.

While FVC cannot identify which specific lung disease you have, the results can help narrow down
potential diagnoses and can be used—along with other studies—to help in determining which lung
disease you have.

There are many reasons you may need to have your FVC measured, including:

-You have shortness of breath, a persistent cough, or wheezing.

- doctor wants to assess your respiratory function when your blood oxygen level is low.

-You’re having surgery: It’s important to know if breathing is stable prior to a procedure, especially if you
will be having lung surgery.

-You have heart disease and need an assessment of its effects on your ability to breathe.

-You and your doctor are planning your lung rehabilitation program.

-You’ve reached the endpoint in a clinical trial expected to affect lung function.

5.Residual lung volume (RLV) is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximum forceful
expiration. In other words, it is the volume of air that cannot be expelled, thus causing the alveoli to
remain open at all times. The residual volume remains unchanged regardless of the lung volume at
which expiration was started. Reference values for residual volume are 1 to 1.2 L, but these values are
dependent on factors including age, gender, height, weight, and physical activity levels.

The residual volume is an important component of the total lung capacity (TLC) and the functional
residual capacity (FRC). TLC is the total volume of the lungs at maximal inspiration which is about 6 L on
average, though true values are dependent on the same factors that affect residual volume. FRC is the
amount of air remaining in the lungs after a normal, physiologic expiration (Figure 1A). The TLC, FRC, and
RV are absolute lung volumes and cannot be measured directly with spirometry. Instead, they must be
calculated using indirect measurement techniques such as gas dilution or body plethysmography.
Calculating the residual volume can give an indication of lung physiology and pathology. [1][2][3]

Function

The residual volume functions to keep the alveoli open even after maximum expiration. In healthy lungs,
the air that makes up the residual volume is utilized for continual gas exchange to occur between
breaths. Inspiration draws atmospheric oxygen into the lungs to replenish the oxygen-depleted residual
air for gas exchange in the alveoli.

6. Dyspnea, commonly referred to as shortness of breath, is the subjective

sensation of uncomfortable breathing comprised of various sensations of varying
intensity. It is a common symptom impacting millions of people and maybe the
primary manifestation respiratory, cardiac, neuromuscular, psychogenic, systemic
illness, or a combination of these. Dyspnea can be either acute or chronic with
acute occurring over hours to days and chronic occurring for more than 4 to 8
weeks. This activity reviews the etiology, evaluation, and management of dyspnea
and highlights the role of the interprofessional team in managing patients with
this condition.
What is dyspnea/shortness of breath?
People who experience dyspnea feel short of breath. Dyspnea can range from mild to severe. If this
condition is chronic and persistent, it may seriously limit activity and reduce quality of life.

Dyspnea can be a result of lung, heart, vascular, neuromuscular and metabolic disease. Because
shortness of breath can be a result of several different medical conditions, it can be difficult to discover
the accurate cause(s). Without knowing the cause(s), it can be very difficult to treat. Learn more about
dyspnea.

The physicians who treat patients at the Dyspnea Center at Brigham and Women’s Hospital provide
expert care, collaborating with specialists in pulmonary and critical care medicine, thoracic surgery,
cardiovascular medicine, neurology and cardiovascular and thoracic imaging. This collaboration ensures
that patients experiencing shortness of breath will get prompt answers about the cause of their
symptoms and will receive targeted treatment.

What are risk factors for dyspnea?

Shortness of breath is a normal symptom during intense exercise or exertion. If it occurs while the
patient is at rest—or during unexpected situations—it can be a symptom of a serious medical condition.
If you suffer from dyspnea, you may also have any of these health issues:
Heart disease

Respiratory infection or pneumonia

Cancer, especially lung cancer

Emphysema or chronic bronchitis

Asthma

Allergies

Reflux

Obesity

What are the causes of dyspnea/shortness of breath?

Dyspnea can be caused by many conditions, some more serious than others, including:

Respiratory conditions, such as asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema

Pulmonary conditions, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema, pulmonary
edema, pulmonary effusion, pulmonary fibrosis, pulmonary hypertension, pneumonia.

Cardiovascular conditions, such as cardiomyopathy, congestive heart failure, diastolic dysfunction,

systolic ventricular dysfunction, and abnormal heart rhythms

Cancer

Neuromuscular conditions

Anxiety conditions

Diagnosis of Dyspnea/Shortness of Breath

Dyspnea has many causes, which can make it difficult to find a diagnosis. In some cases the diagnosis can
be made with chest imaging, an echocardiogram and pulmonary function testing. In those patients who
have unexplained dyspnea, the most accurate way to make a diagnosis is through advanced
cardiopulmonary exercise testing. This test uses catheters during exercise (stationary cycling or
treadmill) to assess how the body is utilizing oxygen, and to measure heart and lung function.

What is the treatment for dyspnea/shortness of breath?

Dyspnea is treated by addressing the underlying disease or condition. For example, if dyspnea is caused
by pleural effusion, draining fluid from inside the chest can reduce shortness of breath. Depending upon
the cause, dyspnea can sometimes be treated with medication or by surgical intervention.

What medication is used to treat dyspnea/shortness of breath?

Your doctor may prescribe one of the following medications, depending on the underlying cause of the
dyspnea:

Bronchodilators to open airways

Steroids to reduce swelling

Pain medications

How can patients manage dyspnea/shortness of breath?

You can help manage shortness of breath with relaxation and breathing exercises. Be sure to talk with
your doctor before trying these techniques.

Can relaxation exercises help with dyspnea/shortness of breath?

Difficulty breathing may cause feelings of anxiety and panic and, conversely, any feelings of anxiety and
panic may cause you to have increased shortness of breath. Relaxation, meditation and other
techniques to manage your emotions may help decrease the severity of dyspnea.

Can breathing exercises help with dyspnea/shortness of breath?

Taking the time to focus on your breathing will help you to become more aware of your breath and lung
function. Two helpful exercises include:

Abdominal breathing: Find your diaphragm (the dome-shaped muscle below your lungs). While inhaling,
focus on filling your lungs completely and feel your stomach move outward away from you. While
exhaling, feel your stomach fall slowly and your lungs empty.\

Pursed-lip breathing: Breathe in through your nose. Pucker your lips and breathe out through your
mouth slowly. You may find it helpful to count as you inhale and exhale.

7.What is hyperventilation?

Hyperventilation is rapid or deep breathing, usually caused by anxiety or panic. This overbreathing, as it
is sometimes called, may actually leave you feeling breathless.

When you breathe, you inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. Excessive breathing may lead to low
levels of carbon dioxide in your blood, which causes many of the symptoms that you may feel if you
hyperventilate.

Hyperventilation is also known as:

Rapid (or fast) deep breathing

Overbreathing

Respiratory rate (or breathing) — rapid and deep

Common causes of hyperventilation

There are many factors that can lead to hyperventilation. This condition most commonly results from
anxiety, panic, nervousness, or stress. It often takes the form of a panic attack.

Other causes include:

Bleeding

Use of stimulants

Drug overdose (aspirin overdose, for example)

Severe pain

Pregnancy

Infection in the lungs

Lung diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or asthma

Heart conditions, such as a heart attack

Diabetic ketoacidosis (a complication of high blood sugar in people with type 1 diabetes)

Head injuries

Traveling to elevations over 6,000 feet

Hyperventilation syndrome

Symptoms and Diagnosis

Associated symptoms include:

Rapid, deep breathing

Dizziness or lightheadedness

Shortness of breath

Belching, bloating, dry mouth

Weakness, confusion

Fever

Bleeding

Feeling anxious, nervous, or tense

Frequent sighing or yawning

A pounding and racing heartbeat

Sleep disturbances

Numbness and tingling in your arms or around your mouth

Muscle spasms in hands and feet, chest pain and palpitations

Chest tightness, fullness, pressure, tenderness, or pain

Other symptoms occur less often and it may not be obvious they’re related to hyperventilation. Some
of these symptoms are:

Headache

Gas, bloating, or burping

Twitching

Sweating

Vision changes, such as blurred or tunnel vision

Problems with concentration or memory

Loss of consciousness (fainting)

Treating hyperventilation

It’s important to try to stay calm in acute cases of hyperventilation. It may be helpful to have someone
with you to coach you through the episode. The goal of treatment during an episode is to increase
carbon dioxide levels in your body and work to slow your breathing rate

Home care

You can try some immediate techniques to help treat acute hyperventilation:

Breathe through pursed lips.

Breathe slowly into a paper bag or cupped hands.

Attempt to breathe into your belly (diaphragm) rather than your chest.

Hold your breath for 10 to 15 seconds at a time.

You can also try alternate nostril breathing. This involves covering your mouth and alternating breathing
through each nostril.

With your mouth covered, close the right nostril and breathe in through the left. Then alternate by
closing the left nostril and breathing in through the right. Repeat this pattern until breathing has
returned to normal.

You may also find that vigorous exercise, such as a brisk walk or jog, while breathing in and out of your
nose helps with hyperventilation.
8. A sphygmomanometer is a device that measures blood pressure. It is composes of an inflatable
rubber cuff, which is wrapped around the arm. A measuring device indicates the cuff’s pressure. A bulb
inflates the cuff and a valve releases pressure. A stethoscope is used to listen to arterial blood flow
sounds.

As the heart beats, blood forced through the arteries cause a rise in pressure, called systolic pressure,
followed by a decrease in pressure as the heart’s ventricles prepare for another beat. This low pressure
is called the diastolic pressure.

The sphygmomanometer cuff is inflated to well above expected systolic pressure. As the valve is
opened, cuff pressure (slowly) decreases. When the cuff’s pressure equals the arterial systolic pressure,
blood begins to flow past the cuff, creating blood flow turbulence and audible sounds. Using a
stethoscope, these sounds are heard and the cuff’s pressure is recorded. The blood flow sounds will
continue until the cuff’s pressure falls below the arterial diastolic pressure. The pressure when the blood
flow sounds stop indicates the diastolic pressure.

Systolic and diastolic pressures are commonly stated as systolic ‘over’ diastolic. For example, 120 over
80. Blood flow sounds are called Korotkoff sounds.

Types

There are three types of sphygmomanometers. Digital sphygmomanometers are automated, providing
blood pressure reading without needing someone to operate the cuff or listen to the blood flow sounds.
However digital types are less accurate. Some healthcare providers use digital for screening but use
manual sphygmomanometers to validate readings in some situations.

Manual sphygmomanometers consist of aneroid (dial) and mercury (column) devices. Operating these
aneroid and mercury devices is nearly the same, except that aneroid devices require periodic
calibration.

9. Relative exercise intensity refers to a portion of maximal Power (load) that is maintained during
exercise and is Usually prescribed as a percentage of maximal aerobic Capacity (VO2max) on the basis of
a cardiopulmonary Stress test.

Relative exercise intensity is specific to your level of fitness. A relative exercise intensity is based off of
your own maximum capability of work. For example, a percentage of your maximum heart rate or
maximum oxygen uptake, both of which are signs of fitness. It is more specific to each person and can
be tailored to enhance health and wellness.

Relative intensity can also be based upon a person’s rating of perceived exertion. This is your own
personal evaluation of how the intensity of your activity feels to you. It is not based on any feedback
from your body other than the amount of work you perceive yourself as participating in. Rating of
perceived exertion, or RPE, is based on a scale that extends from 6 to 20, varying from light work to
extremely hard work. Moderate exercise falls around a 12 or 13 on the RPE scale. You might consider
using RPE to judge relative intensity if you are on medication that can affect how your heart rate
responds to exercise or if you do not have the means to monitor your heart rate.

Importance

Relative intensity is a better way of measuring your intensity because it is more specific to your abilities.
The need to monitor intensity is essential, regardless of whether it is absolute or relative. The intensity
of your program is largely dictated by your goals. For example, improvements in blood pressure can be
seen with just moderate intensity exercise, but for someone wishing to improve bone health, high
intensity exercise may be needed. Whether you use relative or absolute intensity, seek clearance from
your doctor before participating in an exercise program. He may even be able to guide you into the right
intensity for your goals and medical history.

10. Endocrine glands

An organ that makes hormones that are released directly into the blood and travel to tissues and organs
all over the body. Endocrine glands help control many body functions, including growth and
development, metabolism, and fertility. Some examples of endocrine glands are the pituitary, thyroid,
and adrenal glands .

It secrete hormones; They lack ducts (ductless) but discharge their substances directly into the
extracellular space Around the gland. Hormones then diffuse into the blood for transport throughout
the body.

Similar to neuromuscular responses, hormone secretion adjusts rapidly to changing bodily Functions.
For this reason, many hormone secretions occur in a pulsatile manner rather than at a constant rate.

11. Exocrine gland: A gland that secretes a substance out through a duct. The exocrine glands

include the salivary glands, sweat glands and glands within the gastrointestinal tract. The
exocrine glands are the "glands of external secretion."
12. Adrenal Medulla Hormones

Unlike the adrenal cortex, the adrenal medulla does not perform any vital functions. That is, you don’t
need it to live. But that hardly means the adrenal medulla is useless. The hormones of the adrenal
medulla are released after the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated, which occurs when you’re
stressed. As such, the adrenal medulla helps you deal with physical and emotional stress.

You may be familiar with the fight-or-flight response—a process initiated by the sympathetic nervous
system when your body encounters a threatening (stressful) situation. The hormones of the adrenal
medulla contribute to this response.

Hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla are:

Epinephrine: Most people know epinephrine by its other name—adrenaline. This hormone rapidly
responds to stress by increasing your heart rate and rushing blood to the muscles and brain. It also
spikes your blood sugar level by helping convert glycogen to glucose in the liver. (Glycogen is the liver’s
storage form of glucose.)

Norepinephrine: Also known as noradrenaline, this hormone works with epinephrine in responding to
stress. However, it can cause vasoconstriction (the narrowing of blood vessels). This results in high blood
pressure.

13. Hypothalamus

To simply define: The hypothalamus contains a control centre for many functions of the autonomic
nervous system, and it has effects on the endocrine system because of its complex interaction with
the pituitary gland.

What is the hypothalamus?

The hypothalamus is a small region of the brain. It’s located at the base of the brain, near the pituitary
gland.

The hypothalamus functions as a communication center for your pituitary gland, sending signals and
messages to the pituitary to produce and release hormones that trigger the production and release of
other hormones.

While it’s very small, the hypothalamus plays a crucial role in many important functions, including:

-Releasing hormones

-Regulating body temperature

-Maintaining daily physiological cycles

-Controlling appetite

-Managing of sexual behavior

-Regulating emotional responses

Anatomy and function

The hypothalamus has three main regions. Each one contains different nuclei. These are clusters of
neurons that perform vital functions, such as releasing hormones.

Anterior region

This area is also called the supraoptic region. Its major nuclei include the supraoptic and paraventricular
nuclei. There are several other smaller nuclei in the anterior region as well.

The nuclei in the anterior region are largely involved in the secretion of various hormones. Many of
these hormones interact with the nearby pituitary gland to produce additional hormones.
Some of the most important hormones produced in the anterior region include:

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). CRH is involved in the body’s response to both physical and
emotional stress. It signals the pituitary gland to produce a hormone called adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH). ACTH triggers the production of cortisol, an important stress hormone.

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH production stimulates the pituitary gland to produce thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH). TSH plays an important role in the function of many body parts, such as the
heart, gastrointestinal tract, and muscles.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). GnRH production causes the pituitary gland to produce
important reproductive hormones, such as follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone
(LH).

Oxytocin. This hormone controls many important behaviors and emotions, such as sexual arousal, trust,
recognition, and maternal behavior. It’s also involved in some functions of the reproductive system, such
as childbirth and lactation.

Vasopressin. Also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH), this hormone regulates water levels in the body.
When vasopressin is released, it signals the kidneys to absorb water.

Somatostatin. Somatostatin works to stop the pituitary gland from releasing certain hormones, including
growth hormones and thyroid-stimulating hormones.

The anterior region of the hypothalamus also helps regulate body temperature through sweat. It also
maintains circadian rhythms. These are physical and behavioral changes that occur on a daily cycle. For
example, being awake during the day and sleeping at nighttime is a circadian rhythm related to the
presence or absence of light.

Middle region

This area is also called the tuberal region. Its major nuclei are the ventromedial and arcuate nuclei.

The ventromedial nucleus helps control appetite, while the arcuate nucleus is involved in releasing
growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH). GHRH stimulates the pituitary gland to produce growth
hormone. This is responsible for the growth and development of the body.

Posterior region

This area is also called the mammillary region. The posterior hypothalamic nucleus and mammillary
nuclei are its main nuclei.

The posterior hypothalamic nucleus helps regulate body temperature by causing shivering and blocking
sweat production.
The role of the mammillary nuclei is less clear. Doctors believe it’s involved in memory function.

14. Kidneys.

The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs on either side of your spine, below your ribs and behind
your belly. Each kidney is about 4 or 5 inches long, roughly the size of a large fist. The kidneys’ job is to
filter your blood.

It filters the blood in a three-step process. First, the nephrons filter blood that runs through the capillary
network in the glomerulus. Almost all solutes, except for proteins, are filtered out into the glomerulus
by a process called glomerular filtration. Second, the filtrate is collected in the renal tubules. Most of the
solutes get reabsorbed in the PCT by a process called tubular reabsorption. In the loop of Henle, the
filtrate continues to exchange solutes and water with the renal medulla and the peritubular capillary
network. Water is also reabsorbed during this step. Then, additional solutes and wastes are secreted
into the kidney tubules during tubular secretion, which is, in essence, the opposite process to tubular
reabsorption. The collecting ducts collect filtrate coming from the nephrons and fuse in the medullary
papillae. From here, the papillae deliver the filtrate, now called urine, into the minor calyces that
eventually connect to the ureters through the renal pelvis.

15. Pancreas- The human pancreas consists of two organs in one structure: the exocrine gland made up
of pancreatic acinar cells and duct cells that produce digestive enzymes and sodium bicarbonate,
respectively; the endocrine gland made up of four islet cells, namely alpha-, beta-, delta-, PP-, and
ipsilon- cells that produce glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, pancreatic polypeptide, and ghrelin
respectively. While the physiological role of exocrine pancreas (>80 % by volume) is to secrete digestive
enzymes responsible for our normal digestion, absorption and assimilation of nutrients, the endocrine
pancreas (<2 % by volume) is to secrete islet peptide hormones for the maintenance of our glucose
homeostasis. The pancreatic functions are finely regulated by neurocrine, endocrine, paracrine and/or
intracrine mechanisms. Thus, dysregulation of these pathways should have significant impacts on our
health and disease. Nevertheless, the underlying mechanisms by which pancreatic functions are
regulated remain poorly understood.

Anatomy of the Pancreas

The pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine systems. As an endocrine gland, the
pancreas produces several important hormones that include insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and
pancreatic polypeptide.

As a digestive organ, the pancreas secretes pancreatic juice that contains digestive enzymes that assist
the absorption of nutrients and digestion in the small intestine. These enzymes help to further break
down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the chyme.

Location
The pancreas is located posterior to the stomach and next to the duodenum. The pancreas functions as
both an exocrine and endocrine gland. The exocrine function of the pancreas is essential for digestion as
it produces many of the enzymes that break down the protein, carbohydrates, and fats in digestible
foods.

Composition

The pancreas is composed of pancreatic exocrine cells, whose ducts are arranged in clusters called acini.
The cells are filled with secretory granules containing the inactivated digestive enzymes, mainly
trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, pancreatic lipase, and amylase, that are secreted into the lumen of the
acini.

Glandular Function of the Pancreas

The pancreas is a dual-function gland, having features of both endocrine and exocrine glands.

Exocrine Function

The pancreas synthesizes its enzymes in the inactive form, known as zymogens, to avoid digesting itself.
The enzymes are activated once they reach the small intestine. The pancreas also secretes bicarbonate
ions from the ductal cells to neutralize the acidic chyme that the stomach churns out.

The exocrine function of the pancreas is controlled by the hormones gastrin, cholecystokinin, and
secretin, which are hormones secreted by cells in the stomach and duodenum in response to food.

The two major proteases that the pancreas synthesizes are trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen. These
zymogens are inactivated forms of trypsin and chymotrypsin.

Once released in the intestine, the enzyme enterokinase, which is produced by the intestinal mucosa,
activates trypsinogen by cleaving it to form trypsin. The free trypsin then cleaves the rest of the
trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen to their active forms. Pancreatic secretions accumulate in small
ducts that drain to the main pancreatic duct that drains directly into the duodenum.

Endocrine Function

The part of the pancreas with endocrine function is made up of approximately a million cell clusters
called the islets of Langerhans. Four main cell types exist in the islets. They are relatively difficult to
distinguish using standard staining techniques, but they can be classified by their secretions:
Α cells secrete glucagon (increase glucose in blood ).

Β cells secrete insulin (decrease glucose in blood).

Delta cells secrete somatostatin (regulates/stops α and β cells).

PP cells or gamma cells, secrete pancreatic polypeptide.

16.Parathyroid- The parathyroid is comprised of 4 small glands embedded in the posterior aspect of the
thyroid gland. Its main function is the production and secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH), a
polypeptide hormone responsible for maintaining serum calcium homeostasis. The levels of PTH and
serum calcium are inversely proportional. At low serum calcium levels, PTH, in conjunction with vitamin
D, works at many sites in the body to mobilize calcium stores and increase calcium absorption and
reabsorption. Both calcium and vitamin D provide negative feedback to the parathyroid glands; as levels
of calcium and vitamin D increase, they bind receptors at the parathyroid glands and inhibit the
production and release of PTH.

Cellular

The parathyroid glands contain two main cell types, chief cells, and oxyphil cells.

Chief Cells

The chief cells are the functional cells of the parathyroid gland, responsible for both synthesizing and
secreting parathyroid hormone. Regulation of PTH production and release is dependent on serum
calcium levels. The G protein-coupled transmembrane receptor, calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR), on the
surface of chief cells responds to low serum calcium and activates translation and secretion of PTH.

Oxyphil Cells- Also known as oxyntic cells, these cells have no recognized endocrine function. The
proportion of oxyphil cells in the parathyroid glands increases with age.

Development

The 4 parathyroid glands develop from the endoderm of the 3 and 4 pharyngeal pouches around the 6
weeks of gestation. Recent studies have posited that there may be some ectodermal and neural crest
contribution to the glands’ formation as well. Interestingly, the inferior parathyroid glands develop from
the 3 pharyngeal pouches while the superior glands develop from the 4 pharyngeal pouches. This is due
to the additional formation of the thymus by these pharyngeal pouches that migrates caudally later in
gestation. The parathyroid glands are functional during gestation, acting to control calcium balance in
the fetus.

Function

The parathyroid glands’ function is to maintain serum calcium homeostasis through synthesis and
release of PTH. At the bone, PTH inhibits osteoblast activity and stimulates osteoclast activity leading to
bone breakdown and calcium release. At the kidneys, PTH increases calcium reabsorption and blocks
phosphate reabsorption from the tubules. PTH also acts at the kidneys to stimulate the formation of
vitamin D. Vitamin D is an essential component of calcium and phosphate homeostasis, yielding its
effects on the kidneys and gastrointestinal (GI) system.

17. Glands

What glands do?

Glands are important organs located throughout the body. They produce and release substances that
perform certain functions. Though you have many glands throughout your body, they fall into two types:
endocrine and exocrine.

Types of glands

Endocrine and exocrine glands serve very different purposes in the body.

A. Endocrine glands

Endocrine glands are part of your endocrine system. They make hormones and release them into your
bloodstream. These hormones control a number of important functions in your body, such as:

Your growth and development

Metabolism

Mood

Reproduction

Your endocrine glands include:

Adrenal glands

Pituitary gland

Hypothalamus

Thyroid

Pineal gland

There are also organs that contain endocrine tissue and act as glands. These include the:

Pancreas

Kidneys

Ovaries

Testes

b.Exocrine glands

Your exocrine glands produce other substances — not hormones — that are released through ducts to
the exterior of your body, such as sweat, saliva, and tears.
The substances released by your exocrine glands play important roles in your body. They do things like
help regulate your body temperature, protect your skin and eyes, and even help mothers feed babies by
producing breast milk.

Your exocrine glands include:

Salivary

Sweat

Mammary

Sebaceous

Lacrimal

Lymph nodes are often referred to as glands, but they’re not true glands. They’re part of your immune
system and help your body fight infection.

18. Pheromone – A pheromone is a chemical that an animal produces which changes the behavior of
another animal of the same species.

Some describe pheromones as behavior-altering agents. Many people do not know that pheromones
trigger other behaviors in the animal of the same species, apart from sexual behavior.

Hormones usually work internally, and they only have a direct effect on the individual that is secreting
them.

19. Lipolysis – Lipolysis is the process by which fats are broken down in our bodies through enzymes and
water, or hydrolysis. Lipolysis occurs in our adipose tissue stores, which are the fatty tissues that cushion
and line our bodies and organs. In fact, fats can be thought of simply as stored energy.

20. Parasympathetic nervous system

- The parasympathetic nervous system is one of three divisions of the autonomic nervous system.
Sometimes called the rest and digest system, the parasympathetic system conserves energy as it slows
the heart rate, increases intestinal and gland activity, and relaxes sphincter muscles in the
gastrointestinal tract.
21. Sympathetic nervous system – The sympathetic nervous system directs the body’s rapid involuntary
response to dangerous or stressful situations. A flash flood of hormones boosts the body’s alertness and
heart rate, sending extra blood to the muscles.

22. Diabetes mellitus –

Diabetes mellitus is a disorder in which the body does not produce enough or respond normally to
insulin, causing blood sugar (glucose) levels to be abnormally high. Urination and thirst are increased,
and people may lose weight even if they are not trying to.

Diabetes is a disease in which your blood glucose, or blood sugar, levels are too high. Glucose comes
from the foods you eat. Insulin is a hormone that helps the glucose get into your cells to give them
energy. With type 1 diabetes, your body does not make insulin. With type 2 diabetes, the more common
type, your body does not make or use insulin well. Without enough insulin, the glucose stays in your
blood. You can also have prediabetes. This means that your blood sugar is higher than normal but not
high enough to be called diabetes. Having prediabetes puts you at a higher risk of getting type 2
diabetes.

Over time, having too much glucose in your blood can cause serious problems. It can damage your eyes,
kidneys, and nerves. Diabetes can also cause heart disease, stroke and even the need to remove a limb.
Pregnant women can also get diabetes, called gestational diabetes.

Blood tests can show if you have diabetes. One type of test, the A1C, can also check on how you are
managing your diabetes. Exercise, weight control and sticking to your meal plan can help control your
diabetes. You should also monitor your blood glucose level and take medicine if prescribed.

23. Amylin – Amylin is a peptide hormone that is cosecreted with insulin from the pancreatic β-cell and
is thus deficient in diabetic people. It inhibits glucagon secretion, delays gastric emptying, and acts as a
satiety agent.

24.Diabetes symptoms –

*Urinate (pee) a lot, often at night

*Are very thirsty

*Lose weight without trying

*Are very hungry

*Have blurry vision

*Have numb or tingling hands or feet

*Feel very tired

*Have very dry skin

*Have sores that heal slowly

*Have more infections than usual

UNIT-5 LEARNING ACTIVIY

1.Aerobic energy transfer-Aerobic means that the energy system needs oxygen to function.This means
that the aerobic energy system relies on the circulatory system (breathing in oxygen) in order to create
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for energy use. It also uses fats, glucose, carbohydrates and proteins.

Our aerobic energy system uses oxygen to produce energy. This energy is then stored and used for
longer periods of exercise at a low intensity. The system converts glycogen into glucose. The glucose is
then broken down during multiple stages to produce hydrogen ions, which get converted into ATP.

2. Three (3) energy system

There are 3 Energy Systems:

A. Anaerobic Alactic (ATP-CP) Energy System (High Intensity – Short Duration/ Bursts)

-Athletes who compete in sports that Require high amounts of short duration Intensity and acceleration
will access This energy system. The system does Not use oxygen, but rather your body’s CP (creatine
phosphate) stores to create energy for a short duration. Shot-putters, weight lifters, football players,
gymnasts, sprint distance runners, or any athlete that utilizes explosive movements will utilize this
energy system. Training this system through strength and power exercises prolongs the ability to
maintain a higher intensity.

B. Anaerobic Lactic (Glycolytic) Energy System (High to Medium Intensity -Uptempo)

-The anaerobic lactic (AL) system (also known as fast glycolysis) provides energy for medium to high-
intensity bursts of activity that lasts from ten seconds to a max of approximately 90 seconds. The ability
to sustain this energy system is commonly viewed as an important athletic attribute in team sports such
as basketball, hockey, ringette, and soccer where shifts, or transitions, are a part of the game. Individual
sports that consist of rallies or routines such as tennis, figure skating, gymnastics and skiing utilize this
system. And finally, there are several events within particular sports that rely almost exclusively on this
energy system such as rowing (500m), and middle distance

Runners (400m-800m). The anaerobic lactic system does not require oxygen, however, whereas the
ATP-CP system will only produce energy for 10 seconds, fast glycolysis can work at a capacity for much
longer. As a result, waste products such as lactic acid accumulate in the blood and in muscle cells. The
burning sensation in the muscle, shortness of breath and fatigue are all symptoms of lactic acid build up
and thus impacts the athlete’s ability to perform. Focusing on this energy system during training can
reduce the amount of lactic acid that builds up, and prolongs the ability to utilize this energy system. . .
which results in a higher tempo and intensity.

C. Aerobic Energy System (Low Intensity – Long Duration – Endurance)

The aerobic system provides energy for low to medium-intensity activities that last anywhere from two
minutes to a few hours. Any sport that has repeated shifts, rallies, events, or sustained exercise, such as
long distance swimming, crew (rowing) and kayaking rely on the aerobic system. Unlike the other two
systems, the aerobic system requires oxygen and takes longer to overload and fatigue the system.
Training this system enhances the body’s ability to utilize oxygen, and allows an athlete to prolong the
ability to sustain higher intensities before tiring and cramping out.

3. SAID Principle

S – specific

A – adaption to

I – imposed

D-demands

In physical rehabilitation and sports training, the SAID principle asserts that the human body adapts
specifically to imposed demands. It demonstrates that, given stressors on the human system, whether
biomechanical or neurological, there will be a Specific Adaptation to Imposed Demands.

The SAID principle stands for the “specific adaptation to imposed Demands” and means that essentially,
the body will specifically adapt to the types of demands placed on it. For example, in individuals that sit
for extended periods, their body will start to change and structurally adapt to the demands of sitting.

4. Specificity

Biological specificity is the tendency of a characteristic such as a behavior or a biochemical variation to

occur in a particular species.

Biological specificity is the major problem about understanding life.” When referring to a medical test,
specificity refers to the percentage of people who test negative for a specific disease among a group of
people who do not have the disease. No test is 100% specific because some people who do not have the
disease will test positive for it (false positive).

Specificity: the ability of a test to correctly identify people without the disease.

5. Overload- Overload, the second Important principle, means that to improve any aspect of
physical fitness the individual must continually increase the demands placed on the appropriate
body systems. For example, to develop strength, progressively heavier objects must be lifted.
 Overload in running programs is achieved by running longer distances or by increasing the
speed.

6.) Reversibility- Reversibility Principle: The reversibility principle is a concept that states when you stop
working out, you lose the effects of training. It is sometimes referred to as the “use it or lose it”
principle. This sounds like common sense, but the science behind the reversibility principle is more
complex. Moreover, on the plus side, it states that when you resume working out, you begin to make
gains again. While the reversibility principle is often perceived as a negative thing, exercise physiologists
are discovering that it can be a positive thing as well.

7. Progression- Individuals frequently make the mistake of attempting too rapid a fitness change. A
classic example is that of the middle-aged man or woman who has done no exercise for 20 years and
suddenly begins a vigorous training program. The result of such activity is frequently an injury or, at the
least, stiffness and soreness. There are no hard-and-fast rules on how rapidly one should progress to a
higher level of activity. The individual’s

Subjective impression of whether or not the body seems to be able to tolerate increased training serves
as a good guide. In general it might be reasonable not to progress to higher levels of activity more often
than every one or two weeks.

8. General guidelines in aerobic training

exercises.

What are aerobic training exercises?

Aerobic training exercises are any activities that raise heart rate and make breathing somewhat
harder. The activity you are doing must be constant and continuous. Examples of aerobic
activities are

Walking or hiking

Jogging or running

Biking

Swimming

Rowing

In-line skating

Cross-country skiing

Exercising on a stair-climber or elliptical machine

 Aerobic training is an excellent way to improve cardiovascular health and prevent a variety of
disorders and diseases. It helps keep the metabolism strong, strengthens the heart, and is shown to
lower one’s risk for Type 2 diabetes. This also improve endurance where it increases the rate at which
oxygen inhaled is passed on from the lungs and heart to the bloodstream to be used by the muscles.
Aerobically fit athletes can exercise longer and harder before feeling tired. During exercise they have a
slower heart rate, slower breathing rate, less muscle fatigue, and more energy. After exercise, recovery
happens more quickly. Aerobic fitness can be measured in a laboratory setting while exercising on a
treadmill or bicycle. This is called maximal oxygen uptake or VO2 max.

Cardiovascular aerobic exercise, or “cardio,” is one of three main types of exercise. (The other two are
strength training and stretching.) It is any repetitive, rhythmic exercise that increases your heart rate
and requires you to use more oxygen. These FITT guidelines can help you stay on track for fitness in the
cardiovascular aerobic exercise component of your overall exercise Plan.

To steadily improve our physical fitness:

Use the FITT guidelines where F-Frequency, I-Intensity, T-Time (duration), and T-Type of exercise you do.

EXAMPLE FOR Cardiovascular aerobic training FITT Guidelines:

Frequency: 5 times per week

Intensity: Warm up for 5 minutes. Then do moderate-intensity activity, making sure you can pass the
“talk test” – that is, the exercise is not so intense that you cannot converse with someone else. Cool
down for 5 minutes.

Time: Exercise for at least 10 minutes at a time, with a goal of at least 30 minutes per day (more is even
better, if tolerated).

Type: any activity that raises your heart rate for at least 10 minutes, such as walking, bicycling, jogging,
swimming, vacuuming, scrubbing, shoveling, etc.

Don’t forget to add strength training and stretching to your exercise program as well. Remember: you
should discuss your exercise plan and fitness goals with your physician before you begin.

9. Benefits of regular exercise

Physical activity or exercise can improve your health and reduce the risk of Developing several diseases
like type 2 diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular disease. Physical activity and exercise can have
immediate and long-term health benefits. Most importantly, regular activity can improve your quality of
life. A minimum of 30 minutes a day can allow you to enjoy these benefits. Benefits of regular physical
activity

If you are regularly physically active, you may:

-reduce your risk of a heart attack

-manage your weight better

-have a lower blood cholesterol level -lower the risk of type 2 diabetes and some

Cancers

-have lower blood pressure

-have stronger bones, muscles and joints and lower risk of developing osteoporosis

-lower your risk of falls

-recover better from periods of Hospitalisation or bed rest

-feel better with more energy, a better mood, feel more relaxed and sleep better.

10. Concentric action – A concentric contraction is a type of muscle activation that causes tension on
your muscle as it shortens. As your muscle shortens, it generates enough force to move an object. This is
the most popular type of muscle contraction. In weight training, a bicep curl is an easy-to-recognize
concentric movement.

What sports use concentric contractions weightlifting- is the exercise we commonly associate with
concentric muscle contractions, there are many ways to activate your muscles as they shorten. Examples
include: The lifting phase of the barbell curl.

,, there are many ways to activate your muscles as they shorten. Examples include: The lifting phase of
the barbell curl.

11. Eccentric action -With an eccentric action the muscle elongates while under tension, due to an
opposing force (such as a weight) being greater than the force generated by the muscle. Most of the
classical muscle load studies in exercise physiology have focused on isometric (same length) and isotonic
(shortening) contractions. Eccentric contraction occurs when the total length of the muscle increases as
tension is produced. For example, the lowering phase of a biceps curl constitutes an eccentric
contraction. Muscles are capable of generating greater forces under eccentric conditions than under
either isometric or concentric contractions example of an eccentric contraction

-The simplest example of an eccentric contraction is lowering a barbell in a biceps curl. Obviously the
biceps muscle contracts to lift the barbell up.The contraction is just strong enough to put the brakes on
the lengthening of the muscle
12. Isometric action -A third type of muscle contraction, isometric contraction, is one in which the
muscle is activated, but instead of being allowed to lengthen or shorten, it is held at a constant length.
An example of an isometric contraction would be carrying an object in front of you.

In an isometric muscle contraction, the muscle fires (or activates with a force and tension) but there is
no movement at a joint. While the muscles are still being activated, firing forcefully, and potentially
being stressed, unlike a concentric or eccentric muscle contraction, there is no movement at the joints.

Example of isometric contraction?

An example of an isometric contraction would be carrying an object in front of you. The weight of the
object would be pulling downward, but your hands and arms would be opposing the motion with equal
force going upwards. Since your arms are neither raising or lowering, your biceps will be isometrically
contracting.

13. Heat stress -Heat stress includes a series of conditions where the body is under stress from
overheating. Heat-related illnesses include heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heat rash, or heat stroke, each
with its own symptoms and treatments. Symptoms can range from profuse sweating to dizziness,
cessation of sweating, and collapse.

Heat stress in physiology.

-During heat stress, the autonomic nervous system facilitates the delivery of blood to the skin’s surface
to dissipate heat. As internal body temperature rises, relaxation of vasoconstrictor tone in non-glabrous
(hair bearing) skin occurs to increase skin blood flow.

14. Conduction -conduction in the body is the loss of molecular kinetic energy in the form of heat from
the skin to the surroundings.

16. The impulse is normally transmitted (conducted) along the axon to its termination. Conduction of
nerve impulses is rapid but much slower than that of electricity. Conduction is an active process it is self-
propagating , and the impulse moves at a constant amplitude and velocity. Resting membrane potential.

15. Convection -Convection is the transfer of heat to the air surrounding the skin. The warmed air rises
away from the body and is replaced by cooler air that is subsequently heated. Convection can also occur
in water.

Convection in the body is the process of losing heat through the movement of air or water molecules
across the skin. The use of a fan to cool off the body is one example of convection. The amount of heat
loss from convection is dependent upon the airflow or in aquatic exercise, the water flow over the skin.
UNIT 6 – LEARNING ACTIVITY

1. FFM

Fat-free mass is one of two human body components: Fat, and everything else. Fat-free mass (FFM)
includes internal organs, bone, muscle, water, and connective tissue. Different methods are used to
estimate your body composition, or your ratio of fat mass to fat-free mass.

When you get your body composition measured, you get an estimate of your body’s fat mass. For
example, your estimated body fat may be 24%. But have you ever wondered what makes up the other
76%? Fat-free body mass includes most of your body’s vital tissues and cells. That means:

■ Organs: Internal organs such as your heart, brain, and liver

■ Muscle: Cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and skeletal muscle

■ Bone: The bones that protect you and provide your body’s structure

■ Connective tissue: Tendons and ligaments that connect bones and muscle

■ Water: Approximately 50% to 75% of your body

2. In vitro –

In vitro is Latin for “in glass.” It describes medical procedures, tests, and experiments that researchers
perform outside of a living organism. An in vitro study occurs in a controlled environment, such as a test
tube or petri dish.

In vitro testing occurs in a laboratory and usually involves studying microorganisms or human or animal
cells in culture. This methodology allows scientists to evaluate various biological phenomena in specific
cells without

Some examples of in vitro testing include pharmaceutical testing and fertility treatments.

■ Pharmaceutical testing
New drugs, also known as drug candidates, undergo in vitro testing before they enter clinical trials.

During an in vitro preclinical test, researchers will expose target cells to a novel drug and monitor its
effects. In vitro testing is especially helpful for identifying whether or not a novel drug has any toxic or
carcinogenic effects.

■ Fertility treatments

In vitro fertilization (IVF) is a type of fertility treatment where fertilization occurs in a laboratory, instead
of within the body.IVF involves extracting one or more eggs from an ovary and placing them in a petri
dish with donated sperm. Fertilization usually occurs within 3–5 days.

A healthcare professional can then implant the resulting embryos into the uterus.

3. In vivo -

In vivo is Latin for “within the living.” It refers to tests, experiments, and procedures that researchers
perform in or on a whole living organism, such as a person, laboratory animal, or plant.

Despite positive preclinical results, around 30% of drug candidates fail human clinical trials due to
causing adverse side effects. An additional 60% do not produce the desired effect.

In vivo testing, especially in clinical trials, is a vital aspect of medical research in general. In vivo studies
provide valuable information regarding the effects of a particular substance or disease progression in a
whole, living organism.

The main types of in vivo tests are animal studies and clinical trials.

■ Animal studies

Researchers use animal studies to uncover the mechanisms that underlie various disease processes and
to assess the safety of emerging medical treatments.
Animal studies act as a kind of middle ground between in vitro experiments and human trials. Most
animal studies use laboratory-bred mice or rats that are almost genetically identical. As a result,
researchers can monitor various biological effects within complex organisms.Testing genetically similar
subjects in a laboratory environment offers a degree of control that does not exist in a clinical trial.

■ Clinical trials

If a drug candidate appears both safe and effective in in vitro and animal studies, researchers will
evaluate its effects in humans through clinical trials.Researchers often compare the effects of new drugs
against those of a placebo.Many consider randomized controlled trials (RCTs) the gold standard for
pharmaceutical testing. All RCTs must include randomization and control.

4. Obesity

Obesity is an exaggeration of normal adiposity and is a central player in the pathophysiology of diabetes
mellitus, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and atherosclerosis, largely due to its secretion
of excessive adipokines. Obesity is a major contributor to the metabolic dysfunction involving lipid and
glucose, but on a broader scale, it influences organ dysfunction involving cardiac, liver, intestinal,
pulmonary, endocrine, and reproductive functions.

Obesity is an exaggeration of normal adiposity and is a central player in the pathophysiology of diabetes
mellitus, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and atherosclerosis, largely due to its secretion
of excessive adipokines. Obesity is a major contributor to the metabolic dysfunction involving lipid and
glucose, but on a broader scale, it influences organ dysfunction involving cardiac, liver, intestinal,
pulmonary, endocrine, and reproductive functions.

■ The Health Effects of Overweight and Obesity

All-causes of death (mortality)

High blood pressure (Hypertension)

High LDL cholesterol, low HDL cholesterol, or high levels of triglycerides (Dyslipidemia)
Type 2 diabetes.

Coronary heart disease.

Stroke.

Gallbladder disease.

Osteoarthritis (a breakdown of cartilage and bone within a joint)

5. Hydrostatic

Hydrostatics, Branch of physics that deals with the characteristics of fluids at rest, particularly with the
pressure in a fluid or exerted by a fluid (gas or liquid) on an immersed body. In applications, the
principles of hydrostatics are used for problems relating to pressure in deep water (pressure increases
with depth) and high in the atmosphere (pressure lessens with altitude).

Hydrostatic pressure refers to the pressure that any fluid in a confined space exerts. … The pressure
that blood exerts in the capillaries is known as blood pressure. The force of hydrostatic pressure means
that as blood moves along the capillary, fluid moves out through its pores and into the interstitial space.

6. Satiety hormone

Leptin is produced by your fat cells. It’s considered a “satiety hormone” that reduces appetite and
makes you feel full. As a signaling hormone, its role is to communicate with the hypothalamus, the
portion of your brain that regulates appetite and food intake.

Satiety is the psycho-biological process that suppresses hunger after an eating occasion and prevents
further eating; it is said to control snacking between meals.

7. Ketogenic diet

Ketogenic” is a term for a low-carb diet (like the Atkins diet). The idea is for you to get more calories
from protein and fat and less from carbohydrates. You cut back most on the carbs that are easy to
digest, like sugar, soda, pastries, and white bread.
When you eat less than 50 grams of carbs a day, your body eventually runs out of fuel (blood sugar) it
can use quickly. This typically takes 3 to 4 days. Then you’ll start to break down protein and fat for
energy, which can make you lose weight. This is called ketosis. It’s important to note that the ketogenic
diet is a short term diet that’s focussed on weight loss rather than the pursuit of health benefits.

Here are some healthy foods to eat on a ketogenic diet.

Seafood. Fish and shellfish are very keto-friendly foods.

Low-carb vegetables.

Cheese.

Avocados

Meat and poultry.

Eggs.

Coconut oil.

Plain Greek yogurt and cottage cheese.

8. VLCD Very low-calorie diets

Very low-calorie diets (VLCDs) are dietary regimens that provide approximately 400–600 kcal per day
usually as a liquid formula. VLCDs have been shown to produce excellent initial weight losses (−20 kg at
12 weeks); this effect is due in part to the degree of caloric restriction and in part to decreased dietary
variety and the use of portion-controlled foods in these regimens. Given the large initial weight loss
produced by VLCDs, it was hoped that combining these diets with behavioral approaches would
maximize long-term weight loss. Although VLCDs improve initial weight loss, they do not appear to
produce better long-term weight loss than low calorie diets (LCDs). Difficulty with weight maintenance in
programs with a VLCD appears to occur during the transition from the VLCD to a diet composed of
conventional foods.

9. Bariatric surgery

Gastric bypass and other weight-loss surgeries — known collectively as bariatric surgery — involve
making changes to your digestive system to help you lose weight. Bariatric surgery is done when diet
and exercise haven’t worked or when you have serious health problems because of your weight. Some
procedures limit how much you can eat. Other procedures work by reducing the body’s ability to absorb
nutrients.

Why it’s done

Bariatric surgery is done to help you lose excess weight and reduce your risk of potentially life-
threatening weight-related health problems, including:

Heart disease and stroke

High blood pressure

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) or nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH)

Sleep apnea

Type 2 diabetes

10. Gerentology

Gerontology is the study of the biological, psychological, and social aspects of aging. From early
beginnings in research and theory, gerontology developed into a multidisciplinary field of study and,
more recently, into a professional field commonly known as the field of aging. This article identifies key
factors that influenced the development of gerontology as a professional field, differentiates three
categories of gerontological workers and professionals, delineates generic job roles for gerontological
specialists, briefly reviews professional opportunities for gerontological specialists in several traditional
fields, provides a glimpse into numerous emerging career paths, and offers recommendations necessary
for further career development in the field of aging.

11. YLL (6 reasons)

The years of life lost (YLL) is a summary measure of premature mortality. YLL estimates the years of
potential life lost due to premature deaths. YLL takes into account the age at which deaths occur, giving
greater weight to deaths at a younger age and lower weight to deaths at older age.

YLL can be used to calculate the YLL due to a specific cause of death as a proportion of the total YLL lost
in the population due to premature mortality. Such indicator can be used in public health planning to
compare the relative importance of different causes of premature deaths within a given population, to
set priorities for prevention, and to compare the premature mortality experience between populations.

12. Physical activity epidemiology

Physical activity epidemiology deals with the frequency and patterns of physical activity in the
population and the relationship between physical activity and health and disease.
The main purpose of the research discipline of physical activity epidemiology is to study the causal
relationship between physical activity, or a lack of physical activity, and health.

13. Sarcopenia

Sarcopenia is a condition characterized by loss of skeletal muscle mass and function. Although it is
primarily a disease of the elderly, its development may be associated with conditions that are not
exclusively seen in older persons.

Sarcopenia is a syndrome characterized by progressive and generalized loss of skeletal muscle mass and
strength and it is strictly correlated with physical disability, poor quality of life and death. Risk factors for
sarcopenia include age, gender and level of physical activity

Sarcopenia is a slow process caused by many factors including a loss of motor neurons and muscle
fibers, anabolic resistance, an impaired regeneration, chronic low-grade inflammation and a decline of
testosterone in hypogonadal men.

Treatments for Sarcopenia

The primary treatment for sarcopenia is exercise, specifically resistance training or strength training.
These activities increase muscle strength and endurance using weights or resistance bands. Resistance
training can help your neuromuscular system, hormones.

14. Apoproteins

An apoprotein is a protein devoid of its characteristic prosthetic group or metal. Stars. This entity has
been manually annotated by the ChEBI Team.

Apolipoproteins

Apolipoproteins are amphipathic molecules capable of interacting with both the lipids of the lipoprotein
core and the aqueous environment of the plasma. They function as biochemical keys, allowing
lipoprotein particles access to specific sites for the delivery, acceptance, or modification of lipids. Major
apolipoproteins, their chromosomal locations with sequence accession numbers, and functions are
shown in Table 213-2. Serum measurements of apolipoproteins may have clinical utility. For example,
increased levels of apo B and decreased levels of apo AI are associated with vascular disease. Apo B48,
specific for gut-derived particles, derives its name from the fact that it is about 48% of the size of apo
B100. Apo B100 and apo B48 are products of the same gene, with B48 resulting from the post-
transcriptional introduction of a premature stop codon in the apo B messenger RNA by apobec1, a
cytidine deaminase. Genetic variants in apolipoproteins can be associated with well-defined clinical
syndromes.

15. Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a serious mental disorder in which people interpret reality abnormally. Schizophrenia
may result in some combination of hallucinations, delusions, and extremely disordered thinking and
behavior that impairs daily functioning, and can be disabling.

People with schizophrenia require lifelong treatment. Early treatment may help get symptoms under
control before serious complications develop and may help improve the long-term outlook.

SYMPTOMS :

Delusions. These are false beliefs that are not based in reality.

Hallucinations. These usually involve seeing or hearing things that don’t exist.

Disorganized thinking (speech). Disorganized thinking is inferred from disorganized speech.

Extremely disorganized or abnormal motor behavior. This may show in a number of ways, from childlike
silliness to unpredictable agitation.

Negative symptoms. This refers to reduced or lack of ability to function normally.

There’s no sure way to prevent schizophrenia, but sticking with the treatment plan can help prevent
relapses or worsening of symptoms.