LEC 3 - Measurement of Horizontal Distances

I S A B E L A S TAT E U N I V E R S I T Y
C ollege O f En gin eer in g

ABE 211 – SURVEYING
Measurement of
Horizontal Distances
RALPH HAJILE B. ESTRADA
CE, Instructor
FB : Hajile B ravo Estrada
Email: hajilelijah1 5 @gmail.com
Measurement of Horizontal Distances
Distance by Pacing
Distance by Taping
Distance by Tachymetry (Stadia Method, Subtense Bar
Method)
Distance by Graphical and Mathematical Methods
Distance by Mechanical Devices
Distance by Photogrammetry
Distance by Pacing
➢ A pace is defined as the length of a step in
walking.
➢ Pacing consists of counting the number of steps
or paces in a required distance.
➢ It may be measured from heel – heel or from toe
– toe.
➢ Pacing means moving with measured steps; and
if the steps are counted, distances can be
determined “if” the length of a step is known.
➢ Sometimes, strides (two paces or “double step”)
is preferred by surveyors instead of paces.
Distance by Pacing
➢ Pacing furnishes a rapid means of checking
measurements taken by other methods.
➢ Suitable in determining approximate distances in
situations where low precision of measurement is
sufficient.
➢ To pace a distance, it is necessary to first
determine the length of one’s pace (Pace Factor).
➢ Two methods to calibrate one’s pace:
a. Determine the average length of an
individual’s normal step.
b. Adjust one’s pace to some predetermined
length.
Distance by Pacing
➢ The length of one’s pace varies from person to person and
can be determined by walking along a line of known length
on level ground at a uniform gait, and counting the number of
paces it takes to negotiate the stretch. The last pace is
estimated to the nearest quarter pace.
➢ It is advisable to do this in five or more trials in order to
determine the average number of paces, the pace factor is
then determined by dividing the known distance by the
average number of paces required to traverse it.
➢ It is expressed in meters per pace
Distance by Pacing
➢ Any unknown distance may then be approximately calculated
by determining the number of paces (preferably average) one
takes to negotiate it and multiplying this by one’s pace factor.
Sample Problem 1 (Pacing)
A 45 m course, AB, on level ground was paced by a surveyor for the purpose of
determining his pace factor. The number of paces for each trial taken as shown in
the accompanying tabulation.
Distance by Pacing
Distance by Taping
Method)
Distance by Taping
➢ The use of a graduated tape is probably the most common method
of measuring or laying out horizontal distances.
➢ Taping consists of stretching a calibrated tape between two points
and reading the distance indicated on the tape.
➢ It is a form of a direct
measurement which is widely used
in the construction of buildings,
dams, bridges, canals and many
other engineering as well as non-
engineering activities.
➢ May vary from a RP of about
1:1000 to 1:25000 or better.
Distance by Pacing
Distance by Taping
Method)
STADIA METHOD – SUBTENSE BAR METHOD
Stadia Method
➢ (RP: 1/300 – 1/1000)
➢ Factors affecting the precision of the stadia
method: Refinement with which the instrument
was manufactured
✓ Skill of the observer
✓ Length of the measurement
✓ Effects of refraction and parallax
➢ The equipment used for stadia measurements
consists of a telescope with two horizontal
hairs called stadia hairs and a graduated rod
called a stadia rod. 𝐷 = 𝑘𝑆 + 𝐶
Stadia Method
➢ The spacing of the stadia hairs is so designed that at a distance of
100 meters, their intercept on a vertical rod will be about 1 meter. At
200 meters, then, the intercept should be about 2 meters, and so on.
➢ It is important that the line of sight is horizontal and it intersects the

rod at right angles.
Stadia Method
➢ The equation D = Ks + C is employed in computing the horizontal
distances from stadia intervals when sights are horizontal.
➢ The stadia constant, C, is the distance from the center of the
instrument to the principal focus. Its value is usually equal to zero for
internal focusing telescopes.
➢ K is the stadia interval factor of the instrument. Most instruments
are so designed that this value is made equal to 100.
➢ The stadia interval, s, is determined in the field by observing the
difference between the upper stadia hair reading and the lower
stadia hair reading.
Stadia Method
Sample Problem 2 (Stadia Method)
A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an instrument set up
at A. The upper and lower stadia hair readings were observed as 1.300
m and 0.900 m respectively. If the stadia interval factor (K) is 100, and
the instrument constant (C) is zero, determine the length of line AB.
Solution:
𝐷 = 𝐾𝑠 + 𝐶
𝐷 = 100 1.300 − 0.900 + 0.0
𝐷 = 40 𝑚
Subtense Bar Method
➢ The procedure for determining the distance
between two points consists of setting up
the subtense bar at the distant station, and
measuring the horizontal angle subtended
by the distance between the two targets. A
theodolite, set up at the other end of the
line to be measured, is used in measuring
the subtending angle.
➢ Advantage: The horizontal distance is directly obtained T.F. no slope
correction is required.
➢ The SBM is often used in obtaining distances over very rough or
inaccessible terrain such as across canyons, wide rivers, ravines, and
across busy city streets.
Subtense Bar Method
𝑆ൗ
tan 𝜃ൗ2 = 2
𝐷
𝑆ൗ
𝐷= 2
tan 𝜃ൗ2
𝟏
𝑫=
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽ൗ𝟐
𝑫 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽ൗ𝟐
𝐷 = 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑡𝑠
Sample Problem 3 (Subtense Bar Method)
The following subtended angles were read on a 2 – m long subtense bar using a
theodolite: 0°54’13’’, 0°22’20’’, 0°32’06’’, 0°19’46’’. Compute the horizontal
distance from the theodolite to each position of the bar.
Solution:
1 1
D1 = = = 126.81 m
tan θ 0°54’13’’
tan ( )
2
1 1
D2 = = = 307.86 m
tan θ 0°22’20’’
tan ( )
2
1 1
D3 = = = 214.19 m
tan θ 0°32’06’’
tan ( )
2
1 1
D4 = = = 347.83 m
tan θ 0°19’46’’
tan ( )
2
Distance by Pacing
Distance by Taping
Method)
Graphical/ Mathematical Methods
➢ By graphical or mathematical methods, unknown distances may be
determined through their relationship with known distances
geometrically.
➢ Are widely employed in plane table surveys, and in triangulation
work.
➢ Determining distances by scaling from maps or aerial photographs
could also provide sufficiently accurate results. However, before any
distances are determined, the scale must first be established.
➢ Since long distances are involved and most are over inaccessible
terrain, this method becomes quite practical to employ.
Distance by Pacing
Distance by Taping
Method)
ODOMETER, MEASURING WHEEL, OPTICAL RANGEFINDER
Distance by Pacing
Distance by Taping
Method)
RP:
1/3000 – 1/5000
Distomat
Total Station Geodimeter

EDM Instruments
➢ The basic principle of EDM instruments was that the
time required for a light to travel from one end of a
line to the other is a function of the length measured.
➢ Classified into two main categories: Electro-Optical
Instruments and Microwave Instruments.
Advantages of EDM includes
✓ Speed and Accuracy
✓ Lightweight and Portable
✓ Easy to Operate
✓ Ease of measurement over inaccessible terrain
✓ Applicable for short and long measurements
✓ Automatic measurement reading
✓ Applicable in uneven terrain
✓ Automatically accumulates and averages readings
Classification of EDM
(Operating Ranges)
Short Range Medium Range Long Range
EDM EDM EDM
< 25 km 25 – 75 km > 75 km
Electro-Optical Types Electro-Optical or Radio Waves or
or Infrared Microwave Type Microwave Type
Installed on Establishment of Hydrographic Survey,
Theodolites Control Networks, Oceanographic Work,
Conventional Land Surveys, Navigation
Surveying Meas. Construction Surveys
Geodimeter
➢ Geodimeter or geodetic distance meter is
an electro-optical device which was
developed in 1948 by Erik Bergstrand, a
Swedish physicist.
➢ This device is set up at one station, projects
a pulsating visible light beam to a reflector (at
another station) which returns the light to the
instrument.
➢ Its precision is about 1/200000 of the
distance measured.
Tellurometer
➢ Tellurometer was the world’s second EDM
invented by Dr. T.L. Wadley of South Africa in
1957.
➢ This device utilizes high frequency
microwave transmission and was capable of
measuring distances up to 80 km day or
night.
Measuring Tapes
CE, Instructor
Measuring Tapes
➢ Measuring Tapes are made in a variety of lengths, materials and
weight. They are also graduated in several ways. The following are
some of the most commonly used types:
Steel tape Fiberglass Tape
Metallic Tape Wires
Non-Metallic Tape Builder’s Tape
Invar Tape Phospor-Bronze Tape
Lovar Tape Nylon-coated Tape
Taping Accessories
Range pole Wooden stake or hub
Tape clamping handles Leather thongs
Chaining pins Hand level and clinometer
Tension Handle Tape repair kit
Tape thermometer Crayons
Plumb bob
Taping Party
Head Tapeman – the person responsible for the accuracy and speed of all
linear measurements. He determines and directs the marking of points or
stations, orders the clearing out of obstructions along lines to be measured,
and is the person who carries the zero end of the tape ahead.
Recorder – Keeps a record of all measurements, sketches and observations
taken during the process of measurement. Checks by pacing all
measurements made by the tapemen for possible errors, mistakes and
blunders
Flagman – person whose duty is to hold the range pole (or flagpole) at
selected points. He also helps the tapemen in making measurements and
assists in clearing out obstruction along the line to be measured.
Rear Tapeman – Assists the head tapeman during a taping operation. He is
the one who holds the 30 – m end or any intermediate meter mark of the tape.
Breaking Tape
It is standard practice to hold the tape horizontally above ground and to
plumb at one end or both ends when taping on sloping or uneven terrain
surfaces. This requires the measurement of shorter distances which are
accumulated to total a full tape length.
Slope Taping
Taped measurements may be made directly along the slopes when the
ground is of uniform inclination and fairly smooth, rather than break tape
every few meters.
When angle of inclination is known, distance is
computed as
𝒅 = 𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶
When difference in elevation is known,
distance is computed as
𝒅 = 𝒔𝟐 − 𝒉𝟐
Sample Problem 4 (Slope Taping)
A horizontal distance of 325.75 m Solution:
is to be established along a line d = s cosα
that slopes at a vertical angle of
13° 06‘. What slope distance d 325.75
s= =
should be laid out? cos α cos 13°06 ‘
s = 334.45m
Sample Problem 5 (Slope Taping)
A line XYZ is measured on the slope in Solution:
two segments. The first segment XY Distance 1:
measures 824.45 m and the second
segment YZ measures 1244.38 m. If the d1 = (s1 ) 2 − (h1 ) 2 = (824.45) 2 −(4.25)2
difference in elevation between points d1 = 824.44 m
X and Y is 4.25 m and that between Y
and Z is 6.47 m, determine the d1 = (s2 ) 2 − (h2 ) 2
horizontal length of the measured line.
Distance 2:
Z
d2 = (1244.38) 2 −(6.47) 2
h2 = 6.47 m d2 = 1244.36 m
Y
Total Distance:
X h1 = 4.25 m
D = d1 + d2 = 824.44 m + 1244.36 m
d1 d2
D = 2068.80 m
Corrections in Taping
CE, Instructor
Corrections in Taping
Taping operations could either be measuring or lay outing. Regardless
of which is involved, there are some corrections to be made to
determine the correct and more accurate length.
✓ 1st Rule. In measuring, when tape is “too long” corrections are
added.
✓ 2nd Rule. In lay outing, when tape is “too long” corrections are
subtracted.
✓ 3rd Rule. In either measuring or lay outing using tape that is “too
short”, apply opposite of the first two rules.
“When measuring with tape too long, add; tape too short, subtract.
Do the reverse when laying out.”
1. Correction due to Incorrect Tape length
Manufacturers of measuring tapes do no usually guarantee their
products to be exactly their correct length. The result is that tapes
may vary by a few mm or cm from their correct lengths.
The absolute value for the correction per tape length (Corr) is
determined from the difference between he true or actual length of
tape (TL) and the nominal length of the tape (NL) or:
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓 = 𝑻𝑳 − 𝑵𝑳
When the resulting difference is a positive value, the tape is too

long; and too short if negative.
1. Correction due to Incorrect Tape length
Correspondingly, corrected distances which are measured or laid out
with a tape that is too long or too short can be determined from the
following equations.
𝑴𝑳
𝑪𝟏 = 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓
𝑵𝑳
𝑪𝑳 = 𝑴𝑳 ± 𝑪𝟏
Where: C1 = total correction to be applied
CL = Corrected Length
ML = measured length or length to be laid out
NL = Nominal Length of tape
Sample Problem 6 (Absolute Length)
The length of a line AB measured with Solution:
50m tape is 465.285 m. When the tape is Correction to be applied
compared to a standardized invar tape it
is found to be 0.016 m too long in almost ML
C1 = Corr.
the same condition of support, tension NL
and temperature that existed during 465.285 m
measurement of the line. Determine the C1 = (0.016 m)
50 m
correct length of AB.
C1 = 0.149 m
Given: NL = 50 m Corrected Length:
ML = 465.285 CL = ML ±C1 = 465.285 m + 0.149 m
Corr. = 0.016 m CL = 465.434 m
A building 38 m x 45 m is to be laid out Solution, Part a:
with a 50 m long metallic tape. If during Correction to be applied
standardization, the tape is found to be
only 49.950 m. Determine the Corr. = 49.950 − 50 = − 0.05 m
following: (Correction per tape length)
a. Dimensions to be laid out, using this Correction to be applied to the width:
tape, in order that the building shall ML
have the desired dimensions. C1 = Corr.
NL
b. Using the same tape, what should the W
diagonals read? CW = Corr.
NL
Given: 38 m
CW = (0.05 m)
W = 38 m; L = 45 m 50 m
NL = 50 m (Nominal Length of Tape) CW = 0.038 m
Solution, Part a: Correct Length and Width:
Given: W′ = W ± CW = 38 + 0.038 m
W = 38 m; L = 45 m
NL = 50 m (Nominal Length of Tape) W′ = 38.038 m
Corr. = 0.05 m L′ = L ± CL = 45 + 0.045 m
CW = 0.038 m
Correction to be applied to the length: L′ = 45.045 m
ML Solution, Part b: Using the same tape,
C1 = Corr.
NL what should the diagonals read?
L
CL = Corr.
NL D = (W′) 2 +(L′) 2
45 m
CL = (0.05 m)
50 m D = (38.038) 2 + (45.045) 2
CL = 0.045 m D = 58.957 m
2. Correction due to Slope
When distances are measured along the slope, the equivalent
horizontal distance may correspondingly be determined by applying
an approximate slope correction.
By Pythagorean Theorem:
𝑠 2 = 𝑑 2 + ℎ2
ℎ2 = 𝑠 2 − 𝑑 2 = 𝑠 − 𝑑 𝑠 + 𝑑
Since 𝑪𝒉 = 𝒔 − 𝒅,
𝒉𝟐
𝑪𝒉 =
(𝒔 + 𝒅)
2. Correction due to Slope
For Gentle Slopes: (less than 20%)
ℎ2
𝐶ℎ =
2𝑠
For Steep Slopes: (Between 20% - 30%)
ℎ2 ℎ4
𝐶ℎ = + 3
2𝑠 8𝑠
Very Steep Slopes: (Greater than 30%)
𝐶ℎ = 𝑠(1 − cos 𝜃)
Equivalent Horizontal Distance:
𝑑 = 𝑠 − 𝐶ℎ
Sample Problem 8 (Correction due to Slope)
Slope Distances AB and BC measures Solution: S1 = 330.49 m
330.49 m and 660.97 m, respectively. h1 2 h1 = 12.22 m
The differences in elevation are 12.22 d1 = S1 − Ch = S1 − S2 = 660.97 m
2S1 h2 = 10.85 m
m for points A and B, and 10.85 m for
points B and C. Using the approximate (12.22) 2
d1 = 330.49 − = 330.26 m
slope correction formula for gentle 2(330.49)
slopes, determine the horizontal length h2 2
of line ABC. Assume that line AB has a d2 = S2 − Ch = S2 −
2S2
rising slope and BC, a falling slope.
(10.85) 2
B d2
d2 =660.97− = 660.88 m
2(660.97)
h2 Horizontal Length ABC:
h1
d = d1 + d2 = 330.264 m + 660.881 m
A d1 C
d = 991.14 m
d = d1 + d2
3. Correction due to Alignment
Error due to alignment is generally the least important among the
different errors encountered in taping.
For high precision measurements, tapemen are kept accurately on
line with the help of a transit or theodolite
4. Correction due to Temperature
It is necessary to apply this correction, since the length of a tape is
increased as its temperature is raised, and consequently, the
measured distance is too small. It is given by the formula:
𝑪𝒕 = 𝑪 𝑳 (𝑻 − 𝑻𝑺 )
in which
C = Coefficient of Linear Expansion
Steel: 0.0000116 (1.16 x 10-5)
L = the length of tape/ line measured
T = observed temperature
TS = the temperature at which the tape is standardized
Usually 20°C
4. Correction due to Temperature
The resulting sign of Ct will either be positive or negative and is
added algebraically to the length measured to obtain the correct
length.
A positive value means an increase in length meaning that the
length has lengthened and thus, described as too long.
Correspondingly, a negative sign gives us the opposite conclusions.
Sample Problem 9 (Correction due to Temperature)
A line was measured with a steel tape Correction on Tape due to temperature:
which was exactly 30 m long at 18°C Ct = C L T−TS
and found to be 452.343 m. The
C = (1.17 x 10 −5 )(30 m)(32°C−18 °C)
temperature during measurement was t
32°C. Find the true length of the line. Ct = 4.914 × 10 −3 m
Take coefficient of expansion of the
tape per °C = 0.0000117. Correction on Measured Length:
Ct′ = C L T−TS
Given: C = (1.17 x 10−5) (452.343 m) (32°C−18 °C)
C = 1.17 x 10-5 t′
Ct ′ = 0.0741 m
L = 30 m
T = 32°C Checks:
TS = 18 °C Ct Ct′
=
30 m 452.343 m
Ct′ = 0.0741 m −−−>OK!
Sample Problem 9 (Correction due to Temperature)
A line was measured with a steel tape Corrected Length
which was exactly 30 m long at 18°C L′ = L + Ct′
and found to be 452.343 m. The
temperature during measurement was L′ = 452.343 m + 0.0741 m
32°C. Find the true length of the line. L′ = 452. 417 m
Take coefficient of expansion of the
tape per °C = 0.0000117.
Given:
C = 1.17 x 10-5
L = 30 m
T = 32°C
TS = 18 °C
5. Correction due to Tension
During calibration (or standardization) a tape is subjected to a certain amount of
standard pull or tension on its ends. When used in the field, it is elongated or
shortened accordingly, depending on the amount of pull applied on it.
𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑠 𝐿
𝐶𝑃 =
𝐴𝐸
𝐿′ = 𝐿 ± 𝐶𝑃
Where:
Cp=Total elongation in length due to pull/ incorrect pull on tape (m)
Pm=Pull applied on Tape during measurement (kg)
Ps=Standard pull for the tape (kg)
L = Measured Length of line (m)
A = cross sectional area of the tape (sq. cm.)
E = Modulus of Elasticity of the tape material (kg/cm2)
L’ = Corrected Length of the measured line (m)
Sample Problem 10 (Correction due to Tension)
A 30 – m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is Given: ML=938.55 m
of standard length under a pull of 5 kg, NL = 30 m Pm = 10 kg
supported for full length. The tape was W = 1.45 kg E = 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2
used in measuring a line 938.55 m long Ps = 5 kg ɣ = 7.9 x 10-3 kg/cm3
on smooth level ground under a steady
pill of 10 kg. Assuming E = 2.0 x 106 Solution Part A:
kg/cm2 and the unit weight of steel to W 1.45 kg
A= =
L(ɣ) 100 cm
be 7.9 x 10-3 kg/cm3, determine the 30 m ( ) (7.9 x 10 − 3 kg/cm3)
following: 1m
A = 0.06 cm2
a. Cross-Sectional Area of the tape.
b. Correction for increase in tension
c. Correct length of the line measured
A 30 – m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of Solution Part B:
standard length under a pull of 5 kg, Correction per tape length:
supported for full length. The tape was Pm−Ps L 10 kg − 5 kg (30 m)
used in measuring a line 938.55 m long on CP = =
smooth level ground under a steady pill of AE (0.06 cm2) (2.0 x 106 kg/cm2)
10 kg. Assuming E = 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2 and CP = 1.25x10−3 = 0.00125 m
the unit weight of steel to be 7.9 x 10-3
kg/cm3, determine the following:
Total Correction for Measured Length:
a. Cross-Sectional Area of the tape.
CP CP′
b. Correction for increase in tension =
c. Correct length of the line measured NL ML
ML 938.55 m
Given: ML=938.55 m CP′ = Ct = (0.00125 m)
NL 30 m
NL = 30 m Pm = 10 kg CP′ = 0.04 m
W = 1.45 kg E = 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2
Ps = 5 kg ɣ = 7.9 x 10-3 kg/cm3 → Tape Too Long
A 30 – m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg is of Solution Part C:
standard length under a pull of 5 kg, Total Correction for Measured Length:
supported for full length. The tape was CP′ = 0.04 m
used in measuring a line 938.55 m long on
smooth level ground under a steady pill of → Tape Too Long
10 kg. Assuming E = 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2 and Correct Length of Line:
the unit weight of steel to be 7.9 x 10-3
kg/cm3, determine the following: L′ = L ± CP′
a. Cross-Sectional Area of the tape. L′ = 938.55 m ± 0.04 m
b. Correction for increase in tension
c. Correct length of the line measured L′ = 938.59 m
Given: ML=938.55 m
NL = 30 m Pm = 10 kg
W = 1.45 kg E = 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2
Ps = 5 kg ɣ = 7.9 x 10-3 kg/cm3
6. Correction due to Sag
A tape attains its correct length when it is fully supported and
subjected to the pull for which it was standardized. If the support is
only at its ends or at the two points measured, it will sag even if the
standard pull is maintained because of its own weight.
Sag shortens the horizontal distance when end graduations since the
tape length remains the same. Thus, when a stretched tape sags, the
actual distance between points is something less than the reading of
the tape.
The magnitude of the error due to sag depends on the weight of the
tape, the unsupported length, and the tension applied.
𝝎𝟐 𝑳 𝟑
𝑪𝑺 =
𝟐𝟒 𝑷𝟐
6. Correction due to Sag
Formula in terms of weight of tape per unit length:
𝝎𝟐 𝑳𝟑
𝑪𝑺 =
𝟐𝟒 𝑷𝟐
Formula in terms of weight of tape:
𝑾𝟐 𝑳
𝑪𝑺 =
𝟐𝟒 𝑷𝟐
Where:
Cs = Correction due to sag (m)
ω = weight of tape per unit length (kg/m)
W = Total weight of the tape between the supports (kg)
L = Interval between supports/ unsupported length of tape (m)
P = Tension or pull applied on the tape (kg)
Sample Problem 11 (Correction due to Sag)
A 50 – m steel tape weighs 0.04 kg/m and is supported at its end points
and at the 8 m and 25 m marks. If a pull of 6 kg is applied, determine the
following:
a. Correction due to sag between the 0-m & 8-m marks, 8-m & 25-m
marks, and 25-m & 50-m marks.
b. Correction due to sag for one tape length.
c. Correct distance between the ends of the tape.
7. Correction due to Wind
A strong wind blowing perpendicular to the direction of taping will
move the middle and unsupported portion of the tape to one side of
the line measured. This introduces an error to the measurement
which is similar to the effect of sag but is usually much less.
To avoid this type of error, it is preferable not to undertake any taping
work during windy days. If it cannot be avoided and the
measurement has to be done on windy days, efforts should be taken
to support the tape from being affected by the blowing wind.
Normal Tension
The normal tension is a tension at which the effects of pull and sag are
neutralized, i.e. the elongation due to increase in tension is balanced by the
shortening due to sag. It may be obtained by equating the corrections for pull
and sag. Thus, we have
𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟒 𝑾 𝑨𝑬
𝑷𝑵 =
𝑷𝑵 − 𝑷𝑺
Where:
PN = Normal Tension or the pull which will eliminate the effect of sag (kg)
W = Total weight of tape between supports (kg)
A = Cross sectional Area of tape (cm2)
E = Modulus of elasticity of Tape Material (kg/cm2)
PS = Standard pull for the tape (kg)
Sample Problem 12 (Normal Tension)
A steel tape weighing 0.85 kg has a cross-sectional area of 0.05 cm2. The
tape measures exactly 30.00 m when supported throughout its length
under a standard pull of 5.5 kg. if the modulus of elasticity is 2.0 x 106
kg/cm2, determine the tension required to make the tape equal to its
nominal length when supported only at the end points.
Given:
L = 30.00 m Ps = 5.5 kg
W = 0.85 kg E = 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2
A = 0.05 cm2
Sample Problem 12 (Normal Tension)
A steel tape having a cross-sectional area of 0.06 cm2 and a modulus of
elasticity of 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2, weighs 0.03 kg/m. Its length is 30.00 m
when standardized at a pull of 5 kg and supported throughout its length.
Determine the tension at which the effect of sag will be eliminated by the
elongation of the tape due to increased tension.
Given:
A = 0.06 cm2 L = 30.00 m

E = 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2 Ps = 5 kg
ω = 0.03 kg/m
Surveys with Tape

CE, Instructor
Surveys with Tape
The tape is not necessarily limited only to the measurement of
distances. There are various problems arising in surveying fieldwork
which can be solved just by the use of a tape.
1. Erecting Perpendicular to a Line
a. Chord Bisection Method
b. 3:4:5 Method
2. Measuring Angles with Tape
3. Laying off angles with tape
4. Determining Obstructed Distances
Chord Bisection Method
d
r r
A B
b L m L c
3:4:5 Method
5 – m Mark 1–m Loop
B
6 – m Mark
4.0 m
0–m 10 – m Mark
Mark
3.0 m
M N
B A
Laying-Off Angles with Tape
By Trigonometry:
h P’
tan θ =
L
h = L tan θ
θ
B
A L P
Laying-Off Angles with Tape
Determination of a chord length: m A
d = 2L sin (θ/2)
L
P θ/2 d
θ
n B
Combined Corrections
CE, Instructor
Sample Problem 13 (Combined Corrections)
A line was determined to be 2395.25 m when measured with a 30 –m steel tape
supported throughout its length under a pull of 4 kg and at a mean temperature
of 35°C. Determine the correct length of the line if the tape used is of standard
length at 20°C under a pull of 5 kg. The cross sectional area of the tape is 0.03 sq
cm, its coefficient of linear expansion is 0.0000116 / °C, and the modulus of
elasticity of steel is 2.0 x 106 kg/cm2.
Given:
L = 2395.25 m T = 35 °C A = 0.03 cm2
NL = 30 m Ts = 20 °C C = 1.16 x 10 -5 / °C
Pm = 4 kg Ps = 5 kg E = 2.0 x 10 6kg/cm2
Solution:
First we should determine corrections to be applied. This is done by an evaluation of
the given. Ex. A given measuring/ standardization pull suggests a correction due to
tension. In the same manner, a given temperature suggests a correction due to
thermal expansion; a given weight, correction due to sag.
Given
Solution: L = 2395.25 m
Correction due to Temperature: NL = 30 m
Ct = C L T−TS Pm = 4 kg
T = 35 °C
Ct = (1.16 x 10 −5 / °C) (2395.25 m) (32 °C − 20 °C) Ts = 20 °C
Ct = + 0.42 m >>Tape too long so we will add. Ps = 5 kg
A = 0.03 cm2
Correction due to Pull: C = 1.16 x 10-5 / °C
Pm − Ps L 4 kg − 5 kg (2395.25 m) E = 2.0 x 106kg/cm2
CP = =
AE (0.03 cm2) (2.0 x 106kg/cm2)
CP = − 0.04 m >>Tape too short so we will subtract.
Correct length for effects of Temperature and Pull:
L′ = L ± CP ± Ct = 2395.25 m − 0.04 m + 0.42 m
L′ = 2395.63 m
A 50-m steel tape is of standard length under a pull of 5.5 kg when supported
throughout its entire length. The tape weighs 0.05 kg/m, has a cross-sectional
area of 0.04 sq. cm, and being made of steel, its modulus of elasticity is 2.10 x
106 kg/cm2. This tape was used in the field to measure a distance that was
determined 458.650 m. At the time, the measurement was made, the constant
pull was 8 kg with the tape supported only at its end points. Determine the
correct length of the tape.
Given:
NL = 50 m Pm = 8 kg L = 458.650 m
Ps = 5.5 kg A = 0.04 cm2
ω = 0.05 kg/m E = 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2
Commentary:
Based on the given variables, corrections that need to be considered are sag
(weight per tape length) and pull (measuring pull/ standardization pull).
Solution: Given:
NL = 50 m
• Correction due to sag: Ps = 5.5 kg
ω = 0.05 kg/m
Pm = 8 kg
A = 0.04 cm2
E = 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2
L = 458.650 m
For the correction due to sag, the total correction to be applied will
be the accumulated corrections per use of tape.
E.g. for the line measured, we will use a full tape length 9 times. And
another measurement for the remaining 8.65 m.
ML 458.650 m
n= = = 9.173 ≈ 9 times
NL 50 m
Solution: Given:
NL = 50 m
ω = 0.05 kg/m
Pm = 8 kg
A = 0.04 cm2
E = 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2
L = 458.650 m
n=9
For the correction due to sag, the total correction to be applied will
be the accumulated corrections per use of tape.
E.g. for the line measured, we will use a full tape length 9 times. And
another measurement for the remaining 8.65 m.
remaining length = ML − n NL = 458.650 m − 9 (50 m)
remaining length = 8.65 m
Solution: Given:
NL = 50 m
ω = 0.05 kg/m
Pm = 8 kg
A = 0.04 cm2
E = 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2
Correction due to sag for 1 tape length: L = 458.650 m
n=9
ω 2 L3 (0.05 kg/m ) 2 (50 m) 3
CS1 = =
24 P 2 24 (8 kg) 2
CS1 = 0.203 m
Correction due to sag for the 8.65 m segment:
ω 2 L3 (0.05 kg/m ) 2 (8.65 m) 3
CS2 = = = 0.001 m
24 P 2 24 (8 kg) 2
Solution: Given:
NL = 50 m
• Total Correction due to sag:
Ps = 5.5 kg
CS = n CS1 + CS2 = 9(0.203 m) + 0.001 m ω = 0.05 kg/m
Pm = 8 kg
CS = 1.828 m >> Corrections due to sag are usually A = 0.04 cm2
taken as tape too short during E = 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2
measurements, T.F., we subtract L = 458.650 m
• Correction due to tension/pull: n=9
CS1 = 0.203 m
Pm − Ps L 8 kg − 5.5 kg (458.650 m)
CP = = CS2 = 0.001 m
AE (0.04 cm2) (2.0 x 106 kg/cm2)
CP = + 0.014 m >>Tape too long T.F. we will add.
• Corrected length for effects of tension and sag:
L′ = L − Cs ± CP = 458.650 m − 1.828 m + 0.014 m
L′ = 456.836 m
Weighted
Observations
CE, Instructor
Weighted Observations
Adjustments of Weighted Observations
1. The weights are inversely proportional to the square of the corresponding
probable errors.
𝑲 𝑲 𝑲
𝑾𝟏 = 𝟐 𝑾𝟐 = 𝟐 𝑾𝟑 = 𝟐
𝑬𝟏 𝑬𝟐 𝑬𝟑
𝑾𝟏 𝑬𝟏 𝟐 = 𝑾𝟐 𝑬𝟐 𝟐 = 𝑾𝟑 𝑬𝟑 𝟐
𝑾𝟏 𝑬 𝟐 𝟐 𝑾𝟐 𝑬𝟑 𝟐
= 𝟐 = 𝟐
𝑾𝟐 𝑬𝟏 𝑾𝟑 𝑬𝟐
2. The weights are also proportional to the number of observations.
3. Errors are directly proportional to the square roots of the distances.
Sample Problem 15 (Weighted Observations)
Determine the Probable Value of the measurements having different values
based on the number of measurements as tabulated in the table shown below.
No. of Distance Weight Weighted Values

Distance
Measurements 520.14 1 520.14 (1) = 520.14
520.14 1 520.20 3 520.20 (3) = 1560.60
520.20 3 520.18 6 520.18 (6) = 3121.08
520.18 6 520.24 8 520.24 (8) = 4161.92
520.24 8 Sum = 18 Sum = 9363.74
9363.74
Probable Value = = 520.208
18
The following data are the observed elevation of a point by running a line of
levels over four different routes. It is required to determine the most probable
value of the elevation.
Route Elevations Probable Error
1 340.22 ± 02
2 340. 30 ± 04
3 340. 26 ± 06
4 340.43 ± 08
Relationships of Weights and errors:

W1 E1 2 = W2 E2 2 = W3 E3 2 = W4 E4 2
W E 2=W E 2 W E 2=W E 2
Probable 1 1 2 2 1 1 4 4
Route Elevations
Error W1 (2) 2 = W2 (4) 2 W1 (2) 2 = W4 (8) 2
1 340.22 ± 02 4 W1 = 16 W2 4 W1 = 64 W4
2 340. 30 ± 04 W2 = 0.25 W1 W4 = 0.0625 W1
3 340. 26 ± 06
4 340.43 ± 08
W1 E1 2 = W3 E3 2
W2 = 0.25 W1
W1 (2) 2 = W3 (6) 2
W3 = 0.1111 W1
4 W1 = 36 W3
W4 = 0.0625 W1
W3 = 0.1111 W1
Probable Weighted
Route Elevations Weight
Error Observation
1 340.22 ± 02 1 340.22
2 340. 30 ± 04 0.25 85.075
3 340. 26 ± 06 0.1111 37.803
4 340.43 ± 08 0.0625 21.270
W2 = 0.25 W1 Sum = 1.4236 Sum = 484.368
W3 = 0.1111 W1 9363.74
Most Probable Value = = 520.208
W4 = 0.0625 W1 18

LEC 3 - Measurement of Horizontal Distances

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I S A B E L A S TAT E U N I V E R S I T Y

C ollege O f En gin eer in g

➢ It is important that the line of sight is horizontal and it intersects the

Total Station Geodimeter

When the resulting difference is a positive value, the tape is too

A = 0.06 cm2 L = 30.00 m

Surveys with Tape

No. of Distance Weight Weighted Values

Relationships of Weights and errors:

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