Electric Power System Quality Problems Analysis & Strategic Troubleshooting

Module

03
Quality in Electric Power
Supply—Part II: Indices
and Cost of Power Quality
Justification for Capital
Costs

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QUALITY IN ELECTRIC POWER

SUPPLY—PART II: INDICES AND
COST OF POWER QUALITY
JUSTIFICATION FOR CAPITAL
COSTS
SYNOPSIS
The reliability and outage indices for the quality of electric supply are
discussed in this chapter in detail. Various reliability indices, presently in
use, are discussed. The causes for outages and costs of outages are
described. The tables present typical costs of outages for different sectors.
Storm causing outages are also defined. The reliability net worth governing
prevention of outages is described.
RELIABILITY
The foremost quality of electric supply is its reliability. The reliability
consists of the following two requirements.
 Adequacy of supply that is the ability to supply as much quantity as,
when, and where it is demanded at specified voltage and purity norms.
 Security is the second requirement. The supply must be there securely.
It should not vanish just at any time and for any duration. This aspect
is covered by outages.
Outages have a high social cost. The costs of outages are different for
different sectors of a community. The costs of outages are also governed by
the duration of outages. These will be covered later in this chapter.
When we design a capacitor installation we seldom justify the capital outlay
with reference to the social costs which are
Saved. The returns on capital investment on capacitors could be many times
more with respect to these social costs than what we calculate on the basis of
the penalty for the power factor saved or on the basis of the transmission
losses saved.
Capacitors do minimize unexpected outages by way of load shedding, by
reducing losses and making more power available. They are increasingly
playing a major role in preventing grid collapses by increasing the system
stability.

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INTERRUPTIONS AND OUTAGES

Interruption
a. Momentary interruption
A total breakdown in supply, wherein the system voltage is reduced to zero,
may be termed as an interruption outage. Interruptions are 'momentary',
when as defined, the duration will be less than two seconds. A line opened
by a feeder circuit breaker against a temporary insulation failure, wherein
the re-closer automatically closes after a time interval, within which the
temporary disability has ceased to exist, illustrates this type of momentary
interruption.
b. Temporary interruption
The interruption could be 'temporary,' wherein the supply is restored within
two seconds to two minutes. The interruption now changes over to the
definition of an 'outage', if it lasts over two minutes. However, this
specification has not been accepted as a standard, universally. C
c. An outage
An outage has two parameters for considerations:
(a) The duration of an outage, for measuring which norms must be set up;
and
(b) The frequency of an outage over a standard period cf reckoning says, one
in a year, or 20 in a year.
DURATION OF AN OUTAGE
The method of counting the duration of an outage must he standardized or
agreed upon. The counting clock of duration of an outage starts at the instant
when:
 A customer calls and reports an outage or f
 When the instant for a feeder lockout is reported by a
SCADA system.
The clock stops counting when:
 The SCADA reports closure of switch on the feeder
 The field personnel report the time when the system f is back in
operation.
The frequency of an outage may be regrouped under various <• headings
under which data is desired. Thus, consumer-based indices will give us a
picture of the quality of services rendered to residential sector.

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Load-based indices will give us a picture of the quality of services rendered
to industries.

CAUSES FOR OUTAGES:

The causes for outages may be sub-divided into planned and unplanned
outages. Planned outages can occur, when repairs, additions or replace- .
meats are planned within a section of the power system, Planned outages
can also occur when a system is expected to be overloaded beyond its
capacity. Agricultural and rural feeders in India are cut-off, by rotation,
when the system cannot sustain the overload. All these outages are duly
notified to the consumers.
CAUSES FOR UNPLANNED FAILURE OF
POWER SYSTEMS
Lightning, storms, flooding, ice, animals, trees, vandalism, corrosion, errors,
mal-operation of system, accidents, blowing of fuses and digging, causing
damage to lines cables, all cause the unplanned failure of power systems.
Out of the above causes, more clarity is required on some. One of these is a
storm clause. A storm condition is in effect when:
 The weather bureau has predicted a storm and issues area warnings,
along with the approximate expected timings.
 Extensive mechanical damage has been sustained.
 More than 10% of the customers in the operating area are rendered
out of service for some time during or after the storm effects.
 At least 1% of customers operating in the declared zone are out of
service for more than 24 hours (Ref. No. 39).
The above conditions are not universally accepted as standards. They are
reproduced for illustrations.
REMEDIAL MEASURES
Collecting statistical data enables one to take remedial steps in advance.
Thus, in area prone to frequent lightning strikes, one can plan a larger
number of surge arrestor placements than normal.
In a city where trees grow profusely, regular tree-trimming programmers
will help to cut down outages. On the customer side, the use of back-up
energy measures like UPS, back-up or stand by diesel generator sets, ere will
help.

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On the utility side a new measure called the 'reliability worth index'

COST OF OUTAGE
An outage will result in a loss of production and of goods whether in process
or in a finished form as also in a stored stage. It will result in loss of
production partial or complete in some cases. Thus a partly poured casting
will have to be scraped if an outage occurs during pouring.
It will result in loss of wages and other earnings and so on.
BASIS FOR OUTAGE COSTS
These losses will vary from case to case. They will have to be quantified and
brought under a comparable reference base;
1. Loss of a dairy or meat product in an outage of a few seconds will be
negligible. An outage lasting 8 hours could destroy the product (Failure of
cold storage). A common period for collecting the loss data has to be set.
Bases of 20 minutes and of 4 hours seem to be commonly accepted.
2. A customer with a large connected load will incur more losses per outage
of a given period than a customer with a relatively lower connected load.
Figures based on losses kW of customers peak load can become comparable.
These are generally accepted.
3. Similarly a process consuming more energy (kW-Hrs or MW-Hrs) may
report more losses than one using less energy. Losses based on MW-Hr base
can be compared justifiably.
METHODS OF CALCULATING LOSSES
Three methods have been generally accepted for calculating losses:
1. Direct method—ascertaining costs of damages from the party who has
suffered these. Some parties might exaggerate their losses. Average value
may be relied upon.
2. Cost of stand-by equipment maintained by the user to avoid outage losses
may be reduced to a base of his kW's or KVVH and accepted as the cost of
an outage.
3. Rate of decrease method—a customer may be ready to accept an outage
say during a peak hour if he is adequately compensated with a reduction in

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his bill. His evaluation of this reduction is also an indirect method of his
evaluation of outage losses.

d. Reliability indices
A power system in a region may have frequent and prolonged outages.
Industries here will tend to migrate to other regions. On the other hand
another utility has invested adequately and can claim uninterrupted services.
A regulatory commission may decide favorably when this utility asks for an
increase in tariffs as a price for extending a more reliable supply.
How do we define the quality of a service?
Various reliability indices have been evolved. These help to evaluate the
power quality of a utility. These indices have not been accepted universally.
They qualify outages.
The following types of reliability indices are in vogue: (Ref. No. 37)

 system average interruption frequency index: (SAIFI)

SAIFI=
 system average interruption duration index: (SAIDI)

SAIDI=
 customer average interruption frequency index: (CAIFI)

CAIFI=

 customer average interruption duration index: (CAIDI)

CAIDI=

 average service availability index: (ASAI)

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ASAI=
The typical values reported in USA are as follows
 SAIFI: average 4 customers year,
 SAIDI: values varied between 55 minutes to 197 minutes, and
 ASAI: lowest- 98.98%, highest- 99.9989%.

e. Reliability worth index

The minimum installed capacity for power generation and supply to users,
for a utility must be able to meet the peak power demand as well as the peak
energy demand, and short time additional demand. Over and above this, it
must have a capacity to meet emergency overloads and to avoid outages.
The utility calculates damage claims likely to arise out of an outage. This is
done sector-wise. Against this figure pf claims, it invests in extra capital
equipment. Both these figures give the utility its reliability worth index.
There are other methods also for arriving by the utilities to this index. The
reliability worth index gives a better rating to the utilities. The tariffs they
can charge and which must be approved by the regulatory commission
include an allowance against this reliability worth index.
We now reproduce some interesting reported findings.

Table (1) Costs of Outages Reported for a Canadian Farm Canadian Dollars (Ref. 4
No. 11 @IEEE2000Wacker)

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Table (2) Costs of Outages—Offices and Commercial buildings US $ (Ref. No. 32-
2000 Gates)

Table (3) Outages Cost for Large Industrial and Commercial Customers in Nepal
© 2000, IEEE (Pandey, Ref. No. 35)

COST ELEMENT
 Production time in hours lost. Work stoppage %.

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 Value of production lost after deducting recovered materials. Damage to

materials and equipment.
 Cost of running back up generator. Cost to restart.
 Less: Savings on R.M. fuel, etc. during outage. Average total costs.
 Costs in $/monthly kW Hrs.

Table (4) Residential Interruption Costs in Nepal Rs. No. 34)

HARMONICS: SURVEYING, INDICES AND
MITIGATION AND COSTS OF HARMONICS DAMAGES
a. Surveying for Harmonics Presence
Harmonics are not steady like the fundamental parameters for voltage and
current. They flicker. They also change with load. This requires that, the
readings may be averaged over a set period and a whole set of averaged
readings be read with reference to locations, times, etc.
Harmonic amplitudes are measured as a current distortion parameter or as a
voltage distortion parameter. They are measured for individual harmonics as
well as for total (RMS of individual) harmonics.
Different harmonics have different reactances over the same circuit. As a
result the phase angles of different harmonics are different. When it comes
to design on active filter to filter out different harmonics the data on their
respective phase angles is also required.
The method of survey is also determined by the end-purpose of the survey
that is whether it is to determine what is happening at a particular
consumer's end or what is happening for a particular utility in a given zone.
It is also determined by the remedial measures that we are contemplating.
To begin with harmonics are measured as a percentage of the load current.
At night time or on a weekend the active load drops down. The load
producing harmonics will not drop down to the same extent. As a result the
percentage ratio of harmonics to the actual load will shoot up giving an

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unduly alarming picture. Capacitors may be off during these times. There is
no harmonic absorption and harmonic levels show a high rise. A base load
corresponding to the maximum demand load is generally taken as a
reference point for the measurement of harmonics.
The survey for a given location may be on a 24-hour basis for a consumer.
The survey for a utility may extend to a few weeks or even to a year or two
if statistics are to be collected for the weekly or seasonal behavior of
harmonics in a given area.

Fig. (1) Daily variation in harmonic distortion

Within a 'plant, harmonics might be produced say by a converter station.

These spread out into other apparatus and then out of the plant into the
network. Since they are flickering it is necessary to measure them at least at
three locations simultaneously to see how they are spreading. Several such
simultaneous readings will have to be taken by a utility if they want a map
of harmonic spread.
In a three-phase system, one may measure harmonics in each phase and then
arrive at an average. When one is designing an active filter, data is required
on voltage current and power factor for each of the harmonic. An elaborate
meter, which can measure all these parameters and also all the fundamental
frequency parameters, is thus required.
In a geographical zone for a utility the average incidence of harmonics with
reference to the total system voltage and current for that zone may be well
below the limits set under C-581 Std. of IEEE. This can happen since all the
loads in that zone may not be producing harmonics. This may give the
wrong impression that harmonics is not a serious problem in that zone.
Harmonics surveys are time-consuming. To some extent, they can be
speeded up by carrying out a quick spot survey with an elementary
apparatus, like an ordinary oscilloscope and then concentrating on selected
spots with elaborate measuring equipments.
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A survey carried out by EPRI (Ref No. 30) for a number of utilities and over
a period of two years brought out the following interesting points:
1. The harmonic distortion increased on a yearly basis.
2. Amongst the harmonics on which data was collected, the third, fifth and
seventh harmonics accounted for a major portion. These were caused by
single-phase loads, six pulse converters and twelve pulse converters,
respectively.
3. The rise in third harmonic incidence was connected to population increase
with an increase in latest home appliances.
4. Overall, harmonic distortions were well within the accepted limits.
Harmonics are further discussed in Chapters 2 and 26 of this book.
Remedial actions against harmonics will be discussed in detail in the later
chapters.
b. Harmonic Distortion Indices
IEEE-519 which is now the generally accepted standard on harmonic
distortion recommends the following harmonic indices (C) IEEE2000.
1. Depth of notches total notch area and distortion (RSS) of bus voltage
distorted by communication notches (low voltage system);
2. Individual and total voltage distortion; and
3. Individual and total current distortion.
c. Harmonic Measurement in the Indian Scenario
In the context of large scale railway electrification and connections extended
to arc furnace loads and consequently the large-scale failure of capacitors
and other equipments in the Madhya Pradesh system and elsewhere in the
country the Central Board of Irrigation and Power (CBIP) carried out studies
through sponsored R and D works and came up with a guide for limiting
voltage harmonics (Ref. No. 6)
Keep VTHD (Total Voltage Third Harmonic Distortion) at consumers 'CPC
(common point of coupling connection) within limits.

Table (5) Low Voltage System Classification and Distortion Limits, © 2000, IEEE

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(IEEE Std 519, Ref.No.4)

Value for An for other than 480 volt systems should be multiplied by V/480

Table (6) Voltage Distortion Limits, © 2000, IEEE (IEEE Std 519, Ref. No. 4)

Table (7) Current Distortion Limits for Genera! Distribution Systems. (120 volts-
through 69000 volts) Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of IL
Individual Harmonic Order (Odd Harmonics), © 2000, IEEE (IEEE Std 519, Ref.
No. 4)

Action to be taken: Ensure that the system remains resonance-free for

harmonics, use line filters, adequate banks of shunt capacitors. Raising
short-circuit level is a costly remedy.
CONSUMER SIDE
Action to be taken: Restrict current injected into the networks within limits.
Tools available: Adaptive VAr compensators; power electronic solutions
such as phase multiplication, passive and active
Reactive Power Management

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filters, harmonic injection, pulse width modulation techniques.

Efficient power conditioning such as the use of FACTS equipments.
Generally speaking, it is less costly to mitigate harmonic problems on
the consumer side rather than on the utility side, since they originate at
load ends.

COSTING OF HARMONICS
Mr. Emanuel (Ref. No. 14) has done some costing of harmonics on the
utility side. The increase in losses in transformer windings as well as in
feeder conductors was calculated from the skin effect factor for harmonics.
The calculations cover a period of 30 years. They pertain to a transformer
and a feeder. Allowance has been made for yearly increases in a 60 Hz load
along with its reactive load. Similar allowances have been made for
harmonic reactor power and harmonic losses. He has arrived at the following
interesting conclusions:
1. Without capacitors, the harmonic losses remain almost negligible.
2. Capacitors for p.f. improvement tune up harmonics and increase harmonic
losses considerably. However they reduce the 60 Hz losses very
substantially.
3. When capacitors are coupled with series inductances, harmonic losses are
considerably reduced.
4. When active filters are used, the harmonic losses are almost negligible.
For this, the cost of active of filters must be very low.

Scenario Harmonic losses $ 60 Hz losses $

Case 1 203270 8095240

Case 2 767920 6452950

Case 3 320307 6561690

Case 4 131050 6431925

Table (8) Cumulative Costs of Losses from Year 20 to Year 30, © 2000, IEEE
(Emanuel, Ref. No. 14)
Case 1 : No capacitors. Harmonic losses are 2.5% of 60 Hz losses
Quality in Electric Power Supply—Indices and Cost
Case 2 : Capacitors installed. Harmonic losses increase by 3.78 times.
Actual increase: $564,650.

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60 Hz losses decrease to 80%. Actual decrease: $ 1, 64 229 m.
Case 3 : Filter (passive) installed: Harmonic losses decrease by 50%. They
are still higher than in Case 1. 60 Hz losses increase nominally.
Case 4 : Active Filters added: Harmonic losses further reduced. They are at
2% of 60 Hz losses.

COST OF LOSS IN CAPACITY

'K' FACTOR
The 'K' factor is a safety factor for equipment in terms of the amount of
overload it carries when it is subjected to harmonic distortion. It was brought
in as a safety standard by the Underwriters Laboratories of USA with respect
to dry resin impregnated transformers. ANSI-IEEE C-57.110-1986 "Recom-
mended practice for establishing transformer capability when supplying non-
sinusoidal load currents" gives the following:
Where Vz1 is the order of harmonic, say 3, 5, 7, etc. and (fh) is the harmonic
distortion at harmonic h. (Voltage distortion).

The 'K' factor can be divided into K Peak and Off-peak to obtain loading
conditions corresponding to peak loads and to off-peak load respectively.
To cite an example, a transformer is loaded to 97.7% when its K was 1.08,
that is, at its rated peak load current. With the actual harmonics measured, it
would be overloaded by 8%. Obviously its operation at 97.7% of its rated
value, has overloaded it.
In almost all the countries, a customer dumping harmonics in a network is
warned and then threatened with disconnection. It so happens that a
customer producing harmonics is the first casualty of the harmonics he
produces. He generally takes care of his harmonics, through suitable filters
suppressors.
'K1 Factor for Capacitors
As per IEC-871-1 and IS:2834 now revised to 15:13925, a capacitor can be
overloaded up to 135% of its rated value, including overloading due to

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harmonics. A capacitor can stand this test. However, as explained earlier, its
life will be reduced.
The 'K' factor for capacitors has not been investigated.

References
1. Standard for dry type, general purpose power transformers. Underwriters
Laboratories Inc. Standard No. 1561 and 1562 of 1992.
2. "IEEE recommended practices for, establishing transformer capability
when supplying non-sinusoidal load currents". Standard C-57-110, 1986.
3. "Demand and load analysis. Marginal costs and tariff's analysis". Task
report for MSEB SRC International USA, 1995.
4. "IEEE recommended practice and requirements for harmonic control in
electrical power systems". IEEE Stud 519-1992.
5. Modified proposal for revision of tariffs, submitted by Maha-rashtra State
Electricity Board to Maharashtra Electricity Regulatory Commission, 6th
Mar., 2000, pp. 523.
6. Crier, publication no 251, "Guide for limiting voltage harmonics" July,
1996.
7. Economic cost of electricity supply interruptions. US and foreign
experience. A. P. Shanghais. Energy economics, July, 1982, pp. ISO-1998.
8. Interruption costs - methodology and results - A. Canadian residential
survey, Wicker T-PAS, Oct., 1983, pp. 33S5-3392.. A capacitor can stand
this test. However, as explained earlier, its life will be reduced.
The 'K' factor for capacitors has not been investigated.
9. Interruption costs - methodology and results - A Canadian commercial
and small industries survey, Wicker, T-PAS, Feb., 1984, pp. 437-444.
10. Costs of electrical losses. Calculation method, Bodice, T-PWRS, May,
1989, pp. 586-593.
11. Farm costs resulting from random electric supply interruptions. Survey
results, Wackier, T-PWRS, May, 1989, pp. 472-478.
12. US experience with innovative peak load management and pricing
strategies, A. P. Shanghai’s, TERI Conference, 90, Tata McGraw-Hill, p 33.
13. Compressive bibliography on reliability worth and electrical service
consumer interruption costs, Tomlinson, T-PWRS, Nov., • 1991, pp. 1508-
1514.'

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14. Engineering economics of power system harmonics in sub-distribution
feeders. Preliminary study, Emanuel, T-PWRD, Aug., 1991, pp. 1092-1098.
15. "Survey of harmonic levels on the S.W.E.P. company" Govindrajan. T-
PWRD, Oct., 1991, pp. 1869-1875.
16. "Socio-economic aspects of electric power capacitors". D. M. Tag are,
Proc. of Third International Seminar on capacitors, IEEMA, Bombay, 1993,
pp. IV-6 to IV-11.
17. Marginal outage costs evaluation. Spot pricing, Belington. T-PWRS,
Feb., 1994, pp. 68-75.
18. A Canadian customer survey to access power system reliability worth
Telephone T-PWRS, Feb., 1994, pp. 443-450.
19. Industrial distribution si/stems. ASD harmonics filter considerations,
Peer an. T-IA, Jul./Aug., 1995, pp. 841-847.
20. Industrial distribution networks. Harmonics resonance studies,
Currencies, T-IA, Jul./Aug., 1995, pp. 682-690.
21. Three-phase power si/stems, active power harmonics filter design.
Safeties, T-IA, Sep./Oct, 1995, pp. 993-1000.
22. Value based reliability transmission planning, Dalton T-PWRS, Aug.,
1996, pp. 1400-1408.
23. 'Experience with application of' reliability and value of service analysis
in si/stem planning, Voiding, T-PWRS, Aug., 1996, pp. 14S9-1496.
24. "Frequency and duration of voltage sags and surges at industrial sites".
Canadian national power quality survey, Koala, T-IA, May/June, 1997, pp.
622-627.

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