Professional Documents
Culture Documents
10.4324 9781315833767 Previewpdf
10.4324 9781315833767 Previewpdf
10.4324 9781315833767 Previewpdf
General Editors:
Second edition
Phil Benson
First published 2001 by Pearson Education Limited
Second edition published in Great Britain in 2011
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or
by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In
using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of
others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products
liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Introduction 1
Introduction to the second edition 3
v
vi TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
5 Dimensions of control 92
5.1 Control over learning management 92
5.2 Control over cognitive processing 100
5.3 Control over learning content 112
5.4 Describing the autonomous learner 117
6 Conclusion 119
14 Conclusion 197
17 Conclusion 240
References 249
Index 278
General editors’ preface
ix
x TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
xi
Our pedantic mania for instruction is always leading us to teach children
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
To Kaz,
who is still hoping that his father will follow Rousseau’s advice.
Introduction
As the theory and practice of language teaching enters a new century, the
importance of helping students become more autonomous in their learn-
ing has become one of its more prominent themes. The idea of autonomy
often provokes strong reactions. To its critics, autonomy is an idealistic
goal and its promotion a distraction from the real business of teaching and
learning languages. To its advocates, autonomy is a precondition for effec-
tive learning; when learners succeed in developing autonomy, they not
only become better language learners but they also develop into more
responsible and critical members of the communities in which they live.
Discussions on autonomy are, however, often characterised by miscon-
ceptions about the nature of the concept and its implementation. For
example, it is often assumed that autonomy implies learning in isolation,
learning without a teacher or learning outside the classroom, such that the
relevance of the concept to language teaching is unclear. Similarly, auton-
omy is often seen as necessarily implying particular skills and behaviours
and particular methods of organising the teaching and learning process.
These misconceptions are, at least in part, a result of terminological and
conceptual confusion within the field itself.
The aim of Teaching and Researching Autonomy is both to clarify and pro-
blematise the concept of autonomy in language learning and its relevance
to the practice of language education. There are certain fundamentals on
which researchers in the field agree: for example, autonomy refers to the
learner’s broad approach to the learning process, rather than to a particular
mode of teaching or learning. There are other issues on which they disagree,
and often agree to disagree, for autonomy is in essence multidimensional
and takes different forms in different contexts of learning. This book thus
aims to establish what research does and does not tell us about autonomy,
so that those who wish to foster it among their learners can engage in
research and practice on an informed basis.
1
2 TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
Autonomy can be broadly defined as the capacity to take control over one’s
own learning. In the course of this book, I will expand on this definition,
but for the moment it is sufficient to note that autonomy is not a method
of learning, but an attribute of the learner’s approach to the learning
process. As a teacher and researcher who has been involved with the pro-
motion of the idea of autonomy for a number of years, I take the position
that autonomy is a legitimate and desirable goal of language education.
Among the claims made for autonomy, three stand out as being equally
important to theory and practice:
In Teaching and Researching Autonomy, I argue that these are claims rather
than facts and that before we accept or reject autonomy as a legitimate goal
of language education, we should examine them carefully. Certain claims
can be substantiated by research evidence, others remain open to research
and some are non-researchable. I also argue that the best research on
autonomy is often not research concerned with ‘grand theory’, but action
research conducted by practising teachers on the specific conditions of
teaching and learning within which they work. In order to do this kind of
action research, we must make some attempt to foster autonomy among
the learners we work with. In doing so we will frequently find ourselves in
a position where we are able, through careful observation and analysis of
empirical data, to contribute to theory.
The book is divided into four sections. Section I focuses on the origins
and development of the concept of autonomy in language learning,
definitions of key terms and research evidence that enables us to describe
autonomy in terms of various dimensions of control over learning. Section
II focuses on evidence for the effectiveness of practices that have been
claimed to foster autonomy. Section III outlines key areas for future
research and presents six case studies of action research in the field of
autonomy. Section IV lists resources that will help researchers and practi-
tioners in the field.
References
Ahearn, L.M. (2001) ‘Language and agency’, Annual Review of Anthropology, 30: 109–
37.
Akaranithi, A. and Punlay, S. (2007) ‘Tensions in policy and practice in self-directed
learning’. In A. Barfield and S. Brown (eds) Reconstructing Autonomy in Language
Education: Inquiry and Innovation. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 43–55.
Alderson, J.C. (2005) Diagnosing Foreign Language Proficiency: The Interface between
Learning and Assessment. London: Continuum.
Allford, D. and Pachler, N. (2007) Language, Autonomy and the New Learning
Environments. Oxford: Peter Lang.
Allwright, D. (2003) ‘Exploratory Practice: Rethinking practitioner research in lan-
guage teaching’, Language Teaching Research, 7 (2): 113–31.
Allwright, D. and Hanks, J. (2009) The Developing Language Learner: An Introduction to
Exploratory Practice. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Allwright, R.L. (1978) ‘Abdication and responsibility in language teaching’, Studies in
Second Language Acquisition, 2 (1): 105–21.
Allwright, R.L. (1984) ‘Why don’t learners learn what teachers teach? – The interac-
tion hypothesis’. In D.M.S. Singleton and D.G. Little (eds) Language Learning in
Formal and Informal Contexts. Dublin: Irish Association for Applied Linguistics,
pp. 3–18.
Allwright, R.L. (1988) ‘Autonomy and individualization in whole-class instruction’.
In A. Brookes and P. Grundy (eds) Individualization and Autonomy in Language
Learning. ELT Documents, 131. London: Modern English Publications and the
British Council, pp. 35–44.
Alm, A. (2009) ‘Blogging for self-determination with L2 learner journals’. In
M. Thomas (ed.) Handbook of Research on Web 2.0 and Second Language Learning.
Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference, pp. 202–22.
Altman, H.B. and James, C.V. (eds) (1980) Foreign Language Teaching: Meeting
Individual Needs. Oxford: Pergamon.
Anderson, B. (1983) Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of
Nationalism. London: Verso.
Andrade, M.S. and Bunker, E.L. (2009) ‘A model for self-regulated distance language
learning’, Distance Education, 30 (1): 47–61.
249
250 TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
Aoki, N. (1999) ‘Affect and the role of teacher in the development of learner autonomy’.
In J. Arnold (ed.) Affect in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, pp. 142–54.
Aoki, N. (2002) ‘Aspects of teacher autonomy: Capacity, freedom, and responsibility’.
In P. Benson and S. Toogood (eds) Learner Autonomy 7: Challenges to Research and
Practice. Dublin: Authentik, pp. 110–24.
Aoki, N. and Hamakawa, Y. (2003) ‘Asserting our culture: Teacher autonomy from a
feminist perspective’. In D. Palfreyman and R.C. Smith (eds) Learner Autonomy across
Cultures: Language Education Perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 240–53.
Aoki, N. and Smith, R.C. (1999) ‘Learner autonomy in cultural context: The case of
Japan’. In S. Cotterall and D. Crabbe (eds) Learner Autonomy in Language Learning:
Defining the Field and Effecting Change. Bayreuth Contributions to Glottodidactics,
Volume 8. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, pp. 19–28.
Appel, M.-C. (1999) Tandem Language Learning by E-mail: Some Basic Principles and a
Case Study. CLCS Occasional Paper, 54. Dublin: Trinity College Dublin, Centre for
Language and Communication Studies.
Arnold, J. (ed.) (1999) Affect in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Assinder, W. (1991) ‘Peer-teaching, peer-learning: One model’, ELT Journal, 45 (3):
218–29.
Atkins, K. (ed.) (2005) Self and Subjectivity. Oxford: Blackwell.
Auerbach, E.R. (1995) ‘The politics of the ESL classroom: Issues of power in peda-
gogical choices’. In J.W. Tollefson (ed.) Power and Inequality in Language Education.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 9–33.
Bailey, K.M. (1983) ‘Competitiveness and anxiety in adult second language learning:
Looking at and through the diary studies’. In H. Seliger and M. Long (eds) Classroom
Oriented Research in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House,
pp. 67–103.
Bakhtin, M. (1981) The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. (M. Holquist, ed.) Austin, TX:
University of Texas Press.
Barfield, A. and Nix, M. (eds) (2003) Learner and Teacher Autonomy in Japan 1:
Autonomy You Ask! Tokyo: Learner Development Special Interest Group of the
Japan Association of Language Teachers.
Barfield, A., Ashwell, T., Carroll, M., Collins, K., Cowie, N., Critchley, M., Head, E.,
Nix, M., Obermeier, A. and Robertson, M.C. (2002) ‘Exploring and defining teacher
autonomy: A collaborative discussion’. In A.S. Mackenzie and E. McCafferty (eds)
Developing Autonomy. Proceedings of the JALT CUE Conference 2001. Tokyo: The
Japan Association for Language Teaching College and University Educators Special
Interest Group, pp. 217–22.
Barkhuizen, G.P. (1998) ‘Discovering learners’ perceptions of ESL classroom teaching/
learning activities in a South African context’, TESOL Quarterly, 32 (1): 85–108.
Barnes, D. (1976) From Communication to Curriculum. London: Penguin.
Bauman, Z. (2004) Identity: Conversations with Benedetto Vecchi. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Beatty, K. (2010) Teaching and Researching Computer-assisted Language Learning. 2nd
edn. London: Pearson.
Bekerman, Z., Burbules, N.C. and Silberman-Keller, D. (eds) (2006) Learning in Places:
The Informal Education Reader. New York, NY: Peter Lang.
Benson, P. (1995) ‘A critical view of learner training’, Learning Learning: JALT Learner
Development N-SIG Forum, 2 (2): 2–6.
R E F E R E NC E S 251
Black, R.W. (2005) ‘Access and affiliation: The literacy and composition practices of
English-language learners in an online fanfiction community’, Journal of Adolescent
and Adult Literacy, 49 (2): 118–28.
Black, R.W. (2007) ‘Digital design: English language learners and reader reviews in
adolescent fan fiction’. In M. Knobel and C. Lankshear (eds) A New Literacies
Sampler. New York, NY: Peter Lang, pp. 115–36.
Blanche, P. (1988) ‘Self-assessment of foreign-language skills: Implications for teachers
and researchers’, RELC Journal, 19: 75–93.
Blin, F. (2004) ‘CALL and the development of learner autonomy: Towards an activitiy-
theoretical perspective’, ReCALL, 16 (2): 377–95.
Block, D. (1996) ‘A window on the classroom: Classroom events viewed from different
angles’. In K. Bailey and D. Nunan (eds) Voices from the Language Classroom.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 168–94.
Block, D. (2003) The Social Turn in Applied Linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press.
Block, D. (2007) Second Language Identities. London: Continuum.
Block, D. and Cameron, D. (eds) (2002) Globalization and Language Teaching. London:
Routledge.
Bonham, L.A. (1991) ‘Guglielmino’s self-directed learning readiness scale: What does
it measure?’ Adult Education Quarterly, 41 (2): 91–9.
Boud, D. (1988) ‘Moving towards autonomy’. In D. Boud (ed.) Developing Student
Autonomy in Learning. 2nd edn. London: Kogan Page, pp. 17–39.
Boud, D., Keough, R. and Walker, D. (eds) (1985) Reflection: Turning Experience into
Learning. London: Kogan Page.
Bourdieu, P. and Passeron, J.C. (1977) Reproduction in Education, Society, and Culture.
London: Sage.
Boyd, W. (1956) Émile for Today: The Émile of Jean Jacques Rousseau. London: Heinemann.
Brammerts, H. (2003) ‘Autonomous language learning in Tandem: The development
of a concept’. In T. Lewis and L. Walker (eds) Autonomous Language Learning in
Tandem. Sheffield: Academy Electronic Publications, pp. 27–36.
Brantmeier, C. and Vanderplank, R. (2008) ‘Descriptive and criterion-referenced self-
assessment with L2 readers’, System, 36 (3): 456–77.
Breen, M.P. (1986) ‘The social context of language learning: A neglected situation’,
Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 7: 135–58.
Breen, M.P. (1987) ‘Contemporary paradigms in syllabus design’, Language Teaching,
20 (3): 157–74.
Breen, M.P. (1991) ‘Understanding the language teacher’. In R. Phillipson et al.
(eds) Foreign/Second Language Pedagogy Research. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters,
pp. 213–33.
Breen, M.P. (ed.) (2001) Learner Contributions to Language Learning: New Directions in
Research. London: Longman.
Breen, M.P. and Candlin, C.N. (1980) ‘The essentials of a communicative curriculum
in language teaching’, Applied Linguistics, 1 (2): 89–112.
Breen, M.P., Candlin, C.N., Dam, L. and Gabrielsen, G. (1989) ‘The evolution of a
teacher training programme’. In R.K. Johnson (ed.) The Second Language Curriculum.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 111–35.
Breen, M.P. and Littlejohn, A. (eds) (2000a) Classroom Decision-making: Negotiation in
the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
R E F E R E NC E S 253
Breen, M.P. and Littlejohn, A. (2000b) ‘The significance of negotiation’. In M.P. Breen
and A. Littlejohn (eds) Classroom Decision-making: Negotiation in the Language
Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 5–38.
Breen, M.P. and Mann, S. (1997) ‘Shooting arrows at the sun: Perspectives on a peda-
gogy for autonomy’. In P. Benson and P. Voller (eds) Autonomy and Independence in
Language Learning. London: Longman, pp. 132–49.
Bremer, K., Roberts, C., Vasseur, M.-T., Simonot, M. and Broeder, P. (1996) Achieving
Understanding: Discourse in Intercultural Encounters. New York, NY: Longman.
Brewster, E.T. and Brewster, E.S. (1976) Language Acquisition Made Practical: Field
Methods for Language Learners. Pasadena,: Lingua House.
Broady, E. and Kenning, M.-M. (eds) (1996) Promoting Learner Autonomy in University
Language Teaching. London: Association for French Language Studies in association
with CILT.
Brockett, R.G. and Hiemstra, R. (1991) Self-direction in Adult Learning: Perspectives on
Theory, Research, and Practice. London: Routledge.
Brookes, A. and Grundy, P. (eds) (1988) Individualization and Autonomy in Language
Learning. ELT Documents, 131. London: Modern English Publications/British
Council.
Brookfield, S. (1981) ‘Independent adult learning’, Studies in Adult Education, 13: 15–27.
Brookfield, S. (1993) ‘Self-directed learning, political clarity, and the critical practice of
adult education’, Adult Education Quarterly, 43 (4): 227–42.
Brookfield, S. (2009) ‘On being taught’. In P. Jarvis (ed.) The Routledge Handbook of
Lifelong Learning. London: Routledge, pp. 214–22.
Brown, J. (2006) ‘Locus of learning and affective strategy use: Two factors affecting
success in self-instructed language learning’, Foreign Language Annals, 39 (4): 640–59.
Budd, R. and Wright, T. (1992) ‘Putting a process syllabus into practice’. In D. Nunan
(ed.) Collaborative Language Learning and Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, pp. 208–29.
Burbules, N.C. (2006) ‘Self-educating communities: Collaboration and learning through
the Internet’. In Z. Bekerman, N.C. Burbules and D. Silberman-Keller (eds) Learning
in Places: The Informal Educational Reader. New York, NY: Peter Lang, pp. 273–84.
Burkurt, A. and Schwienhorst, K. (2008) ‘Focus on the student teacher: The European
Portfolio for Student Teachers of Languages (EPOSTL) as a tool to develop teacher
autonomy’, Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 2 (3): 238–52.
Burns, A. (1999) Collaborative Action Research for English Language Teachers. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Buss, S. (2007) ‘Person autonomy’. In E.N. Zalta (ed.) The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. Winter 2007 edn. <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2007/entries/
personal-autonomy/>
Butler, J. (1990) Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York, NY:
Routledge.
Cameron, D. (2002) ‘Globalization and the teaching of communication skills’. In
D. Block and D. Cameron (eds) Globalization and Language Teaching. London:
Routledge, pp. 67–82.
Cameron, L. (2001) Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Camilleri, A. (2000) ‘Learning to learn’. In M. Byram (ed.) Routledge Encyclopaedia of
Language Teaching and Learning. London: Routledge, pp. 351–3.
254 TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
Candlin, C.N. (1987) ‘Towards task-based language learning’. In C.N. Candlin and
D. Murphy (eds) Language Learning Tasks. London: Prentice Hall, pp. 5–22.
Candy, P.C. (1991) Self-direction for Lifelong Learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Carpenter, C. (1996) ‘Peer teaching: A new approach to advanced level language teaching’.
In E. Broady and M.-M. Kenning (eds) Promoting Learner Autonomy in University
Language Teaching. London: Association for French Language Studies/CILT,
pp. 23–38.
Carter, I. (2007) ‘Positive and negative liberty’. In E.N. Zalta (ed.) The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Winter 2007 edn. <http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/
win2007/entries/liberty-positive-negative/>
Chamot, A.U., Küpper, L. and Impink-Hernandez, M.V. (1988) A Study of Learning
Strategies in Foreign Language Instruction: Findings of the Longitudinal Study. MacLean,
VA: Interstate Research Associates.
Chamot, A.U. and Rubin, J. (1994) ‘Comments on Janie Rees-Miller’s “A critical
appraisal of learner training: theoretical bases and teaching implications”: Two readers
react’, TESOL Quarterly, 28 (4): 771–6.
Champagne, M.F., Clayton, T., Dimmitt, N., Laszewski, M., Savage, W., Shaw, J.,
Sroupe, R., Thien, M.M. and Walter, P. (2001) ‘The assessment of learner auton-
omy and language learning’, The AILA Review, 15: 45–55.
Chang, L.Y.H. (2007) ‘The influences of group processes on learners’ autonomous
beliefs and behaviours’, System, 35 (3): 322–37.
Chapelle, C. (1997) ‘CALL in the year 2000: Still in search of research paradigms’,
Language Learning and Technology, 1 (1): 19–38.
Chen, Y.-M. (2008) ‘Learning to self-assess oral performance in English: A longitu-
dinal case study’. Language Teaching Research, 12 (2): 235–62.
Chu, P.-Y. (2007) ‘How students react to the power and responsibility of being deci-
sion makers in their own learning’, Language Teaching Research, 11 (2): 225–41.
Clarke, D.F. (1991) ‘The negotiated syllabus: What it is and how is it likely to work?’,
Applied Linguistics, 12 (1): 13–28.
Clemente, M. (2003) ‘Learning cultures and counselling: Teacher/learner interaction
within a self-directed scheme’. In D. Palfreyman and R.C. Smith (eds) Learner
Autonomy across Cultures: Language Education Perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan, pp. 201–19.
Cockburn, A. and Blackburn, R. (eds) (1970) Student Power: Problems, Diagnosis, Action.
London: Penguin.
Cohen, A.D. (1998) Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. London: Longman.
Cohen, A.D. and Macaro, E. (eds) (2007) Language Learner Strategies: 30 years of
Research and Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Conacher, J.E. and Kelly-Holmes, H. (eds) (2005) New Learning Environments for
Language Learning: Moving beyond the Classroom. Franfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Confessore, G.J. and Park, E.M. (2004) ‘Factor validation of the learner autonomy
profile (Version 3.0) and extraction of the short form’, International Journal of Self-
Directed Learning, 1 (1): 39–58.
Confessore, G.J., Park, E.M. and Idobro, I. (2005) ‘Initial component analysis
and reliability assessment of the Spanish language learner autonomy profile’,
International Journal of Self-Directed Learning, 2 (2): 91–101.
Corder, S.P. (1967) ‘The significance of learners errors’, International Review of Applied
Linguistics, 4: 161–9.
R E F E R E NC E S 255
Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M. (eds) (2000) Handbook of Self-Determination Research:
Theoretical and Applied Issues. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Deci, E.L., Vallerand, R.J., Pelletier, L.G. and Ryan, R.M. (1991) ‘Motivation and
education: The self-determination perspective’, Educational Psychologist, 26: 325–46.
De Graff, R. (1997) ‘The EXPERANTO experiment: Effects of explicit instruction on
second language acquisition’, Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19: 249–76.
DeKeyser, R.M. (2007) ‘Study abroad as foreign language practice’. In R.M. DeKeyser
(ed.) Practice in a Second Language: Perspectives from Applied Lingusitics and Cognitive
Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 208–26.
Dewey, J. (1916/1966) Democracy and Education and Introduction to the Philosophy of
Education. New York, NY: Free Press. (First published, 1916.)
Dewey, J. (1933) How We Think. Chicago, IL: Regney.
Dickinson, L. (1987) Self-instruction in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Dickinson, L. (1992) Learner Autonomy 2: Learner Training for Language Learning.
Dublin: Authentik.
Dickinson, L. (1995) ‘Autonomy and motivation: A literature review’, System, 23 (2):
165–74.
Dickinson, L. and Carver, D. (1980) ‘Learning how to learn: Steps towards self-direction
in foreign language learning’, ELT Journal, 35 (1): 1–7.
Dlaska, A. and Krekeler, C. (2008) ‘Self-assessment of pronunciation’, System, 36 (4):
506–16.
Dodge, B. (1998) ‘Some thoughts about WebQuests’. Paper published online.
Retrieved from http://webquest.sdsu.edu/about_webquests.html, August 2009.
Donato, R. and McCormick, D. (1994) ‘A sociocultural perspective on language
learning strategies: The role of mediation’, The Modern Language Journal, 78 (4):
453–64.
Dörnyei, Z. (1998) ‘Motivation in second and foreign language learning’, Language
Teaching, 31: 117–35.
Dörnyei, Z. (2001) Motivational Strategies in the Language Classroom. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Dörnyei, Z. (2003) ‘Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning:
Advances in theory, research, and applications’, Language Learning, 53 (2): 3–32.
Dörnyei, Z. (2005) The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual Differences in
Second Language Acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Dörnyei, Z. and Csizér, L. (1998) ‘Ten commandments for motivating language learners:
Results of an empirical study’, Language Teaching Research, 2 (3): 203–29.
Dörnyei, Z. and Ushioda, E. (eds) (2009) Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self.
Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Dörnyei, Z. and Ushioda, E. (2010) Teaching and Researching Motivation. 2nd edn.
London: Longman.
Dunkel, A., Brill, S., and Kohl, B. (2002) ‘The impact of self-instructional technology
on language learning: A view of NASILP’. In C.A. Spreen (ed.) New Technologies
and Language Learning: Cases in the Less Commonly Taught Languages. Honolulu, HI:
University of Hawai’i, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Centre,
pp. 97–120.
Ecclestone, K. (2002) Learning Autonomy in Post-16 Education: The Politics and Practice of
Formative Assessment. London: Routledge Falmer.
R E F E R E NC E S 257
Egbert, J. (2005) CALL Essentials: Principles and Practice in the CALL Classrooms.
Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Egbert, J. and Hanson-Smith, E. (eds) (1999) CALL Environments: Research, Practice and
Critical Issues. Alexandria, VA: TESOL.
Ehrman, M., Leaver, B.L. and Oxford, R. (2003) ‘A brief overview of individual differ-
ences in second language learning’, System, 31 (4): 313–30.
Ellis, G. and Sinclair, B. (1989) Learning to Learn English: A Course in Learner Training.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, R. (1994) The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ellis, R. (2004) ‘Individual differences in second language learning’. In A. Davies and
C. Elder (eds) The Handbook of Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 525–51.
Engeström, Y., Miettinen, R. and Punamaki, R.L. (eds) (1999) Perspectives on Activity
Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Esch, E. (1996) ‘Promoting learner autonomy: Criteria for the selection of appropriate
methods’. In R. Pemberton et al. (eds) Taking Control: Autonomy in Language
Learning. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, pp. 35–48.
Esch, E. (1997) ‘Learner training for autonomous language learning’. In P. Benson and
P. Voller (eds) Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning. London: Longman,
pp. 164–76.
Felix, U. (2005) ‘Analysing recent CALL effectiveness research: Towards a common
agenda’, Computer Assisted Language Learning, 18 (1/2): 1–32.
Fernández-Toro, M. (1999) Training Learners for Self-instruction. London: CILT.
Fernández-Toro, M. and Jones, F.R. (1996) ‘Going solo: Learners’ experiences of
self-instruction and self-instruction training’. In E. Broady and M.-M. Kenning (eds)
Promoting Learner Autonomy in University Language Teaching. London: Association
for French Language Studies/CILT, pp. 185–214.
Fernández-Toro, M. and Jones, F.R. (2001) DIY Techniques for Language Learners.
London: CILT.
Field, L.D. (1989) ‘An investigation into the structure, validity and reliability of
Guglielmino’s Self-directed Learning Readiness Scale’, Adult Education Quarterly,
39 (3): 125–39.
Figura, K. and Jarvis, H. (2007) ‘Computer-based materials: A study of learner auton-
omy and strategies’, System, 35 (4): 448–68.
Fisher, D., Hafner, C. and Young, J. (2007) ‘Integrating independent learning: Lessons
learned and implications for the classroom’. In D. Gardner (ed.) Learner Autonomy
10: Integration and Support. Dublin: Authentik, pp. 33–55.
Freeman, D. and Cornwell, S. (eds) (1993) New Ways in Teacher Education. Alexandria,
VA: TESOL.
Freinet, E. (1971) Naissance d’une pédagogie populaire. Paris: Maspéro.
Freire, P. (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York, NY: Herder & Herder.
Freire, P. (1974) Education for Critical Consciousness. London: Sheed and Ward.
Fryer, L. and Carpenter, R. (2006) ‘Emerging technologies: Bots as language learning
tools’, Language Learning and Technology, 10 (3): 8–14.
Gao, X. (2004) ‘A critical review of questionnaire use in learner strategy research’,
Prospect, An Australian Journal of TESOL, 19 (3): 3–14.
Gao, X. (2007) ‘A tale of Blue Rain Café: A study on the online narrative construction
about a community of English learners on the Chinese mainland’, System, 35 (2):
259–70.
258 TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
Guyer, P. (2003) ‘Kant on the theory and practice of autonomy’. In E.F. Paul, F.D. Miller
and J. Paul (eds) Autonomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 70–98.
Hacker, P. and Barkhuizen, G. (2008) ‘Autonomous teachers, autonomous cognition:
Developing personal theories through reflection in language teacher education’. In
T.E. Lamb and H. Reinders (eds) Learner and Teacher Autonomy: Concepts, Realities
and Responses. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 161–83.
Hafner, C. and Young, J. (2007) ‘From teacher to facilitator: Developing perspectives’.
In L. Miller (ed.) Learner Autonomy 9: Autonomy in the Classroom. Dublin: Authentik,
pp. 103–26.
Hall, D. and Kenny, B. (1988) ‘An approach to a truly communicative methodology:
The AIT pre-sessional course’, English for Specific Purposes, 7: 19–32.
Hammond, M. and Collins, R. (1991) Self-directed Learning: Critical Practice. London:
Kogan Page.
Hampel, R. and Hauck, M. (2004) ‘Towards an effective use of audio conferencing in
distance language courses’, Language Learning and Technology, 8 (1): 66–82.
Hand, M. (2006) ‘Against autonomy as an educational aim’, Oxford Review of Education,
32 (4): 535–50.
Hannerz, U. (1996) Transnational Connections: Culture, People, Places. London: Routledge.
Hanson-Smith, E. (ed.) (2000) Technology-Enhanced Learning Environments. Alexandria,
VA: TESOL.
Harding-Esch, E.M. (ed.) (1977) Self-directed Learning and Autonomy. Report of a
Seminar held at Cambridge, 13–15 December 1976. University of Cambridge,
Department of Linguistics and CRAPEL.
Harding-Esch, E.M. (1982) ‘The open access sound and video library of the University
of Cambridge: Progress report and development’, System, 10 (1): 13–28.
Harmer, J. (2001) The Practice of English Language Teaching. 3rd edn. London: Pearson
Education.
Harri-Augstein, S. and Thomas, L. (1991) Learning Conversations: The Self-organised
Way to Personal and Organizational Growth. London: Routledge.
Harris, R. M. (1990) ‘Reflections on self-directed adult learning: Some implications for
educators of adults’, Studies in Continuing Education, 11 (2): 102–16.
Harris, V., Ingvadottir, H., Jones, B., Neyburg, R., Palos, I. and Schindler, I. (2001)
Helping Learners Learn: Exploring Strategy Instruction in Languages Classrooms across
Europe. Graz, Austria: ECML.
Harrison, M.E. (2006) ‘Taking the teacher out of the test: Exploring student autonomy
in EFL classroom testing’. In E. Skier and M. Kohyama (eds) More Autonomy You
Ask! Tokyo: JALT Learner Development SIG, pp. 87–94.
Hart, N. (2002) ‘Developing profiles for intra-group learner autonomy’. In A.S.
Mackenzie and E. McCafferty (eds) Developing Autonomy. Proceedings of the JALT
CUE Conference 2001. Tokyo: The Japan Association for Language Teaching
College and University Educators Special Interest Group, pp. 97–106.
Hassan, X., Macaro, E., Mason, D., Nye, G., Smith, P. and Vanderplank, R. (2005)
Strategy Training in Language Learning: A Systematic Review of Available Research.
Research Evidence in Education Library. London: University of London, Social
Science Research Institute, EPPI-Centre.
Head, E. (2006) ‘Learner autonomy and education reform in Japan: Asking the students’.
In E. Skier and M. Kohyama (eds) More Autonomy You Ask! Tokyo: JALT Learner
Development SIG, pp. 9–31.
260 TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
Hedge, T. (2000) Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Hine, C. (2000) Virtual Ethnography. London: Sage.
Ho, W.K. (2004) ‘English language teaching in East Asia today: An overview’. In
W.H. Kam and R.Y.L. Wong (eds) English Language Teaching in East Asia Today:
Changing Policies and Practices. Singapore: Eastern Universities Press, pp. 1–33.
Holec, H. (1980) ‘Learner training: Meeting needs in self-directed learning’. In
H.B. Altman and C.V. James (eds) Foreign Language Learning: Meeting Individual
Needs. Oxford: Pergamon, pp. 30–45.
Holec, H. (1981) Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning. Oxford: Pergamon. (First
published 1979, Strasbourg: Council of Europe.)
Holec, H. (1985a) ‘On autonomy: Some elementary concepts’. In P. Riley (ed.)
Discourse and Learning. London: Longman, pp. 173–90.
Holec, H. (1985b) ‘Self-assessment’. In R.J. Mason (ed.) Self-directed Learning and Self-
access in Australia: From Practice to Theory. Proceedings of the National Conference
of the Adult Migrant Education Programme, Melbourne, June 1984. Melbourne:
Council of Adult Education, pp. 141–58.
Holec, H. (1987) ‘The learner as manager: Managing learning or managing to learn?’
In A. Wenden and J. Rubin (eds) Learner Strategies in Language Learning. London:
Prentice Hall, pp. 145–56.
Holliday, A. (2003) ‘Social autonomy: Addressing the dangers of culturism in TESOL’.
In D. Palfreyman and R.C. Smith (eds) Learner Autonomy across Cultures: Language
Education Perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 110–26.
Holliday, A. (2005) The Struggle to Teach English as an International Language. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Horwitz, E.K. (1987) ‘Surveying student beliefs about language learning’. In
A. Wenden and J. Rubin (eds) Learner Strategies in Language Learning. London:
Prentice Hall, pp. 119–29.
Horwitz, E.K. (1988) ‘The beliefs about language learning of beginning university
foreign language students’, The Modern Language Journal, 72 (3): 283–94.
Horwitz, E.K. and Young, D. (1991) Language Learning Anxiety: From Theory and
Research to Classroom Implications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Howatt, A.P.R. (1984) A History of English Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Huang, J. (2010) Autonomy, Agency and Identity in Foreign Language Learning and
Teaching. Bern: Peter Lang.
Hurd, S. (1998) ‘Autonomy at any price? Issues and concerns from a British HE
perspective’, Foreign Language Annals, 31 (2): 219–30.
Hurd, S. (2006) ‘Towards a better understanding of the dynamic role of the distance
language learner: Learner perceptions of personality, motivation, roles and
approaches’, Distance Education, 27 (3): 299–325.
Hurd, S. (2007a) ‘Anxiety and non-anxiety in a distance language learning environ-
ment: The distance factor as a modifying influence’, System, 35 (4): 487–508.
Hurd, S. (2007b) ‘Distant voices: Learners’ stories about the affective side of learning
a language at a distance’, Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1(2): 242–59.
Hurd, S. (2008) ‘Affect and strategy use in independent language learning’. In S. Hurd
and T. Lewis (eds) Language Learning Strategies in Independent Settings. Bristol:
Multilingual Matters, pp. 218–36.
R E F E R E NC E S 261
Kenning, M.-M. (1996) ‘IT and autonomy’. In E. Broady and M.-M. Kenning (eds)
Promoting Learner Autonomy in University Language Teaching. London: Association
for French Language Studies/CILT, pp. 121–38.
Kenny, B. (1993) ‘For more autonomy’, System, 21 (4): 431–42.
Kenny, B. and Laszewski, M. (1997) ‘Talkbase in Vientiane’. In B. Kenny and
W. Savage (eds) Language and Development: Teachers in a Changing World. London:
Longman, pp. 129–40.
Kilpatrick, W.H. (1921) The Project Method. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Kjisik, F. (2007) ‘Ten years in autonomy: Reflections and research on the ALMS pro-
gramme’. In D. Gardner (ed.) Learner Autonomy 10: Integration and Support. Dublin:
Authentik, pp. 114–26.
Kjisik, F., Voller, P., Aoki, N. and Nakata, Y. (eds) (2009) Mapping the Terrain of
Learner Autonomy: Learning Environments, Learning Communities and Identities.
Tampere: Tampere University Press.
Knobel, M. and Lankshear, C. (eds) (2007) A New Literacies Sampler. New York, NY:
Peter Lang.
Knowles, M. (1975) Self-directed Learning: A Guide for Learners and Teachers. New York,
NY: Association Press.
Koenraad, T.L.M. and Westoff, G.J. (2003) ‘Can you tell a LanguageQuest when you
see one? Design criteria for TalenQuests’, Paper presented at the European Association
for Computer Assisted Language Learning Conference, University of Limerick, Ireland,
September 2003. <http://www.feo.hvu.nl/koen2/Home/talenquest/TQEurocall.pdf>
Kohonen, V. (1992) ‘Experiential language learning: Second language learning as
cooperative learner education’. In D. Nunan (ed.) Collaborative Language Learning
and Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 14–39.
Kohonen, V., Jaatinen, R., Kaikkonen, P. and Lehtovaara, J. (2000) Experiential
Learning in Foreign Language Education. London: Longman.
Kolb, A. (2007) ‘How languages are learnt: Primary children’s language learning
beliefs’, Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1 (2): 227–41.
Kolb, D. (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and
Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kötter, M. (2002) Tandem Learning on the Internet. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
Krashen, S. (1982) Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.
Krashen, S. (2006) ‘The autonomous language acquirer (ALA)’. In E. Skier and
M. Kohyama (eds) More Autonomy You Ask! Tokyo: JALT Learner Development
SIG, pp. 1–7.
Kuhl, J. (1987) ‘Action control: The maintenance of motivational states’. In F. Halish
and J. Kuhl (eds) Motivation, Intention and Volition. Berlin: Springer, pp. 279–91.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003) Beyond Methods: Macrostrategies for Language Teaching. New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
La Ganza, W. (2008) ‘Learner autonomy and teacher autonomy: Interrelating and the
will to power’. In T. E. Lamb and H. Reinders (eds) Learner and Teacher Autonomy:
Concepts, Realities and Responses. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 63–79.
Lai, J. (2001) ‘Towards an analytic approach to assessing learner autonomy’, The AILA
Review, 15: 34–44.
Lam, W.S.E. (2004) ‘Second language socialization in bilingual chat room: Global and
local considerations’, Language Learning and Technology, 8 (3): 44–65.
R E F E R E NC E S 263
Lam, W.S.E. (2006) ‘Re-envisioning language, literacy, and the immigrant subject in
new mediascapes’, Pedagogies: an International Journal, 1 (3): 171–95.
Lamb, M. (2004) ‘ “It depends on the students themselves”: Independent language
learning at an Indonesian state school’, Language, Culture and Curriculum, 17 (3):
229–45.
Lamb, T.E. (2000) ‘Finding a voice: Learner autonomy and teacher education in an
urban context’. In B. Sinclair et al. (eds) Learner Autonomy, Teacher Autonomy: Future
Directions. London: Longman, pp. 118–27.
Lamb, T.E. (2001) ‘Metacognition and motivation: Learning to learn’. In G. Chambers
(ed.) Reflections on Motivation. London: CILT, pp. 85–93.
Lamb, T.E. (2003) ‘Individualising learning: Organising a flexible learning environ-
ment’. In M. Jiménez Raya and T. Lamb (eds) Differentiation in the Modern Languages
Classroom. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, pp. 177–94.
Lamb, T.E. (2008) ‘Learner autonomy in eight European countries: Opportunities
and tensions in autonomy education reform and language teaching policy’. In
M. Jiménez Raya and T. Lamb (eds) Pedagogy for Autonomy in Modern Languages
Education: Theory, Practice and Teacher Education. Dublin: Authentik, pp. 36–57.
Lamb, T.E. and Reinders, H. (eds) (2006) Supporting Independent Learning: Issues and
Interventions. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Lamb, T.E. and Reinders, H. (eds) (2008) Learner and Teacher Autonomy: Concepts,
Realities and Responses. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Lamy, M.-N. and Goodfellow, R. (1999) ‘Supporting language students’ interaction in
web-based conferencing’, Computer Assisted Language Learning, 12 (5): 457–77.
Lamy, M.-N. and Hampel, R. (2007) Online Communication in Language Learning and
Teaching. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Lantolf, J.P. and Pavlenko, A. (2001) ‘(S)econd (L)anguage (A)ctivity theory:
Understanding second language learners as people’. In M.P. Breen (ed.) Learner
Contributions to Language Learning. London: Longman, pp. 141–58.
Lantolf, J.P. and Poehner, M.E. (eds) (2008) Sociocultural Theory and the Teaching of
Second Languages. London: Equinox.
Lantolf, J.P. and Thorne, S.L. (2006) Sociocultural Theory and the Genesis of Second
Language Development. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2001) ‘Individual cognitive/affective learner contributions and
differential success in SLA’. In M.P. Breen (ed.) Learner Contributions to Language
Learning: New Directions in Research. London: Longman, pp. 12–24.
Lave, J. and Wenger, E. (1991) Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lázaro, N. and Reinders, H. (2007) ‘Innovation in self-access: Three case studies’,
CALL-EJ Online, 8 (2).
Legenhausen, L. (2003) ‘Second language acquisition in an autonomous learning
environment’. In D. Little et al. (eds) Learner Autonomy in Foreign Language Class-
rooms: Teacher, Learner, Curriculum and Assessment. Dublin: Authentik, pp. 65–77.
Legutke, M. and Thomas, H. (1991) Process and Experience in the Language Classroom.
London: Longman.
Lewis, J. (1990) ‘Self-assessment in the classroom: A case study’. In G. Brindley (ed.)
The Second Language Curriculum in Action. Sydney: National Centre for English
Language Teaching and Research, pp. 187–213.
264 TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
Lewis, T. (2003) ‘The case for tandem learning’. In T. Lewis and L. Walker (eds)
Autonomous Language Learning in Tandem. Sheffield: Academy Electronic Publica-
tions. pp. 13–25.
Lewis, T. (2005) ‘The effective learning of languages in tandem’. In J.A. Coleman and
J. Klapper (eds) Effective Learning and Teaching in Modern Languages. London:
Routledge, pp. 165–72.
Lewis, T. and Walker, L. (eds) (2003) Autonomous Language Learning in Tandem.
Sheffield: Academic and Electronic Press.
Lindley, R. (1986) Autonomy. London: Macmillan.
Little, D. (1990) ‘Autonomy in language learning.’ In I. Gathercole (ed.) Autonomy in
Language Learning, London: CILT, pp. 7–15.
Little, D. (1991) Learner Autonomy 1: Definitions, Issues and Problems. Dublin: Authentik.
Little, D. (1994) ‘Learner autonomy: A theoretical construct and its practical applica-
tion’, Die Neueren Sprachen, 93 (5): 430–42.
Little, D. (1995) ‘Learning as dialogue: The dependence of learner autonomy on
teacher autonomy’, System, 23 (2): 175–82.
Little, D. (1996) ‘Freedom to learn and compulsion to interact: Promoting learner
autonomy through the use of information systems and information technologies’.
In R. Pemberton et al. (eds) Taking Control: Autonomy in Language Learning. Hong
Kong: Hong Kong University Press, pp. 203–18.
Little, D. (1997) ‘Language awareness and the autonomous language learner’, Language
Awareness, 6 (2/3): 93–104.
Little, D. (1999) ‘Learner autonomy is more than a Western cultural construct’. In
S. Cotterall and D. Crabbe (eds) Learner Autonomy in Language Learning: Defining
the Field and Effecting Change. Bayreuth Contributions to Glottodidactics, vol. 8.
Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, pp. 11–18.
Little, D. (2000a) ‘Strategies, counselling and cultural difference: Why we need an anthro-
pological understanding of learner autonomy’. In R. Ribé (ed.) Developing Learner
Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning. Barcelona: University of Barcelona, pp. 17–33.
Little, D. (2000b) ‘We’re all in it together: Exploring the interdependence of teacher
and learner autonomy’. In L. Karlsson, F. Kjisik and J. Nordlund (eds) All Together
Now. Papers from the 7th Nordic Conference and Workshop on Autonomous
Language Learning, September 2000. Helsinki: University of Helsinki Language
Centre, pp. 45–56.
Little, D. (2003a) ‘Learner autonomy and public examinations’. In D. Little, J. Ridley
and E. Ushioda (eds) Learner Autonomy in Foreign Language Classrooms: Teacher,
Learner, Curriculum and Assessment. Dublin: Authentik, pp. 223–36.
Little, D. (2003b) ‘Tandem language learning and learner autonomy’. In T. Lewis
and L. Walker (eds) Autonomous Language Learning in Tandem. Sheffield: Academy
Electronic Publications, pp. 37–44.
Little, D. (2005) ‘The Common European Framework and the European Language
Portfolio: Involving learners and their judgments in the assessment process’,
Language Testing, 22 (3): 321–36.
Little, D. (2007) ‘Introduction: Re-constructing learner and teacher autonomy in language
education’. In A. Barfield and S. Brown (eds) Reconstructing Autonomy in Language
Education: Inquiry and Innovation. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 1–12.
Little, D., Ridley, J. and Ushioda, E. (2002) Towards Greater Learner Autonomy in the
Foreign Language Classroom. Dublin: Authentik.
R E F E R E NC E S 265
Little, D., Ridley, J. and Ushioda, E. (eds) (2003) Learner Autonomy in Foreign Language
Classrooms: Teacher, Learner, Curriculum and Assessment. Dublin: Authentik.
Little, D. and Singleton, D. (1990) ‘Cognitive style and learning approach’. In R. Duda
and P. Riley (eds) Learning Styles. Nancy: Presses Universitaires de Nancy,
pp. 11–19.
Littlejohn, A. (1982) A procedural guide for teacherless language learning groups. MA
dissertation, University of Lancaster.
Littlejohn, A. (1983) ‘Increasing learner involvement in course management’, TESOL
Quarterly, 17 (4): 595–608.
Littlejohn, A. (1997) ‘Self-access work and curriculum ideologies’. In P. Benson and
P. Voller (eds) Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning. London: Longman,
pp. 181–91.
Littlewood, W.T. (1996) ‘Autonomy: An anatomy and a framework’, System, 24 (4):
427–35.
Littlewood, W.T. (1997) ‘Self-access: Why do we want it and what can it do?’. In
P. Benson and P. Voller (eds) Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning.
London: Longman, pp. 79–92.
Littlewood, W.T. (1999) ‘Defining and developing autonomy in East Asian contexts’,
Applied Linguistics, 20 (1): 71–94.
Livingstone, D.W. (1999) ‘Exploring the icebergs of adult learning: Findings of the
first Canadian Survey of Informal Learning Practices’, Canadian Journal for the Study
of Adult Education, 13 (2): 49–72.
Livingstone, D.W. (2006) ‘Informal learning: Conceptual distinctions and prelimin-
ary findings’. In Z. Bekerman, N.C. Burbules and D. Silberman-Keller (eds)
Learning in Places: The Informal Educational Reader. New York, NY: Peter Lang,
pp. 203–27.
Loewen, S. (2006) ‘Autonomy and language learning behaviour: The role of student
initiation in meaning-focused L2 lessons’. In T.E. Lamb and H. Reinders (eds)
Supporting Independent Learning: Issues and Interventions. Frankfurt am Main: Peter
Lang, pp. 37–54.
Long, M. (1983) ‘Does second language instruction make a difference? A review of the
research’, TESOL Quarterly, 17: 359–82.
Louden, W. (1991) Understanding Teaching. London: Cassell.
Lowes, R. and Target, F. (1998) Helping Students to Learn: A Guide to Learner Autonomy.
London: Richmond Publishing.
Luck, M. and d’Inverno, M. (1995) ‘A formal framework for agency and identity’,
Proceedings of the First International Conference on Multi-agent Systems. AAAI Press/
MIT Press, pp. 254–60. <http://www.aaai.org/Library/ICMAS/icmas95contents.php>
Lynch, T. (2001) ‘Promoting EAP learner autonomy in a second language university
context’. In J. Flowerdew and M. Peacock (eds) Research Perspectives on English for
Academic Purposes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 390–403.
Macaro, E. (1997) Target Language, Collaborative Learning and Autonomy. Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters.
Macaro, E. (2001) Learning Strategies in Foreign and Second Language Classrooms.
London: Continuum.
Macaro, E. (2008) ‘The shifting dimensions of language learner autonomy’. In
T.E. Lamb and H. Reinders (eds) Learner and Teacher Autonomy: Concepts, Realities
and Responses. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 43–62.
266 TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
Moreira, M.A. (2007) ‘On democracy and learner autonomy in initial teacher educa-
tion: Guerrilla warfare?’ In A. Barfield and S. Brown (eds) Reconstructing Autonomy
in Language Education: Inquiry and Innovation. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan,
pp. 56–70.
Morrison, B. (2005) ‘Evaluating learning gain in a self-access language learning centre’,
Language Teaching Research, 9 (3): 267–93.
Motteram, G. (1997) ‘Learner autonomy and the web’. In V. Darleguy et al. (eds)
Educational Technology in Language Learning: Theoretical Considerations and Practical
Applications. Lyons: INSA (National Institute of Applied Sciences), pp. 17–24.
Mozzon-McPherson, M. (2007) ‘Supporting independent learning environments:
An analysis of structures and roles of language learning advisers’, System, 35 (1):
66–92.
Mozzon-McPherson, M. and Vismans, R. (eds) (2001) Beyond Language Teaching:
Towards Language Advising. London: Centre for Information on Language Teaching
and Research.
Mullen, T., Apple, C. and Shanklin, T. (2009) ‘Skype-based tandem language learning
and Web 2.0’. In M. Thomas (ed.) Handbook of Research on Web 2.0 and Second
Language Learning. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference, pp. 101–18.
Müller-Hartmann, A. (2000) ‘Tandem learning’. In M. Byram (ed.) Routledge
Encyclopaedia of Language Teaching and Learning. London: Routledge, pp. 595–7.
Mundy, K. (2005) ‘Globalization and educational change: New policy worlds’. In
N. Bascia, A. Cumming, A. Datnow, K. Leithwood and D. Livingstone (eds)
International Handbook of Educational Policy. New York, NY: Springer, pp. 3–17.
Murayama, I. (1996) ‘The status of strategies in learning: A brief history of changes
in researchers’ views’, Learning Learning: JALT Learner Development N-SIG Forum,
2 (3): 7–12.
Murphy, L. (2008a) ‘Integrating strategy instruction into learning materials’. In
S. Hurd and T. Lewis (eds) Language Learning Strategies in Independent Settings.
Bristol: Multilingual Matters, pp. 303–20.
Murphy, L. (2008b) ‘Supporting learner autonomy: Developing practice through the
production of courses for distance learners of French, German and Spanish’,
Language Teaching Research, 12 (1): 83–102.
Murray, G. (2008a) ‘Communities of practice: Stories of Japanese EFL learners’. In
P. Kalaja, V. Menezes and A.M. Barcelos (eds) Narratives of Learning and Teaching
EFL. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 128–40.
Murray, G. (2008b) ‘Pop culture and language learning: Learners’ stories informing
EFL’, Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 2 (1): 2–17.
Murray, G. and Kojima, M. (2007) ‘Out-of-class learning: One learner’s story’. In
P. Benson (ed.) Learner Autonomy 8: Teacher and Learner Perspectives. Dublin: Authentik,
pp. 25–40.
Naiman, N., Fröhlich, M., Stern, H.H. and Todesco, A. (1978) The Good Language
Learner. Research in Education Series, No. 7. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies
in Education.
Nation, I.S.P. (2001) Teaching and Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Natri, T.H. (2007) ‘Active learnership in continuous self- and peer-evaluation’. In
A. Barfield and S. Brown (eds) Reconstructing Autonomy in Language Education: Inquiry
and Innovation. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 108–19.
268 TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
Noels, K.A., Clément, R. and Pelletier, L.G. (1999) ‘Perceptions of teacher communic-
ative style and student’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivation’, Modern Language Journal,
83 (1): 23–34.
Noels, K.A., Pelletier, L.G., Clément, R. and Vallerand, R.J. (2000) ‘Why are you
learning a second language? Motivational orientations and self-determination
theory’, Language Learning, 50 (1): 57–85.
Norton, B. (1997) ‘Language, identity and the ownership of English’, TESOL
Quarterly, 31 (3): 409–29.
Norton, B. (2000) Identity and Language Learning: Gender, Ethnicity and Educational
Change. London: Longman.
Norton, B. and Toohey, K. (eds) (2004) Critical Pedagogies and Language Learning.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Nunan, D. (1989) Understanding Language Classrooms. London: Prentice Hall.
Nunan, D. (1991) Language Teaching Methodology. London: Prentice Hall.
Nunan, D. (1995) ‘Closing the gap between learning and instruction’, TESOL
Quarterly, 29 (1): 133–58.
Nunan, D. (1997) ‘Designing and adapting materials to encourage learner autonomy’.
In P. Benson and P. Voller (eds) Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning.
London: Longman, pp. 192–203.
Nunan, D. (2003) ‘The impact of English as a global language on educational policies
and practices in the Asia-Pacific region’, TESOL Quarterly, 37 (4): 589–613.
O’Malley, J.M. and Chamot, A.U. (1990) Learning Strategies in Second Language
Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
O’Rourke, B. and Schwienhorst, K. (2003) ‘Talking text: Reflections on reflection in
computer-mediated communication’. In D. Little, J. Ridley and E. Ushioda (eds)
Learner Autonomy in Foreign Language Classrooms: Teacher, Learner, Curriculum and
Assessment. Dublin: Authentik, pp. 47–62.
Olssen, M. (2005) ‘Foucault, educational research and the issue of autonomy’,
Educational Philosophy and Theory, 37 (3): 365–87.
Oscarson, M. (1989) ‘Self-assessment of language proficiency: rationale and applica-
tions’, Language Testing, 6: 1–13.
Oscarson, M. (1997) ‘Self-assessment of foreign and second language proficiency’.
In C. Clapham and D. Corson (eds) Language Testing and Assessment. Encyclopedia
of Language and Education. Volume 7. Dordrecht: Kluwer, pp. 175–87.
Otto, E. (2003) ‘Language learning strategies in tandem: How to learn efficiently’.
In T. Lewis and L. Walker (eds) Autonomous Language Learning in Tandem. Sheffield:
Academy Electronic Publications, pp. 79–91.
Oxford, R.L. (1990) Language Learning Strategies: What every Teacher should Know.
Rowley, MA.: Newbury House.
Oxford, R.L. (2003) ‘Toward a more systematic model of L2 learner autonomy’. In
D. Palfreyman and R.C. Smith (eds) Learner Autonomy across Cultures: Language
Education Perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 75–91.
Palfreyman, D. (2003a) ‘Introduction: Culture and learner autonomy’. In D. Palfreyman
and R.C. Smith (eds) Learner Autonomy across Cultures: Language Education
Perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 1–19.
Palfreyman, D. (2003b) ‘The representation of learner autonomy and learner indepen-
dence in organizational culture’. In D. Palfreyman and R.C. Smith (eds) Learner
Autonomy arcoss Cultures: Language Education Perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan, pp. 183–200.
R E F E R E NC E S 269
Palfreyman, D. and Smith, R.C. (eds) (2003) Learner Autonomy across Cultures: Language
Education Perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Paredes, R.G.A., Ogata, H., Nobuji, A., Oishi, Y., Ueda, T. (2005) ‘LOCH: Support-
ing informal language learning outside the classroom with handhelds’. Proceedings of
the 2005 IEEE International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education.
Tokushima, Japan / Los Alamitos: IEEE Computer Society, pp. 182–186.
Paris, S.G. and Byrnes, J.Y.P. (1989) ‘The constructivist approach to self-regulation of
learning in the classroom’. In B.J. Zimmerman and D.H. Schunk (eds) Self-regulated
Learning and Academic Achievement. New York, NY: Springer, pp. 169–200.
Pearson, N. (2004) ‘The idiosyncracies of out-of-class language learning: A study of
mainland Chinese students studying English at tertiary level in New Zealand’. In
H. Reinders, H. Anderson, M. Hobbs and J. Jones-Parry (eds) Supporting Independent
Learning in the 21st Century. Proceedings of the Inaugural Conference of the
Independent Learning Association, Melbourne, 13–14 September, 2003. Auckland:
Independent Learning Association Oceania, pp. 121–33.
Pemberton, L., Fallahkhair, S. and Mastoff, E. (2005) ‘Learner centred development
of a mobile and iTV language learning support system’, Educational Technology and
Society, 8 (4): 52–63.
Pemberton, R., Toogood, S., Ho, S. and Lam, J. (2001) ‘Approaches to advising for
self-directed language learning’, The AILA Review, 15: 16–25.
Pennycook, A. (1997) ‘Cultural alternatives and autonomy’. In P. Benson and P. Voller
(eds) Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning. London: Longman,
pp. 35–53.
Perkins, D.N. and Salomon, G. (1989) ‘Are cognitive skills context-bound?’,
Educational Researcher, 18 (1): 16–25.
Pickard, N. (1995) ‘Out-of class language learning strategies: Three case studies’,
Language Learning Journal, 12: 35–7.
Pierce, B.N. (1995) ‘Social identity, investment and language learning’, TESOL
Quarterly, 29 (1): 9–31.
Pierson, H.D. (1996) ‘Learner culture and learner autonomy in the Hong Kong
Chinese context.’ In R. Pemberton et al. (eds) Taking Control: Autonomy in Language
Learning. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, pp. 49–58.
Pinter, A. (2007) ‘Towards teacher autonomy’. In P. Benson (ed.) Learner Autonomy 8:
Teacher and Learner Perspectives. Dublin: Authentik, pp. 104–20.
Porto, M. (2007) ‘Learning diaries in the English as a foreign language classroom: A
tool for accessing learners’ perceptions of lessons and developing learner autonomy
and reflection’, Foreign Language Annals, 40 (4): 672–96.
Prabhu, N.S. (1987) Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ramadevi, S. (1992) Learner Autonomy in the ESL Classroom: A Study in Curriculum
Design. New Dehli: B.R. Publishing Corporation.
Ravindram, R. (2000) ‘Towards learner autonomy: Evolution in practice: The
Certificate in Independent Language Learning’. In B. Sinclair et al. (eds) Learner
Autonomy, Teacher Autonomy: Future Directions. London: Longman, pp. 60–72.
Raz, J. (1986) The Morality of Freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rees-Miller, J. (1993) ‘A critical appraisal of learner training: Theoretical bases and
teaching implications’, TESOL Quarterly, 27 (4): 679–89.
Rees-Miller, J. (1994) ‘Comments on Janie Rees-Miller’s “A critical appraisal of learner
training: Theoretical bases and teaching implications”: The author responds’,
TESOL Quarterly, 28 (4): 776–81.
270 TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
Reinders, H. (2007) ‘Big brother is helping you: Supporting self-access language learn-
ing with a student monitoring system’, System, 35 (1): 93–111.
Reinders, H., Hacker, P. and Lewis, M. (2004) ‘The language advisor’s role:
Identifying and responding to needs’, Language Learning Journal, 30: 30–5.
Reinders, H. and Lázaro, N. (2007) ‘Innovation in language support: The provision of
technology in self-access’, CALL Journal, 20 (2): 117–30.
Ribé, R. (ed.) (2000) Developing Learner Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning.
Barcelona: University of Barcelona.
Ribé, R. (2003) ‘Tramas in the foreign language classroom: Autopoietic networks for
learner growth’. In D. Little, J. Ridley and E. Ushioda (eds) Learner Autonomy in
Foreign Language Classrooms: Teacher, Learner, Curriculum and Assessment. Dublin:
Authentik, pp. 11–28.
Ribé, R. and Vidal, N. (1993) Project Work. London: Heinemann.
Riley, P. (ed.) (1985) Discourse and Learning. London: Longman.
Riley, P. (1986) ‘Who’s who in self-access.’ TESOL France News, 6 (2): 23–35.
Riley, P. (1988) ‘The ethnography of autonomy’. In A. Brookes and P. Grundy (eds)
Individualisation and Autonomy in Language Learning. ELT Documents 131. London:
Modern English Publications in association with the British Council (Macmillan),
pp. 12–34.
Riley, P. (1996) ‘The blind man and the bubble: Researching self-access.’ In R. Pemberton
et al. (eds) Taking Control: Autonomy in Language Learning. Hong Kong: Hong Kong
University Press, pp. 251–64.
Riley, P. (1997) ‘The guru and the conjurer: Aspects of counselling for self-access’. In
P. Benson and P. Voller (eds) Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning.
London: Longman, pp. 114–31.
Riley, P. (2003) ‘Self-access as access to “self ”: Cultural variation in the notions of self
and personhood’. In D. Palfreyman and R.C. Smith (eds) Learner Autonomy across
Cultures: Language Education Perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 92–109.
Riley, P. and Zoppis, C. (1985) ‘The sound and video library’. In P. Riley (ed.) Discourse
and Learning. London: Longman, pp. 286–98.
Rivers, W.P. (1998) ‘Is being there enough? The effects of homestay placements on
language gain during study abroad’, Foreign Language Annals, 31 (4), 492–500.
Rivers, W.P. (2001) ‘Autonomy at all costs: An ethnography of metacognitive self-
assessment and self-management among experienced language learners’, The Modern
Language Journal, 85 (2): 279–90.
Roberts, J.T. (1995) ‘An anatomy of home-study foreign language courses’, System,
23 (4): 513–40.
Robinson, P. (2003) ‘Attention and memory during SLA’. In C. Doughty and M. Long
(eds) The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Blackwell, pp. 631–79.
Roebuck, R. (2000) ‘Subjects speak out: How learners position themselves in a psy-
cholinguistic task’. In J.P. Lantolf (ed.) Sociocultural Theory and Second Language
Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 79–96.
Rogers, C.R. (1969) Freedom to Learn. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
Rogers, C.R. (1983) Freedom to Learn for the 80s. New York, NY: Merrill.
Rohrkemper, M.M. (1989) ‘Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: A
Vygotskian view’. In B.J. Zimmerman and D.H. Schunk (eds) Self-regulated Learning
and Academic Achievement: Theory, Research and Practice. New York, NY: Springer,
pp. 143–67.
R E F E R E NC E S 271
Rowsell, L.V. and Libben, G. (1994) ‘The sound of one-hand clapping: How
to succeed in independent language learning’, Canadian Modern Language Review,
50 (4): 668–88.
Rubin, J. (1975) ‘What the “good language learner” can teach us’, TESOL Quarterly, 9:
41–51.
Rubin, J. (ed.) (2007) Language Counselling. Special issue of System, 35 (1): 1–9.
Rubin, J. and Thompson, I. (1982) How to be a More Successful Language Learner.
Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle. 2nd edn, 1994.
Sakui, K. (2002) ‘Motivation and autonomy: Japanese teachers’ perspectives’. In
A.S. Mackenzie and E. McCafferty (eds) Developing Autonomy. Proceedings of the
JALT CUE Conference 2001. Tokyo: The Japan Association for Language
Teaching College and University Educators Special Interest Group, pp. 73–8.
Samuda, V. and Bygate, M. (2008) Tasks in Second Language Learning. New York, NY:
Palgrave Macmillan.
Sanders, R.F. (2005) ‘Redesigning introductory Spanish: Increased enrollment, online
management, cost reduction, and effects on student learning’, Foreign Language
Annals, 38 (4): 523–32.
Sataporn, S. and Lamb, M. (2005) ‘Accommodation zone: Two learners’ struggles to
cope with a distance learning English course’. In P. Benson and D. Nunan (eds)
Learners’ Stories: Difference and Diversity in Language Learning. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, pp. 119–33.
Schalkwijk, E., van Esch, K., Elsen, A. and Setz, W. (2002) ‘Learner autonomy and the
education of language teachers: How to practice what is preached and preach what
is practiced’. In S.J. Savignon (ed.) Interpreting Communicative Language Teaching:
Contexts and Concerns in Teacher Education. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,
pp. 165–90.
Scharle, Á. and Szabó, A. (2000) Learner Autonomy: A Guide to Developing Learner
Responsibility. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schmenk, B. (2005) ‘Globalizing learner autonomy’, TESOL Quarterly, 39(1): 107–18.
Schmidt, R.W. (1990) ‘The role of consciousness in second language learning’, Applied
Linguistics, 11: 11–26.
Schmidt, R.W. and Frota, S.N. (1986) ‘Developing basic conversational ability in a sec-
ond language: A case study of an adult learner of Portuguese’. In R. Day (ed.) Talking
to Learn: Conversation in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House,
pp. 237–326.
Schunk, D.H. and Zimmerman, B.J. (eds) (1994) Self-regulation of Learning and
Performance: Issues and Educational Applications. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Schunk, D.H. and Zimmerman, B.J. (eds) (1998) Self-regulated Learning: From Teaching
to Self-regulated Practice. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Schwienhorst, K. (ed.) (2006) Learner Autonomy and Virtual Environments in CALL.
London: Routledge.
Scovel, T. (2001) Learning New Languages: A Guide to Second Language Instruction.
Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle.
Sercu, L. (2002) ‘Autonomous learning and the acquisition of intercultural commu-
nicative competence: Some implications for course development’, Language, Culture
and Curriculum, 15(1): 61–74.
Shao, H. and Wu, Z. (2007) ‘Nurturing language learner autonomy through caring
pedagogic practice’. In A. Barfield and S. Brown (eds) Reconstructing Autonomy in
272 TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
Victori, M. (ed.) (2000) Autonomy in Second Language Learning. Special issue of Links
and Letters, 7. Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.
Victori, M. (2007) ‘The development of learners’ support mechanisms in a self-access
center and their implementation in a credit-based self-directed learning program’,
System, 35 (1): 10–31.
Vieira, F. (1997) ‘Pedagogy for autonomy: Exploratory answers to questions any teacher
should ask’. In M. Müller-Verweyen (ed.) Standpunkte zur Sprach- und Kulturvermittlung
7. Neues Lernen, Selbstgesteuert, Autonom. München: Goethe-Institut, pp. 53–72.
Vieira, F. (1999) ‘Pedagogy for autonomy: Teacher development and pedagogical
experimentation – an in-service teacher training project’. In D. Crabbe and
S. Cotterall (eds) Learner Autonomy in Language Learning: Defining the Field and
Effecting Change. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, pp. 149–58.
Vieira, F. (2003) ‘Addressing constraints on autonomy in school contexts: Lessons from
working with teachers’. In D. Palfreyman and R.C. Smith (eds) Learner Autonomy
across Cultures: Language Education Perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan,
pp. 220–39.
Vieira, F. (2007) ‘Teacher development through inquiry: Getting started’. In A. Barfield
and S. Brown (eds) Reconstructing Autonomy in Language Education: Inquiry and
Innovation. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 15–29.
Vieira, F. (ed.) (2009) Struggling for Autonomy in Language Education: Reflecting, Acting,
and Being. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.
Vieira, F., Moreira, M.A., Barbosa, I. and Paiva, M. (eds) (2002) Pedagogy for Autonomy
and English Learning: Proceedings of the 1st Conference of the Working Group – Pedagogy
for Autonomy. Braga: University of Minho.
Vieira, F., Paiva, M., Marques, I. and Fernandes, I.S. (2008) ‘Teaching education
towards teacher and learner autonomy: What can be learnt from teacher develop-
ment practices?’ In T.E. Lamb and H. Reinders (eds) Learner and Teacher Autonomy:
Concepts, Realities and Responses. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 217–36.
Voller, P. (1997) ‘Does the teacher have a role in autonomous learning?’ In P. Benson
and P. Voller (eds) Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning. London:
Longman, pp. 98–113.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind in Society: the Development of Higher Psychological Processes.
Boston, MA: Harvard University Press.
Waite, S. (1994) ‘Low-resourced self-access with EAP in the developing world: The
great enabler?’, ELT Journal, 48 (3): 233–42.
Walker, E. (1997) Foreign language anxiety in Hong Kong secondary schools: Its rela-
tionship with the age-related factors, schools form and self-perception. PhD Thesis,
University of Hong Kong.
Wall, S. (2003) ‘Freedom as a political ideal’. In E.F. Paul, F.D. Miller and J. Paul (eds)
Autonomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 307–34.
Wallace, M.J. (1998) Action Research for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Wang, M.C. and Peverly, S.T. (1986) ‘The self-instructive process in classroom learn-
ing contexts’, Contemporary Educational Psychology, 11: 370–404.
Wang, Y. (2004) ‘Distance language learning: Interactivity and fourth-generation
internet-based videoconferencing’, CALICO Journal, 21 (2): 373–95.
Warschauer, M. and Healey, D. (1998) ‘Computers and language learning: An
overview’, Language Teaching, 31: 57–71.
276 TE AC HI NG AND RESEARC H I N G AUT O N O MY
Warschauer, M., Turbee, L. and Roberts, B. (1996) ‘Computer learning networks and
student empowerment’, System, 24 (1): 1–14.
Weaver, S.J. and Cohen, A.D. (1997) Strategies-based Instruction: A Teacher-training
Video. CARLA Working Paper Series 8. Minneapolis: Center for Advanced Research
on Language Acquisition.
Weil, S. (1952) The Need for Roots: Prelude to a Declaration of Duties Towards Mankind.
London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Weiner, B. (1984) ‘Principles for a theory of student motivation and their application
within an attributional framework’. In R. Ames and C. Ames (eds) Research on
Motivation in Education. Volume 1. Orlando: Academic Press, pp. 15–38.
Wenden, A. (1983) ‘Literature review: The process of intervention’, Language
Learning, 33: 103–21.
Wenden, A. (1986a) ‘Helping learners think about learning’, ELT Journal, 40 (1): 3–12.
Wenden, A. (1986b) ‘What do second language learners know about their second
language learning? A second look at retrospective learner accounts’, Applied
Linguistics, 7 (2): 186–201.
Wenden, A. (1987) ‘How to be a successful language learner: Insights and prescriptions
from L2 learners’. In A. Wenden and J. Rubin (eds) Learner Strategies in Language
Learning. London: Prentice Hall, pp. 103–14.
Wenden, A. (1991) Learner Strategies for Learner Autonomy. London: Prentice Hall
International.
Wenden, A. (1995) ‘Learner training in context: A knowledge-based approach’, System,
23 (2): 183–94.
Wenden, A. (1998) ‘Metacognitive knowledge and language learning’, Applied
Linguistics, 19 (4): 515–37.
Wenger, E. (1998) Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Identity. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
White, C. (1995) ‘Autonomy and strategy use in distance foreign language learning:
Research findings’, System, 23 (2): 207–22.
White, C. (2003) Language Learning in Distance Education. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Wickens, C.D. (2007) ‘Attention to the second language’, IRAL, 45 (3): 177–91.
Williams, M. and Burden, R. (1997) Psychology for Language Teachers. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Wiseman, A.W. and Baker, D.P. (2005) ‘The worldwide explosion of internationalized
education policy’. In D.P. Baker and A.W. Wiseman (eds) Global Trends in
Educational Policy. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 1–21.
Wright, T. (1987) Roles of Teachers and Learners. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wrigley, J. (1982) ‘The division between mental and manual labor: Artisan education
in science in nineteenth-century Britain’, The American Journal of Sociology, 88 (s):
S31–S51.
Wu, Z. (2004) ‘Being, understanding and naming: Teachers’ life and work in harmony’,
International Journal of Educational Research, 41 (4/5): 307–23.
Wu, Z. (2006) ‘Understanding practitioner research as a form of life: An Eastern inter-
pretation of Exploratory Practice’, Language Teaching Research, 10 (3): 331–50.
Ying, D. (2007) ‘Teacher educators’ collaborative inquiry in a context of educational
innovation in China: A case study of RICH as a learning community’. In
R E F E R E NC E S 277