Lec 1

MATH F111- Mathematics I
Saranya G. Nair
Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani
October 31, 2022
Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 1 / 22

• Course Name: Mathematics I- MATH F111
• Introducing Handout
• Consultation Hours: Wednesday 6:00pm -6:30 pm, Thursday 6:00pm
-6:30 pm at LT 2.
• Email: saranyan@goa.bits-pilani.ac.in
• Office-A EX 1.

Notations
N- Set of Natural numbers

Q- Set of rational numbers
R- Set of real numbers
∀ - For all
∃- There exists

Intervals
Definition
A subset I of R is said to be an interval if
a, b ∈ I and a < x < b =⇒ x ∈ I .
Let a, b ∈ R and a < b.

• (a, b) := {x ∈ R : a < x < b} (open interval)
• [a, b] := {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b} (closed interval)
• [a, b) := {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b} and (a, b] := {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b} are
half-open (or half-closed) intervals.
• (a, ∞) := {x ∈ R : x > a} and (−∞, a) := {x ∈ R : x < a} are
infinite open intervals.
• [a, ∞) := {x ∈ R : x ≥ a} and (−∞, a] := {x ∈ R : x ≤ a} are
infinite closed intervals.
Let a ∈ R and ϵ > 0. Then (a − ϵ, a + ϵ) is called the ϵ-neighborhood of
a.
Sequences
Definition
A sequence of real numbers (or a sequence in R) is a function
x : N → R.
If x : N → R is a sequence, we will usually denote the value of x(n) by the
symbol xn . The values xn are also called the terms or the elements of the
sequence and xn (that is, the value of x at n) is called the n-th term of the
sequence. We will denote this sequence by the notations
(xn ), or (xn : n ∈ N).
Other commonly used notations are (an ).

Example
• (n : n ∈ N) = (1, 2, 3, 4, . . .)

Example
• (n : n ∈ N) = (1, 2, 3, 4, . . .)
• (1/n : n ∈ N) = (1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, . . .)

Example
• (n : n ∈ N) = (1, 2, 3, 4, . . .)
• (1/n : n ∈ N) = (1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, . . .)
• (n2 : n ∈ N) = (1, 4, 9, 16, . . .)

Example
• (n : n ∈ N) = (1, 2, 3, 4, . . .)
• (1/n : n ∈ N) = (1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, . . .)
• (n2 : n ∈ N) = (1, 4, 9, 16, . . .)
• If b ∈ R, the sequence (b, b, b, . . .), all of whose terms equal b, is
called the constant sequence b.

Example
• (n : n ∈ N) = (1, 2, 3, 4, . . .)
• (1/n : n ∈ N) = (1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, . . .)
• (n2 : n ∈ N) = (1, 4, 9, 16, . . .)
• (2n : n ∈ N) = (2, 4, 8, 16, . . .)

Example
• (n : n ∈ N) = (1, 2, 3, 4, . . .)
• (1/n : n ∈ N) = (1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, . . .)
• (n2 : n ∈ N) = (1, 4, 9, 16, . . .)
• (2n : n ∈ N) = (2, 4, 8, 16, . . .)
• (−1)n : n ∈ N = (−1, 1, −1, 1, . . .)


Example
• (n : n ∈ N) = (1, 2, 3, 4, . . .)
• (1/n : n ∈ N) = (1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, . . .)
• (n2 : n ∈ N) = (1, 4, 9, 16, . . .)
• (2n : n ∈ N) = (2, 4, 8, 16, . . .)
• (−1)n : n ∈ N = (−1, 1, −1, 1, . . .)

• x1 := 1, x2 := 1 and xn := xn−1 + xn−2 for n ≥ 3:

(1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, . . .) This sequence is known as the
Fibonacci sequence.

Bounded Sequences
A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded above if there is a

real number α such that an ≤ α for every (∀) n ∈ N.

Bounded Sequences

real number α such that an ≤ α for every (∀) n ∈ N. eg. (an ) = −n.
A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded below if there is a

real number β such that β ≤ an for every n ∈ N.

Bounded Sequences


real number β such that β ≤ an for every n ∈ N. eg. (an ) = n2
A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded if there are real

numbers α, β such that β ≤ an ≤ α for every n ∈ N.

Bounded Sequences


real number β such that β ≤ an for every n ∈ N. eg. (an ) = n2
A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded if there are real

numbers α, β such that β ≤ an ≤ α for every n ∈ N. eg. (an ) = n1 ,
(an ) = (−1)n
If a sequence is not bounded, it is said to be unbounded. eg.

(an ) = (−1)n n

• (an ) = {1, 12 , 13 , · · · , n1 · · · }

• (an ) = {1, 12 , 13 , · · · , n1 · · · } approaches 0 as n gets large.
• (an ) = {0, 12 , 23 , · · · , 1 − n1 · · · }

• (an ) = {0, 12 , 23 , · · · , 1 − n1 · · · } approaches 1 as n gets large.
√ √ √ √
• (an ) = { 1, 2, 3, · · · , n · · · }

√ √ √ √
• (an ) = { 1, 2, 3, · · · , n · · · } have terms that get larger than
any number as n increases.

√ √ √ √
• (an ) = {1, −1, 1, −1, · · · }

√ √ √ √
• (an ) = {1, −1, 1, −1, · · · } bounce back and forth between 1 and −1,
never approaching to a single value.

√ √ √ √
• (an ) = {1, −1, 1, −1, · · · } bounce back and forth between 1 and −1,
never approaching to a single value.
Remark
Question: What do we mean by a sequence converges?
It says that if we go far enough out in the sequence, the difference

between an and the limit of the sequence becomes less than any
preselected number ϵ > 0.

Let us see this with (an ) = n1 .
• Can you make the distance between an and 0 as small as possible?

• Can you make |an − 0| < 12 ∀n?

• Can you make |an − 0| < 12 ∀n? No
• Can you make |an − 0| < 12 , ∀n ≥ N for some integer N?

• Can you make |an − 0| < 12 , ∀n ≥ N for some integer N? Yes, choose
N = 3.

N = 3.
• Given any ϵ > 0, can you make |an − 0| < ϵ, ∀n ≥ N for some integer
N?

N = 3.
• Given any ϵ > 0, can you make |an − 0| < ϵ, ∀n ≥ N for some integer
N? Yes, choose N > 1ϵ . In particular choose N = ⌊ 1ϵ ⌋ + 1.

Toward convergence of a sequence
Let (an ) be a sequence in R, and let ℓ be a real number.


• Convergence of a sequence (an ) to a real number ℓ should mean that
the term an is as close to ℓ as we like for all sufficiently large n.


• Fix any positive number. Construct the sequence
|a1 − ℓ|, |a2 − ℓ|, . . . , |an − ℓ|, . . .
After a certain stage, all the entries from this sequence should be
smaller than the fixed positive number.


|a1 − ℓ|, |a2 − ℓ|, . . . , |an − ℓ|, . . .
• The fixed positive number is often denoted by ϵ (epsilon).


|a1 − ℓ|, |a2 − ℓ|, . . . , |an − ℓ|, . . .
• The fixed positive number is often denoted by ϵ (epsilon).
• Let N indicate how far one needs to go in the sequence to ensure that
the entries from |aN − ℓ| onward are smaller than ϵ, that is,
aN , aN+1 , aN+2 , . . . all belong to (ℓ − ϵ, ℓ + ϵ).

The Limit of a Sequence
Definition
A sequence (an ) in R is said to converge to ℓ ∈ R, or ℓ is said to be a limit
of (an ), if for every ϵ > 0, there exists an integer N(ϵ) ∈ N such that
|an − ℓ| < ϵ for all n ≥ N(ϵ).
ie, an ∈ (ℓ − ϵ, ℓ + ϵ), ∀n ≥ N(ϵ).

The Limit of a Sequence
Definition
A sequence (an ) in R is said to converge to ℓ ∈ R, or ℓ is said to be a limit
of (an ), if for every ϵ > 0, there exists an integer N(ϵ) ∈ N such that
|an − ℓ| < ϵ for all n ≥ N(ϵ).
ie, an ∈ (ℓ − ϵ, ℓ + ϵ), ∀n ≥ N(ϵ).
Remark
The notation N(ϵ) is used to emphasize that the choice of N depends on
the value of ϵ. However, it is often convenient to write N instead of N(ϵ),

When a sequence (an ) has limit ℓ, we will use the notation
lim an = ℓ.
We will sometimes use the symbolism an → ℓ, which indicates the intuitive

idea that the values an “approach” the number ℓ as n → ∞. If a sequence
has a limit, we say that the sequence is convergent; if it has no limit, we
say that the sequence is divergent.

When a sequence (an ) has limit ℓ, we will use the notation
lim an = ℓ.
We will sometimes use the symbolism an → ℓ, which indicates the intuitive

idea that the values an “approach” the number ℓ as n → ∞. If a sequence
has a limit, we say that the sequence is convergent; if it has no limit, we
say that the sequence is divergent.
There is also a notion of divergence if the sequence is not bounded.

Definition
The sequence (an ) diverges to infinity if for every number M there is an
integer N such that ∀n > N, an > M. If this holds, we write
lim an = ∞ or an → ∞.
n→∞
Similarly if for every number m, there is an integer N such that ∀n > N,

we have an < m, then we say (an ) diverges to negative infinity. We write
lim an = −∞ or an → −∞.
n→∞

The convergence of a sequence is unaltered if a finite number of its terms
are replaced by some other terms.

Examples:
(i) Let a ∈ R and an := a for all n ∈ N. Then an → a. We can let

N := 1.

Examples:

N := 1.
(ii) an := 1/n for all n ∈ N. Then an → 0.

Examples:

N := 1.
(ii) an := 1/n for all n ∈ N. Then an → 0.

Let ϵ > 0 be given. We want to find N ∈ N such that |(1/n) − 0| < ϵ
for all n ≥ N.
Choose any N ∈ N which is greater than 1/ϵ. (This is possible

because of the Archimedean property of R.)
For example, we can let N := [1/ϵ] + 1.

(iii) an := 2/(n2 + 1) for n ∈ N. Then an → 0. Now


2
= 2 < 2 for all n ∈ N.

n2 + 1 − 0 n2 + 1 n2


2
= 2 < 2 for all n ∈ N.

n2 + 1 − 0 n2 + 1 n2
√ √
Choose√N ∈ N such that N > 2/ ϵ. For example, let
√
N := [ 2/ ϵ] + 1. Then |an − 0| < n22 < ϵ for all n ≥ N.


2
= 2 < 2 for all n ∈ N.

n2 + 1 − 0 n2 + 1 n2
√ √
√
(iv) an := 5/(3n + 1) for n ∈ N. Then an → 0.


2
= 2 < 2 for all n ∈ N.

n2 + 1 − 0 n2 + 1 n2
√ √
√
(iv) an := 5/(3n + 1) for n ∈ N. Then an → 0. Now
5 5
< for all n ∈ N.
3n + 1 3n


2
= 2 < 2 for all n ∈ N.

n2 + 1 − 0 n2 + 1 n2
√ √
√
(iv) an := 5/(3n + 1) for n ∈ N. Then an → 0. Now
5 5
< for all n ∈ N.
3n + 1 3n
Choose N ∈ N such that N > 5/3ϵ. For example, let N := [5/3ϵ] + 1.
5
Then |an − 0| < 3n < ϵ for all n ≥ N.

Examples
(v ). The sequence (−1)n : n ∈ N = (−1, 1, −1, 1, . . .) is not convergent.

Let xn := (−1)n be convergent and converges to the real number x.

Examples

Let xn := (−1)n be convergent and converges to the real number x. Then

definition of convergence must hold for every ϵ.

Examples


• In particular choose ϵ = 21 . Then there exists a natural number k
such that
1
|xn − x| = |(−1)n − x| < for all n ≥ k.
2

Examples


• In particular choose ϵ = 21 . Then there exists a natural number k
such that
1
|xn − x| = |(−1)n − x| < for all n ≥ k.
2
Since (−1)2k = 1 and (−1)2k+1 = −1,
2 = |(−1)2k − (−1)2k+1 |
= | (−1)2k − x − (−1)2k+1 − x |

1 1
≤ | (−1)2k − x | + | (−1)2k+1 − x | < + = 1,

2 2
which is a contradiction. Therefore, the sequence (−1)n is not
convergent.
Examples
(vi). lim r n = 0 for |r | < 1.
n→∞

Examples
(vi). lim r n = 0 for |r | < 1.
n→∞
Case 1. r = 0
In this case the sequence is {0, 0, 0, . . .} which converges to 0.

Examples
(vi). lim r n = 0 for |r | < 1.
n→∞
Case 1. r = 0
In this case the sequence is {0, 0, 0, . . .} which converges to 0.
Case 2. r ̸= 0 and |r | < 1.

Since |r | < 1, |r1| > 1. Let |r1| = 1 + a where a > 0. Then
1
|r n − 0| = |r |n = .
(1 + a)n
We have (1 + a)n > na for all n ∈ N and hence,
1
|r n − 0| < for all n ∈ N.
na

Let ϵ > 0 be given. Then
1
|r n − 0| < ϵ holds if n > .
aϵ
1
Choose any N ∈ N such that N > aϵ . Then
∀n ≥ N, |r n − 0| < ϵ.
Since ϵ > 0 is arbitrary,

lim r n = 0.
n→∞

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MATH F111- Mathematics I

October 31, 2022

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 1 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 2 / 22

N- Set of Natural numbers

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 3 / 22

Let a, b ∈ R and a < b.

(xn ), or (xn : n ∈ N).

Other commonly used notations are (an ).

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 5 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 6 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 6 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 6 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 6 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 6 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 6 / 22

• x1 := 1, x2 := 1 and xn := xn−1 + xn−2 for n ≥ 3:

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 6 / 22

A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded above if there is a

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 7 / 22

A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded above if there is a

A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded below if there is a

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 7 / 22

A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded above if there is a

A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded below if there is a

A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded if there are real

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 7 / 22

A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded above if there is a

A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded below if there is a

A sequence (an ) of real numbers is said to be bounded if there are real

If a sequence is not bounded, it is said to be unbounded. eg.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 7 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 8 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 8 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 8 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 8 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 8 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 8 / 22

It says that if we go far enough out in the sequence, the difference

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 8 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 9 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 9 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 9 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 9 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 9 / 22

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 9 / 22

Let (an ) be a sequence in R, and let ℓ be a real number.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 10 / 22

Let (an ) be a sequence in R, and let ℓ be a real number.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 10 / 22

Let (an ) be a sequence in R, and let ℓ be a real number.

|a1 − ℓ|, |a2 − ℓ|, . . . , |an − ℓ|, . . .

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 10 / 22

Let (an ) be a sequence in R, and let ℓ be a real number.

|a1 − ℓ|, |a2 − ℓ|, . . . , |an − ℓ|, . . .

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I October 31, 2022 10 / 22

Let (an ) be a sequence in R, and let ℓ be a real number.

|a1 − ℓ|, |a2 − ℓ|, . . . , |an − ℓ|, . . .