Palawan State University

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

ROCK MECHANICS
CE 21
GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

Submitted by:

LUIS, RESHELL ANN D.

MICUA, ELYSSA MICHELLE C.
RUFANO, LOWELA D.
SERVANDO, MARIE CLAIRE C.
 Palawan State University
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Objectives 3

Discussion

Introduction of Rock Mechanics 3

Chapter 1: Physical Properties of Rock

What are Physical Properties of Rocks? 3

Chapter 2: Rock Deformation

What is Rock Deformation? 6

Types of Deformation 6

Rocks are Stressed 7

Stages of Rock Deformation 8

Chapter3: Mechanical Properties of Rocks

Two Methods used in Testing Strength 9

Classification of Strength 9

Effects of Confining Pressure 10

Effects of Pore Water Pressure 10

Two Methods for Evaluation of Shear Strength of Rocks 12

Chapter 4: Engineering Aspects of Rocks

Engineering Properties of Rocks used as Construction Materials 12

Engineering Properties of Rocks 12

Types of Rocks used for Building Constructions 14

Importance of Rock Mechanics in Building Constructions 16

References 17

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 Palawan State University
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

OBJECTIVES IN LEARNING ROCK MECHANICS

• To understand of the mechanical behavior of rock materials, rock discontinuities and rock
masses.
• To be able to analyze and to determine mechanical and engineering properties of rocks for
engineering applications.

WHAT IS ROCK MECHANICS?

Rock mechanics is a discipline that uses the principles of mechanics to describe
the behavior of rocks. Here, the term of rock is in the scale of engineering. The scale is
generally in the order of between a few meters to a few thousand meters. Therefore, the rock
considered in rock mechanics is in fact the rock mass, which composes intact rock materials
and rock materials and rock discontinuities.
For normal construction materials e.g., steel and concrete, the mechanical behaviors are
Continuous, Homogeneous, Isotropic, and Linearly Elastic (CHILE). Properties of the
manmade materials are known and can often be controlled.
For rocks, due to the existence of discontinuities, the behaviors are Discontinuous,
Inhomogeneous, Anisotropic, and Non-linearly Elastic (DIANE). Properties of the natural
geomaterials are unknown and often cannot be controlled.
In where engineering disciplines can Rock Mechanics be applied?
Rock mechanics can be applied to civil, mining, hydropower and petroleum. In civil
engineering, it involves foundation, slope and tunnel. In structural engineering, the design
process generally is as following:
• Calculate external loading imposed on the structure
• Design the structure and analyze loading in structure elements
• Design the structure element and select materials.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK MATERIALS

WHAT ARE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS?
Physical properties may be known as “Index Properties”, which describes the rock material
and helps in classifying them. The physical properties of rocks affecting design and
construction in rocks are:
1. SPECIFIC GRAVITY, DENSITY, POROSITY AND WATER CONTENT
• Mineralogical composition, structure, and texture
-This is the intrinsic property controlling the strength of the rock. Although there exist
more than 2000 kinds of known minerals, only about nine of them partake decisively

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

in forming the composition of rocks: Quartz, Feldspar, Mica, Hornblende

(Amphiboles), Pyroxenes, Olivine, Calcite, Kaolin, and Dolomite. These minerals are
glued together by four types of materials such as silicates, calcites, argillaceous and
ferrous minerals. The Rocks containing quartz as the binder are known as siliceous
rocks and are the strongest while the rocks with calcium and magnesium carbonates are
the weakest.
-The term “rock texture” refers to the arrangement of its grains. Thus, the texture is the
appearance, megascopic or microscopic, seen on a smooth surface of a smooth surface
of a mineral aggregate, showing the geometrical aspects of the rock including shape,
size, and arrangement. A coarse-grained rock is one in which the large crystals are seen
easily while the fine-grained rocks need to be seen under a microscope. Rock structure
and texture affect the strength properties of the rock.

Horneblende
Quartz Feldspar Mica Pyroxenes
(Amphiboles)

Olivine Calcite Kaolin Dolomite

Figure 1: Different Types of Minerals

• Specific gravity (G)- is the ratio of the density of solids to the density of water.
• Unit weight (γ)- Unit Weight also known as specific weight, is one of the terms that,
loosely speaking, describe and relate size (volume), amount (mass), concentration
(density), and force (weight), as well as specific gravity.
• Density- is a measure of mass per unit of volume. Density of rock material various, and
often related to the porosity of the rock. It is sometimes defined by unit weight and
specific gravity. Most rocks have density between 2,500nd 2,800 kg/m3.
• Void ratio (e)- Voids or cavities are open spaces in the ground that are commonly
encountered as unforeseen ground conditions in engineering geology. Void Ratio is the
ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids, and is closely related with porosity.
• Porosity (n)- The porosity of a material tells how densely it is packed. It is the
proportion of non-solid material volume to total material volume. It decreases with
increasing age of the rock and the depth of the rock.
• Moisture content (w)- Moisture Content is, simply, how much water is in a product.
It influences the physical properties of a substance, including weight, density, viscosity,
conductivity, and others. The weight of water in the voids divided by the weight of dry
solids in the rock sample is the ratio of moisture content.

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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

• Degree of saturation (S)- The Degree of Saturation denotes the actual relationship
between the weight of moisture existing in a space and the weight that would exist if
the space were saturated. It can be calculated by dividing the total volume of voids in
the rock sample by the volume of water in the void. The rock mass having higher
porosity has higher degree of saturation.
2. HARDNESS
It is the characteristic of a solid material expressing its resistance to permanent
deformation. Hardness of rock materials depends on several factors, including mineral
composition and density.
3. ABRASIVITY
Measures the abrasiveness of a rock materials against other materials. It is an important
measure for estimate wear of rock drilling and boring equipment. Abrasivity is highly
influenced by the amount of quartz mineral in the rock material. The higher quartz content
gives higher abrasivity. Abrasivity measures are given by several tests such as Cerchar Test.
4. PERMEABILITY
It is a measure of the ability of a material to transmit fluids. Most rocks, including
igneous, metamorphic and chemical sedimentary rocks, generally have very low permeability.
Permeability of rock material is governed by porosity. Porous rocks such as sandstones usually
have high permeability while granites have low permeability. Permeability of rock materials,
except for those porous one, has limited interests as in the rock mass, flow is concentrated in
fractures in the rock mass.
5. WAVE VELOCITY
Measurements of wave are often done by using P wave and sometimes, S waves. P
wave velocity measures the travel speed of longitudinal (primary) wave in the material, while
S-wave velocity measures the travel speed of shear (secondary) wave in the material. The
velocity measurements provide correlation to physical properties in terms of compaction
degree of the material. A well compacted rock has generally high velocity as the grains are all
in good contact and wave are traveling through the solid. For a poorly compact rock material,
the grains are not in good contact, so the wave will partially travel through void (air or water)
and the velocity will be reduced.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

ROCK DEFORMATION
WHAT IS ROCK DEFORMATION?
Rock deformation is a process of changing/transformation of rocks due to stress and
heat. FAULTS
FOLDS
JOINTS

Figure 2: Types of Deformation

Types of Deformation
1. FOLDS- Flat – lying sedimentary and volcanic rocks are often bent into a series of
wave – like undulations. Two most common types of folds are:
• Anticline & Syncline
• Domes & Basins

Syncline Anticline

Figure 3-4: Two Most Common types of Folds

2. FAULTS- Fractures in the crust along which appreciable displacement has occurred,
on a scale from cm – km. Three types of faults are:

• Normal Fault – The upper block moves downward

relative to the lower block.

• Reverse/Thrust Fault - The upper block moves upward

relative to the lower block.

• Strike – slip fault - Both blocks slide horizontally across

one another.

Figure 5: Three Types of Faults

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

3. JOINTS – are fractures along which no appreciable displacement has occurred. Two
types of joints are:

Columns Sheeting
Figure 6: Two Types of Joints

Rocks Are Stressed

Did you know that rocks experience stress? While not the same kind of stress that you
might experience on a bad day, the stress rocks are subjected to still has quite an impact. Stress
causes rocks to deform, meaning the rocks change size or shape.
Stress is the force exerted per unit area and strain is the physical change that results in
response to that force. When the applied stress is greater than the internal strength of rock,
strain results in the form of deformation of the rock caused by the stress. Strain in rocks can be
represented as a change in rock volume and/or rock shape, as well as fracturing the rock.
There are Three kinds of stress that rocks experience, and these determine how the rocks
deform.
1. Tensional stress is the stress that tends to pull something
apart. It is the stress component perpendicular to a given
surface, such as a fault plane, that results from forces
applied perpendicular to the surface or from remote forces
transmitted through the surrounding rock.

2. Compressional stress involves forces pushing together, and

the compressional strain shows up as rock folding and
thickening.

3. Shear stress involves transverse forces; the strain shows up as

opposing blocks or regions of the material moving past each
other.

Figure 7-9: Three Kind of Stress

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

Table showing types of stress and resulting strain:

TYPES OF ASSOCIATED RESULTING ASSOCIATED

STRESS PLATE STRAIN AND OFFSET
BOUNDARY TYPES
TYPE
TENSIONAL DIVERGENT NORMAL NORMAL
COMPRESSIONAL CONVERGENT REVERSE REVERSE
SHEAR TRANSFORM STRIKE-SLIP STRIKE - SLIP
Strain – Deformation or change of shape a rock body experiences when under differential
stress. Strain is proportional to stress.
Large stress = Large Strain
Stages of Rock Deformation
As rocks are stressed, they go through stages of deformation. At first, the rock is
strained enough that its shape or size may change, but the change is reversible. When a rock is
subjected to increasing stress, it passes through 3 successive stages of deformation.

1. Elastic deformation- where the strain is reversible. It changes shape by a very small amount
in response to the stress, but the deformation is not permanent. If the stress could be reversed
the rock would return to its original shape.
2. Ductile deformation/ Plastic strain- where the strain is irreversible. Ductile means that
something can be changed into a new shape, but once this happens, it stays that way. The types
of Plastic Strain Folding are the following:

• Anticline Fold
• Syncline Fold
• Asymmetrical Folds
• Overturned Folds
• Plunging Folds
• Plunging Anticline
• Plunging Syncline
3. Fracture/ Brittle strain – irreversible strain where the material breaks.
We can divide materials into two classes that depend on their
relative behavior under stress:

• Brittle materials have a small or large region of elastic behavior

but only a small region of ductile behavior before they fracture.

• Ductile materials have a small region of elastic behavior and a

large region of ductile behavior before they fracture. Figure 10: Brittle and Ductile Materials

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

Factors that influence the type of permanent strain in rocks experiencing the same amount of
stress are temperature, confining stress, time and strain rate, and composition

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCKS

The determination of the stability of underground structures is primarily focused on the
stability analysis of engineering rock mass, which forms the core of subsurface engineering.
In rock mechanics, Strength is the Force per unit Area required to bring about rupture
in a rock mass at a given environmental conditions.
Mechanical Properties may be known as Strength Properties as they give information
about the performance of rock materials when subjected to a particular loading system. Mainly
including: Strength characteristics. Deformation characteristics, and Stability characteristics.
The rock mechanics test is one of the most important means to study a rock. The tests
are carried out on intact rock specimens in the laboratory or on rock mass in the field to
determine the strength values.
There are two methods used in testing the strength:
1. Direct Methods – for calculating the above strength values in the laboratory.
2. Indirect Methods – for determining the above strength value approximately in the
laboratory or at the field site.

Classification of Strength
I.) Compressive Strength
II.) Tensile Strength
III.) Shear Strength

I.) COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH – the compressive

strength of a material is a measure of its ability to resist
uniaxial compressive loads without yielding or fracture
.
• Uniaxial Strength – is given by the ratio of load
at failure or rupture to cross-sectional area of the
specimen. It is used in design, analysis and
modeling.

Figure 11: Compression Testing Machine

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

Direct Method:
1. Uniaxial Compression Test – verified by
applying compressive load until failure occurs in the
core using high capacity Compressive testing
machine.

Figure 12: Uniaxial Compression Test

2. Tri-axial Compression Test – is the strength

exhibited by a rock specimen when it is subjected
to confining pressure in addition to vertical
pressure. Typically, at least 5 specimens are tested,
each at a different confining pressure, to determine
the peak strength. The Mohr’s envelope can also
be used to determine shear strength parameters or
rocks materials using this test.
Figure 12: Tri-axial Compression Test

Effects of Confining Pressure

❖ Peak strength increases
❖ There is a transition from typically brittle to fully ductile behavior with the introduction
of plastic mechanism of deformation
❖ The region incorporating the peak of the axial stress-axial strain curve flattens and
widens
❖ The post-peak drop in stress to the residual strength reduces and disappears at high
confining stress
Effects of Pore Water Pressure
❖ Transition from ductile to brittle behavior
Indirect Method:
1.) Point Load Test – is an index test that
classifies rocks based on their weight. The
sample load and force gauges are part of the
test instrument, and the sample measurements
(length scale) are also determined.

Figure 13: Point Load Test

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

2.) Schmidt or Rebound Hammer Test – it is

commonly used to determine the hardness of a rock
sample’s surface because it is sample to use and
handle. Should be in the form of a core or a block, and
the test is non-destructive.

Figure 14: Schmidt or Rebound Hammer Test

II.) Tensile Strength – tensile strength of a material is defined as the maximum tensile which
a material is capable of developing.

Figure 15: Tensile Strength

Direct Method:
Rock specimen is subjected to uniaxial tensile loading along its axis. The principal difficulties
associated with tensile tests on rock is the prevention of failure within the grips and the
elimination of bending in the specimen.
Indirect Method:
the Brazilian Test of Mellor and Hawkes can be utilized. The Brazilian disc test is a useful
technique to determine the tensile strength of rock material.
III.) Shear Strength – it is the maximum resistance to deformation caused by shear stress.
Surface frictional resistance along the sliding plane, interlocking between individual rock
grains, and cohesion in the sliding surface of the rock all contribute to the shear strength of a
rock mass.
• Shear Strength Tests – it primarily concerns the shear strength and shear
behavior of the rock’s shearing and weakness planes, which hold a rock
specimen together.
• Most expensive laboratory strength test (complete set up of shear testing
apparatus with online acquisition system

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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

Figure 16: Shear Strength Test

Two Methods for Evaluation of Shear Strength of rocks

1. Direct Shear Test
a.) Shear Box Test – performed to figure out a soil sample’s shear strength.
b.) Shear Test on Rock Cubes - used to test many configurations of rock specimens.
2. Indirect Shear Test
a.) Punch Shear Test - effective test method for assessing mechanical qualities.

ENGINEERING ASPECTS OF ROCKS

Engineering Properties of Rocks used as Construction Materials
In the rock industry, rocks are used for ground foundation and as a building material.
However, when we use rock as a pounding ground or as a site rock, we use the term rock mass,
which refers to in situ rocks and encompasses all discontinuities and alteration caused by
weathering. When we use rock as a construction material, we refer to the rock material that is
being brought from some other different places.

• Aesthetics uses: Ornamental stone carvings, statue making, beautification of buildings

etc.
• Building Stones: making columns, walls, flooring, cladding of buildings, pavement of
slabs
• Dimension Stones: As large framework blocks in constructions of fort walls, bridge,
piers, retaining walls.
• Aggregates: Making plaster, mortar and concrete
• Road metal: a sub base course, base course, wearing course or road.
• Rail Ballast: Stones as side and bottom cushion rail tracks.
• Energy Dissipaters: Along shores, river bends, water front, spillway definition as
waves and current energy breakers to prevent erosion.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

According to Dr. M. Masroor Alam, that any material which is

natural, geological, man-made other than wise can used in construction
industry this material must satisfy the fundamental properties that is
strength and the economy.
Strength of rocks comes from its texture, composition and
weakness creep in due to alteration caused by wedding and deformation
Dr. M. Masroor Alam rocks which are taken from near the earth surface they may be
somewhat weak because they have been affected by weathering and the
rocks which are taken from deeper parts, that may be fresh and strong. It is highly advisable to
use stone with high comprehensive strength especially for large constructions projects. Using
Stone with reduced load capacity means the structure won’t be strong enough to hold the
overall weight, leading to structural integrity concerns.
Economy, when using rocks, we should aim to collect these rocks from close locations
to avoid incurring excessive transportation costs. Cost is therefore always a crucial
consideration.
Engineering Properties of Rocks
Engineering properties of rocks is a collective nomenclature which includes all such
properties of rocks that are relevant to engineering application after their extraction from
natural beds or without extraction.
1. The first set include all those properties for which a rock must be tested for selection as a
material for construction such as a building stone, road stone or aggregate for concrete making.
2. The second set of the properties include the qualities of a natural bed rock as and where it
exists. That would determine its suitability or otherwise as a construction site for a proposed
engineering project.
Common engineering properties typically obtained from laboratory tests includes;
1. Specific gravity
2. Point load strength
3. Compressive strength
4. Tensile strength
5. Shear strength
6. Durability

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 Palawan State University
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

TYPES OF ROCKS USED FOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTIONS

1. Granite- Among all the igneous rocks, the ones that are utilized for construction the most.
Generally speaking, they have all the necessary characteristics of a good building stone,
including exceptionally high crushing strength, low absorption values, least porosity, an
interlocking texture, a range of attractive colors, and sensitivity to flawless polish.

• Concrete's coarse aggregates

• Retaining walls
• Stone columns
• Road metal
2. Sandstone- This stone is an additional type of sedimentary rock created by the action of
mechanical sediments. It has a sandy structure that is light in weight and simple to dress. Heavy
constructions are built using sandstones and silica cement.

• Masonry construction
• Dams, bridge piers, and river walls.
3. Limestone- These sedimentary rocks are widely used as building stones. It's not because of
their physical properties. This is due to crushing resistance. Not all limestones are useful for
the construction of buildings. Undesirable types have a lot of clay or are very soft and are
practically not suitable for construction work

• Flooring, roofing, pavement

• As a base material for cement.
4. Laterite- It is found in hot and wet tropical regions in the form of soft rock composed of
iron and aluminum oxides and due to weathering conditions, this rock hardens with time, and
this hardened material is further cut and used as a stone or brick in the building construction
by the name of laterite brick. It can gain strength over a period of time due to weather
conditions. Due to its natural properties, laterite brick has good thermal insulation properties
and they easily adapt ad adjust with the weather.

• Flooring, roofing
• Pavement and as a base material for cement.
5. Slate- It is another metamorphic rock, characterized by perfect cleavage and due to this
property is not used as a building stone except for roofing purposes. Slate has many variations
in construction properties depending on the thickness of the slabs and the color of the stone.

• Roofing tiles, slabs, and pavements

6. Basalt- Also known as traps, the structure of basalt is medium to fine-grained and tight.
Basalt stone has good weather resistance, impermeability to moisture, is very hard and very
difficult to shape.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

• Road construction
• As aggregate in concrete production
• Rubble masonry works for bridge piers, river walls, and dams
7. Marble- They have been widely used as decorative stones and this is because they are prone
to bright polishing and beautiful colors. Marble is quite strong, uniform in texture, low in
porosity and has excellent polish. It can be easily cut and carved into different shapes. Marble
is quite strong, uniform in texture, low in porosity and has excellent polish.

• Decorative purposes
8. Quartzite- It has high wear resistance. It is a very hard rock and is also weather resistant.
Properties such as durability and suitability for all types of construction projects are among the
main reasons for its popularity.

• Building blocks, slabs

• Aggregate for concrete
9.. Travertine- The stone is characterized by pitted holes and troughs in its surface which
means that it has a porous surface and concentric texture. It can be polished to a smooth, shiny
finish, which is advantageous when used as an ornamental accessory for interior decorations
and comes in a variety of colors from grey to coral-red.

• Paving, garden paths

• Courtyards
10. Gneiss- It is a metamorphic rock, famous for its great strength and durability during
temperature change; it also has a rough, non-slippery surface.

• For usage in in construction

• Revetment, putting of flooring and decoration of exterior and interior spaces.
• It is widely used both in the design of single-family homes, villas, restaurants,
and in large-scale construction, such as hotels and leisure and sports centers

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

IMPORTANCE OF ROCK MECHANICS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTIONS

Most prehistoric monuments are made of natural stone. Before the advent of concrete,
stone was preferred for heavy civil engineering and exterior work such as bridge piers, harbor
walls and seaside walls. Stone has proven superior to other materials for due to its strength,
durability, and abundance. Other materials may be less durable, but other types of rocks help
to create concrete walls and surfaces that promise scalability for building constructions.

• It determines how a specific rock reacts when used for building, roads, bridges,
dams, tunnels, and other civil engineering applications.
• It will evaluate the surface bearing capacity of the rock as well as how the force
applied to the rock by the structures being built on it will affect the rock at
different depths.
• It will determine the shear strength of the rock, allowing it to withstand the
forces applied to it.
• It can also predict how a rock will respond when subjected to dynamic loading
caused by man-made applications or natural occurrences such as earthquakes.
Engineers will be able to counteract rock failure mechanisms so that structures
built on the rock are safe.
• Rock mechanics will also investigate the impact that rock defects such as
cavities, fissures, joints, and bedding planes can have on structures built on
them.
As a civil engineers, we need to know the properties of rocks accurately to enable them
to consider different rocks for any required purpose that is as a foundation rock, as road metal,
as concrete aggregate, as building stones, as the roofing material for decorative purpose.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

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Direct Shear Test. (n.d.). GCTS Testing Systems. Retrieved November 6, 2022, from
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