ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

FIRST SEMESTER / MIDTERMS

FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
§ Sensory input – gathering information
§ To monitor changes occurring inside
and outside the body
§ Changes = stimuli
§ Integration
§ To process and interpret sensory
input and decide if action is needed
§ Motor output
§ A response to integrated stimuli
§ The response activates muscles or
glands
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM NERVOUS TISSUE
§ Central nervous system (CNS) § Nervous tissue contains two categories
§ Brain of cells — neurons and neuroglia.
§ Spinal cord § Neurons = nerve cells
§ Peripheral nervous system (PNS) § Cells specialized to transmit
§ Nerve outside the brain and spinal messages
cord § Major regions of neurons
§ Cell body – nucleus and
metabolic center of the cell
§ Processes – fibers that
extend from the cell body
NEURON ANATOMY
§ Cell body
§ Nissl substance – specialized rough
endoplasmic reticulum
§ Neurofibrils – intermediate
cytoskeleton that maintains cell
shape
§ Nucleus
§ Large nucleolus
THE NEURON
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FIRST SEMESTER / MIDTERMS
NEURON ANATOMY NEURON CELL BODY LOCATION
§ Extensions outside the cell body § Most are found in the central nervous
§ Dendrites – conduct impulses system
toward the cell body § Gray matter – cell bodies and
§ Axons – conduct impulses away unmylenated fibers
from the cell body § Nuclei – clusters of cell bodies within
NERVE FIBER COVERINGS the white matter of the central
§ Schwann cells – nervous system
produce myelin § Ganglia – collections of cell bodies outside
sheaths in jelly- the central nervous system
roll like fashion
§ Nodes of Ranvier
– gaps in myelin
sheath along the
axon

AXONS AND NERVE IMPULSES

§ Axons end in axonal terminals
§ Axonal terminals contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
§ Axonal terminals are separated from the
next neuron by a gap
§ Synapse – junction between nerves
§ Synaptic cleft – gap between
adjacent neurons
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS
§ Sensory (afferent) neurons
§ Carry impulses from the sensory
receptors
§ Cutaneous sense organs
§ Proprioceptors – detect
stretch or tension
§ Motor (efferent) neurons
§ Carry impulses from the central
nervous system
§ Interneurons (association neurons)
§ Found in neural pathways in the
central nervous system
§ Connect sensory and motor neurons
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
FIRST SEMESTER / MIDTERMS

STARTING A NERVE IMPULSE

§ Depolarization
– a stimulus
depolarizes
the neuron’s
membrane
§ A deploarized
membrane
allows sodium
(Na+) to flow
inside the
membrane
§ The exchange
of ions
initiates an
action
potential in the neuron
THE ACTION POTENTIAL
§ If the action potential (nerve impulse)
starts, it is propagated over the entire axon
§ Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after
sodium ions rush in, which repolarizes the
membrane
§ The sodium-potassium pump restores the
original configuration
§ This action requires ATP
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FIRST SEMESTER / MIDTERMS
NERVE IMPULSE PROPAGATION § Regulation of glands
§ The impulse § Digestive system regulation
continues to § Somatic reflexes
move § Activation of skeletal muscles
toward the SPINAL NERVES
cell body § There is a pair of spinal nerves at the level
§ Impulses of each vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs
travel faster § Spinal nerves are formed by the
when fibers combination of the ventral and dorsal roots
have a of the spinal cord
myelin § Spinal nerves are named for the region from
sheath which they arise
CONTINUATION OF THE NERVE IMPULSE BETWEEN
NEURONS
§ Impulses are able to cross the synapse to
another nerve
§ Neurotransmitter is released from a
nerve’s axon terminal
§ The dendrite of the next neuron has
receptors that are stimulated by the
neurotransmitter
§ An action potential is started in the
dendrite

ANATOMY OF SPINAL NERVES

§ Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the
spinal cord
§ Dorsal rami – serve the skin and
muscles of the posterior trunk
§ Ventral rami – forms a complex of
networks (plexus) for the anterior

MOTOR DIVISION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

§ Types of Reflexes and Regulation
§ Autonomic reflexes
§ Smooth muscle regulation
§ Heart and blood pressure
regulation
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FIRST SEMESTER / MIDTERMS
ANATOMY OF SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
§ Originates from T1 through L2
§ Ganglia are at the sympathetic trunk (near
the spinal cord)
§ Short pre-ganglionic neuron and long
postganglionic neuron transmit impulse
from CNS to the effector
§ Norepinephrine and epinephrine are
neurotransmitters to the effector organs

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

§ The involuntary branch of the nervous
system
§ Consists of only motor nerves
§ Divided into two divisions
§ Sympathetic division
§ Parasympathetic division
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOMATIC AND
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
§ Nerves
§ Somatic – one motor neuron ANATOMY OF THE PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
§ Autonomic – preganglionic and § Originates from the brain stem and S1
postganglionic nerves through S4
§ Effector organs § Terminal ganglia are at the effector organs
§ Somatic – skeletal muscle § Always uses acetylcholine as a
§ Autonomic – smooth muscle, cardiac neurotransmitter
muscle, and glands
§ Nerurotransmitters
§ Somatic – always use acetylcholine
§ Autominic – use acetylcholine,
epinephrine, or norepinephrine
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AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONING § Stray dog
§ Sympathetic – “fight-or-flight” § Exercise
§ Response to unusual stimulus § Yung crush mo na nakatingin sayo!
§ Takes over to increase activities § Substances
§ Remember as the “E” division = § Drugs
exercise, excitement, emergency, § Coffee
and embarrassment SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
§ Parasympathetic – housekeeping activites Release of ACh à binds and activates nicotinic
“rest and digest” ACh receptor à Stimulates release of
§ Conserves energy Norepinephrine (noradrenaline) à prolonged
§ Maintains daily necessary body activation à release of Epinephrine (adrenaline)à
functions SYMPATHETIC EFFECT
§ Remember as the “D” division - WHAT TRIGGERS YOUR PNS/CHOLINERGIC?
digestion, defecation, and diuresis § Rest and Digest
DEVELOPMENT ASPECTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM § Feed and Breed
§ The nervous system is formed during the § Valsalva Maneuver
first month of embryonic development § Stimulates Vagus Nerve à activates
§ Any maternal infection can have extremely PNS
harmful effects CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)
§ The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of § CNS develops from the embryonic neural
the brain to develop tube
§ No more neurons are formed after birth, but § The neural tube becomes the brain
growth and maturation continues for several and spinal cord
years § The opening of the neural tube
§ The brain reaches maximum weight as a becomes the ventricles
young adult § Four chambers within the
brain
§ Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
Folic acid à neural tube development
§ Brain and Spinal Cord
§ Function:
§ Integrating sensory information and
responding accordingly
REGIONS OS THE BRAIN
§ Cerebrum
§ Diencephalon
§ Brain stem
§ Cerebellum

WHAT TRIGGERS YOUR SNS/ ADRENERGIC?

§ Fight or Flight
§ Stressful situations
§ Emergency
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FIRST SEMESTER / MIDTERMS
CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES (CEREBRUM)
§ Paired (left and right) superior parts of the
brain
§ Include more than half of the brain mass
§ The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and
grooves (sulci)

SENSORY AND MOTOR AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL

CORTEX

SPECIALIZED AREAS OF THE CEREBRUM

§ Somatic sensory area – receives impulses
from the body’s sensory receptors
LOBES OF THE CEREBRUM
§ Primary motor area – sends impulses to
§ Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum
skeletal muscles
into lobes
§ Broca’s area – involved in our ability to speak
§ Surface lobes of the cerebrum
§ Cerebral areas involved in special senses
§ Frontal lobe
§ Gustatory area (taste)
§ Parietal lobe
§ Visual area
§ Occipital lobe
§ Auditory area
§ Temporal lobe
§ Olfactory area
§ Interpretation areas of the cerebrum
§ Speech/language region
§ Language comprehension region
§ General interpretation area
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
FIRST SEMESTER / MIDTERMS
DIENCEPHALON
§ Sits on top of the brain stem
§ Enclosed by the cerebral heispheres
§ Made of three parts
§ Thalamus
§ Hypothalamus
§ Epithalamus

THALAMUS
§ Surrounds the third ventricle
§ The relay station for sensory impulses
§ Transfers impulses to the correct part of the
cortex for localization and interpretation
LAYERS OF THE CEREBRUM HYPOTHALAMUS
§ Gray matter § Under the thalamus
§ Outer § Important autonomic nervous system
layer center
§ Composed § Helps regulate body temperature
mostly of § Controls water balance
neuron § Regulates metabolism
cell bodies § An important part of the limbic system
§ Fxn: (emotions)
associates § The pituitary gland is attached to the
the hypothalamus
processing EPITHALAMUS
and cognition § Forms the roof of the third ventricle
§ White matter § Houses the pineal body (an endocrine
§ Fiber tracts inside the gray matter gland)
§ Fxn: distribution of action potentials, § Includes the choroid plexus – forms
relays and coordinates cerebrospinal fluid
communication between different BRAIN STEM
brain regions § Attaches to the spinal cord
§ Basal nuclei – internal islands of gray matter § Parts of the brain stem
§ Fxn: responsible primarily for motor § Midbrain
control § Pons
§ Medulla oblongata
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
FIRST SEMESTER / MIDTERMS
MIDBRAIN
§ Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers
§ Has two bulging fiber tracts –
cerebral peduncles
§ Has four rounded protrusions –
corpora quadrigemina
§ Reflex centers for vision and hearing
PONS
§ The bulging center part of the brain stem
§ Mostly composed of fiber tracts PROTECTION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
§ Includes nuclei involved in the control of § Scalp and skin
breathing § Skull and vertebral column
MEDULA OBLONGATA § Meninges
§ The lowest part of the brain stem § Cerebrospinal fluid
§ Merges into the spinal cord § Blood brain barrier
§ Includes important fiber tracts
§ Contains important control centers
§ Heart rate control
§ Blood pressure regulation
§ Breathing
§ Swallowing
§ Vomiting
RETICULAR FORMATION
§ Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain MENINGES
stem § Dura mater
§ Involved in motor control of visceral organs § Double-layered external covering
§ Reticular activating system plays a role in § Periosteum – attached to
awake/sleep cycles and consciousness surface of the skull
§ Meningeal layer – outer
covering of the brain
§ Folds inward in several areas
§ Arachnoid layer
§ Middle layer
§ Web-like
§ Pia mater
§ Internal layer
§ Clings to the surface of the brain
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
§ Similar to blood plasma composition
§ Formed by the choroid plexus
CEREBELLUM § Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
§ Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces § Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles,
§ Provides involuntary coordination of body and central canal of the spinal cord
movements
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FIRST SEMESTER / MIDTERMS
BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER
§ Includes the least permeable capillaries of
the body
§ Excludes many potentially harmful
substances
§ Useless against some substances
§ Fats and fat soluble molecules
§ Respiratory gases
§ Alcohol
§ Nicotine
§ Anesthesia

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
§ Progressive degenerative brain disease
§ Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in
middle age
§ Structural changes in the brain include
abnormal protein deposits and twisted
fibers within neurons
§ Victims experience memory loss, irritability,
confusion and ultimately, hallucinations and
death
SPINAL CORD
§ Extends from the
medulla oblongata to
TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES the region of T12
§ Concussion § Below T12 is the cauda
§ Slight brain injury equina (a collection of
§ No permanent brain damage spinal nerves)
§ Contusion § Enlargements occur in
§ Nervous tissue destruction occurs the cervical and
§ Nervous tissue does not regenerate lumbar regions
§ Cerebral edema
§ Swelling from the inflammatory
response
§ May compress and kill brain tissue
CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT (CVA)
§ Commonly called a stroke
§ The result of a ruptured blood vessel
supplying a region of the brain
§ Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that
blood source dies
§ Loss of some functions or death may result
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
FIRST SEMESTER / MIDTERMS
CLASSIFICATION OF NERVES (FUNCTIONAL) CN 3 (III) OCULOMOTOR
§ Mixed nerves – both sensory and motor Motor
fibers
Function:
§ Afferent (sensory) nerves – carry impulses
toward the CNS -Eye Movement
§ Efferent (motor) nerves – carry impulses -Eyelid Opening
away from the CNS -Pupillary Constriction
CRANIAL NERVES -Lens Accommodation
§ 12 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the CN 4 (IV) TROCHLEAR
head and neck
Motor
§ Numbered in order, front to back
§ Most are mixed nerves, but three are Function: Eye Movement
sensory only CN 6 (VI) ABDUCENS
DISTRIBUTION OF CRANIAL NERVES Motor
Function: Eye Movement
CN 5 (V) TRIGEMINAL
Sensory & Motor
Sensory Function:
-Facial Sensation
-Somatosensation to Ant 2/3 of
Tongue
Motor Function: Open/Close Jaw
CN 7 (VII) FACIAL
Sensory & Motor
Motor Function:
-Facial Expressions
-Lacrimation
-Salivation
Sensory Function:
-Taste to Ant 2/3 of Tongue
CN 9 (IX) GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL
Sensory & Motor
CN 1 (I) Sensory Function:
OLFACTORY Somatosensation & taste to Posterior 1/3
Sensory Tongue
Function: Smell Motor Function: Swallowing
CN 2 (II) OPTIC CN 10 (X) Vagus
Sensory Sensory & Motor
Function: Vision Sensory Function: Taste to Epiglottis
Motor Function: Swallowing, Talking,
Coughing
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FIRST SEMESTER / MIDTERMS
CN 10 (X) VAGUS
Sensory & Motor
Sensory Function: Taste to Epiglottis
Motor Function:
-Swallowing
-Talking
-Coughing
CN 12( XII) HYPOGLOSSAL
Motor
Function: Tongue Movement
CN 8 (VIII) AUDITORY/
VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR
Sensory
Function: Hearing & Balance
CN 11 (XI) Accessory
Motor
Function: Shoulder Shrugging & Head
Turning

§ CN XIII – TERMINAL/ZERO/NERVE
N/NERVUS TERMINALIS
§ CN XIV – INTERMEDIARY