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Research Methodologies
for Journalism
UC3M
2021/2022
By Elena Valverde
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Q.1: Why do we need social research methods in journalism?

Thanks to social research methods in journalism, we can create our own data in order to not
operate like an external source with an interest other than making journalism. Its relevant
trying to create your own data by your own means:

1. TO CONNECT WITH THE AUDIENCE AND SELL AND ADVERTISE OUR PRODUCTS

While doing research, the audience is a really interesting an important part, as we need
to reconnect with reality, numbers, data, etc., to improve our stories and our job.

One of the main reasons why we need social research methods is to connect with the
audience. That way, it will be easier to sell and advertise our products. Thanks to market
research it is easier to connect with more people thanks to the way we reconnect with
reality, numbers and data.

2. TO EXPLAIN AND DEVELOP NEW STORIES, NEWS AND VIEWS OF REALITY

Moreover, numbers —that is to say, the findings made thanks to social research— helps
us to tell a new story and create a whole different meaning. They help us on the
development of new stories, news and different views of reality.

Q.2: How many types of social research methods are there?

The traditional methods are qualitative and quantitative.

1. QUANTITATIVE: pay attention to numbers, percentages points, proportion, units, etc.

They provide us numbers that are reduced to an explanation.

E.g. Barcelona against Atlético de Madrid.

Types:

o SURVEY

o CONTENT ANALYSIS

These methods give accuracy and veracity to the eyes of the public.

2. QUALITATIVE: pay attention to the characteristics, attitudes, beliefs, people’s

thoughts, etc. Qualitative methods pay attention to specific characteristics of people.
Some researchers use these specific frequencies.

Helps us to connect with a story and with people.

E.g., How can you connect with people? How can you formulate a story that
connects so good with people? Sometimes you need a story
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Shonda Rhimes in an example of qualitative method because this method does

not pay attention to the number of successes a person has, but the connection
the person has with people. Therefore, Shoda Rhimes is one of the most
influential women in the world.

Human beings create and adjudicate meanings to people, things, animals, etc.
Qualitative methods allow us to explain this kind of associations. The help us find the
human part of the story.

Types:

o FIELD OBSERVATION

o FOCUS GROUP

However, of course, today we can mix both: qualitative and quantitative methods.
Nevertheless, numbers do not tell us anything or connect with people (quantitative methods).

Q.3: Definition of scientific research

Definition: “systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena”

WHAT IS RESEARCH?
It’s an attempt to discover something that anyone tries to hide. Journalists need to interpret
things.

Any attempt needs motivation, and, in this case, the motivation is simple:

 CURIOSITY

The disposition to learn more about something.

From this point of view, journalists and scientists have really close aims.

While doing research, the audience is a really interesting an important part, as we need to
reconnect with reality, numbers, data, etc., to improve our stories and our job.

 Its relevant trying to create your own data by your own means

Q.4: What does it mean for scientific research to be systematic?

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH DEFINITION: “systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation
of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena”

1. Scientific methods are like chains

Works like a chain, when somebody takes knowledge known by others and what is
discovered is let for other people to know.
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In journalism, it’s related to crowdsourcing work or contribution. Specifically, when we

speak about data journalism.

2. Logical order:
You need to follow specific steps to achieve a goal. It is necessary to respect an order.

Relationship between “systematic” and “background” research

Background is the equivalent name to systematic in scientific research, the equivalent of chain
knowledge.

Those ideas have connection in a journalistic world because usually journalists tend to connect
the past with the present and the future.

 E.g.: during a fly accident we review the past of the pilot and the mechanic situation of
the airplane and so many things. In this case we review the past to explain the present
and how we connect it with the future (people start to prefer traveling with high-speed
trains instead of airplanes).

When you work in journalism every time you need to look for the background of everything.

Q.5: What does it mean for scientific research to be empirical?

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH DEFINITION: “systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation
of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena”

Means that we need physical proof about something. We look for evidence.

 We need to transform reality into explicit data to prove something. We need to

transform our ideas and beliefs in specific data.

E.g. The Panama papers worked with a lot of data to speak about something. You transform the
information into specific factors of reality. We need to transform all the reality into specific and
physical data.

Q.6: What does it mean for scientific research to be controlled?

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH DEFINITION: “systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation
of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena”

You need to monitor and control the reality.

 See the performance in a specific period of time. It is not valid to just use 1 impression
about something, we need to view every performance in a specific period of time to
express and asses the performance.
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 That means in short words, control. You need time of experience in the field of study
creating units of measurement.
o E.g.: RATING used to be the most important one during a not long time ago.
Nowadays, social media has created a new reality, thus, ratings aren’t what
they use to be driving us to the necessity of creating new measurements.

Q.7: What does it mean for scientific research to be critical?

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH DEFINITION: “systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation
of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena”

Scientific research does not take anything for granted.

The enemy is the tradition.

 HYPOTHETICAL:
You have a prejudice, a suspicion, an idea about a topic.

Hypothetical proposition usually is formulated when we know about something. You

have knowledge in that field.

 PRESUMED RELATIONS:

We need to connect the dots, connect the points. Connect the variables in some way.

The relationships are the core of scientific research, as we need to connect the points
with the phenomena.

Q.8: Relate these two concepts: “systematic” and “background research”

Def. Background Research: is the research that you do before you start writing your paper or
working on your project. Sometimes background research happens before you’ve even chosen
a topic.

Def. Systematic:

1. Scientific methods are like chains

Works like a chain, when somebody takes knowledge known by others and what is
discovered is let for other people to know.

In journalism, it’s related to crowdsourcing work or contribution. Specifically, when we

speak about data journalism.
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2. Logical order:
You need to follow specific steps to achieve a goal. It is necessary to respect an order.

Relationship between “systematic” and “background” research

Background is the equivalent name to systematic in scientific research, the equivalent of chain
knowledge.

Those ideas have connection in a journalistic world because usually journalists tend to connect
the past with the present and the future.

 E.g.: during a fly accident we review the past of the pilot and the mechanic situation of
the airplane and so many things. In this case we review the past to explain the present
and how we connect it with the future (people start to prefer traveling with high-speed
trains instead of airplanes).

When you work in journalism every time you need to look for the background of everything.

Q.9: Glossary: Define Media Mogul

Person who created, designed a new media, new ways of connection between the public, the
government, society, the public sphere, etc.

 They get an idea, and they design a new media like CNN, Facebook, Twitter or
Instagram.

They have a strong political influence in the public sphere (commercial influence, political
influence, etc.).
 Especially if we talk about the level of technology (4G/5G, etc.). They spread their
influence in this sense. That’s why Jeff Bezos bought the Washington Post.

Normally, the name of C.E.O is another name, but CEO is applied to all industries, and media
mogul works only for media.

EXAMPLE: Bob Iger

He was the C.E.O of Disney Industry. He planned the Disney transformation.

 Decided to buy the Marvel Universe. For most people working in Disney, Marvel had a
different soul. Because of that, Bob Iger had to convince them and make it work.

Disney + is another product. He decided that it’s important to fight against Netflix.

In this sense, he is really interesting, because companies like Disney and Marvel existed before
him, but nobody made the decision to join them. He gave the Disney corporation a future.
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Media Mogul is not only those who have influence but the one who gets the idea and develops
what to do with media.

 E.g.: Mark Zuckerberg, Jeff Bezos, Carlos Slim (is one of the main investors of the New
York Times)

Q.10: Why do we seek knowledge, according to Charles Pierce?

One of the fathers of scientific research was Charles Pierce, who wrote The fixation of belief,
1877.

In "The Fixation of Belief," Charles Sanders Pierce argues that the method of science is superior
to all other methods, due to its ability to establish what is true and what is not true in an
objective manner. He argues that since “experience of the method has not led us to doubt it,”
the method of science will necessarily lead us to “one true conclusion.” Reinforced by the
astounding fruits of science, these arguments made by Pierce in 1877 (and by many of his
pragmatist contemporaries) are powerful enough to persist in the 21st century, in particular as
the subtext for the common faith in science as society’s salvation.

Why do we seek knowledge, according to Charles Pierce?

He explained that we looked for knowledge because we look for certainties in our lives, we
need safety point in our lives.

All this process should be developed with 4 methods of acquired knowledge, Charles Pierce
identifies these 4 methods of acquired knowledge:

 TENACITY

 INTUITION

 AUTHORITY

 SCIENTIFIC

Q.11: Definition of Tenacity Method

It is one of the 4 methods of acquired knowledge that Charles Pierce, one of the fathers of
scientific research —he wrote The Fixation of Belief (1877)— developed.

Tenacity is a method for acquired knowledge related to someone who believes in something
that it has always been true.

Sometimes it is based on tradition. Tradition is the essence of the tenacity method.

 E.g.: a neighborhood is related to one football team. There is no additional explanation.

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You find the same results consistently. The consistency of the results when you finally address
this topic by using different kinds of approaches.

EXAMPLE: MEDIA TRADITIONS (in-depth interview)

In the media world the tenacity method can be explained by strong tradition.

 E.g.: one of the most traditional techniques for journalists is the in-depth interview. If
you are a journalist, you have to have made an in-depth interview at least once in your
life.
o
 Ex: Journalists in Spain do not talk about Santander bank or El Corte Inglés and that is
the way it is.
o

EXAMPLE: RATING

What does rating mean?

It is the level of audience (level of achievement) that you can reach at a specific hour, moment
of the day.

 It is a number, usually a percentage.

The highest level of rating used to be placed at night.

 Normally in Spain 22’00-00’00h. It shows a habit of the people to watch TV at this time.

You can use the tenacity method to explain this. In the rest of the world, it has between 20’00-
22’00h. Another big tradition is between 14’00-16’00h, because we have lunch at this hour.

Only in Spain do we get these two levels of rating. The problem in most of the cases around the
world is that there is only one period of time for rating, while in Spain we have two of them.
In Spain it is strongly related to the way of living, to habits. These kinds of habits transform the
way of consumption of so many other media products.

EXAMPLE: PUBLIC IMAGE OF CITIZENS DEPENDING ON NATIONALITY

Strong public image of different citizens coming from several parts of the world.

 E.g.: they think Spaniards are happy people that like bullfights.

Sometimes tenacity methods include prejudices.

They help us understand our reality. Develop a definition of specific realities and phenomenon.
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Tenacity is about analysis.

 In news making process we need to contact experts, winners, etc... and we conduct
interviews.

The most traditional method of the world is interviews. Mathew Ingram explained this,
that interviews are an old method, as interviews often mislead the topic, audience,
and point, try not to use JUST interviews.

Q.12: Glossary: “Horse-race Media Coverage”

It is related to in-depth interviews

We are in the middle of horse-race when, instead of exploring reality, we do not have any idea
or clue about this reality. We prefer to ask instead of reading and getting informed, instead of
visiting people, going to places and describing the situation.

Why do I read if I can ask? Horse-race media journalism tends to be a bad tradition, a huge
mistake in journalism. According to Mathew Ingram, who developed this idea.

When we pay attention to what the people say instead of what people do, it's a bad practice
in journalism. Specially in politics. Politics are experts in speech. When you pay attention to
what the politician said you develop horse-race, a bad practice defined by Mathe Ingram

Google definition: Horse race journalism is political journalism of elections that resembles
coverage of horse races because of the focus on polling data and public perception instead of
candidate policy, and almost exclusive reporting on candidate differences rather than
similarities.

Q.13: Definition and how to use it to interpret Political Poll. Maximum

level of MOSE for Political Polls according to international standards
It is one of the survey standard specifications, which are factors to interpret political polls
correctly.

It is the marginal sampling error. It is a number which allows us to create a

range and read the poll numbers correctly.

DEF: Margin of Sampling Error. The difference between the true value of a
parameter in the population and a value derived from a survey.

This appears at the end of the report, (European standard).

This is a quantity expressed by percentage points.

 Typically, IS ABOUT 2% IN ELECTORAL POLL.

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What happens if we find the MOSE +/- 3%?

In simple words, the poll is not reliable. They are not working according to standards

In Spain, most of the electoral polls overpass the 3%, especially in electoral forecasts.

What happens if we find the MOSE +/- 1%?

It is too close to reality.

The average number is behind the standard level. In this case, the survey would be reliable.

Some American polls reach this number and it is good.

Spain is used to exceeded it all the time if this data does not appear (MOSE) you can call the
survey company and demand that information as a journalist.

Most of the surveys are estimations which means we need to read the number in a specific
range, that range is the MOSE, the real number lays between that range of approximation and
the use an official one so you have to read the survey. It is relevant because that number allow
us to detect statistical times and so on.

 E.g.: 56.5 for Macron, but it appears when you add and subtract 1.4, which is the MOSE
(55,1-57.9). The real number lies on this approximation. Then, 56.5 is an approximation.

The MOSE allows us to detect statistical ties, etc.

 E.g.: (French elections): Page 31: it is 1.4 (the 3,1 is in the more disadvantages positions,
the important is the first one)

Q.14: Likely voter

Is a registered voter who has indicated to the polling companies that he/she has a strong
intention to vote on the election day. Statistically they vote in every electoral process in the
specific country, community, etc.

This term is interesting because one of the most important things on the poll is the concept of
the universe

 In statistical terms, it is the total number of the population who participates in specific
phenomena.
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Problem: not all registered voters are going to vote

Around Europe they suffer a specific problem: not all registered voters are going to vote as
voting is not mandatory. European countries do not have an exact number, because not all
people participate even if they are registered. We need to handle a specific number to create a
sample. The problem is that not all registered people are going to vote finally.

 Polling companies design the concept of likely voters because of this problem. It is based
on frequency. “Usually this voter votes during the electoral process”.

The likely voter is based on frequency. Every company has its particular formula to gets their
likely voters, so there is no transparency

Examples of polling companies:

 The CIS center for sociological research in Spain has its own operation to obtain the
number of likely voters.

 Ipsos Mori is another important European company.

Q.15: Swing voter

According to experts, a swing voter is the one who does not decide his/her vote even a night
before the election.

They decide it at the right moment when they vote.

They are the key to the electoral process.

 Most of the people do not feel represented by a specific party. There is an increased
number of swing voters in every electoral process.

 They represent around 20% of the total votes. Nobody knows what is going to happen
if the number of swing voters is equal or higher than 20%.

When you write a story and you finally find out that it is near to this number, the result can not
be predicted at all. It is a huge democratic problem around Europe, that generates the surpass
phenomenon.

In the past this number was not that high. In 1990 they were around 5%/4%.
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Q.16: Definition A PRIORI Method

It is one of the 4 methods of acquired knowledge that Charles Pierce, one of the fathers of
scientific research —he wrote The Fixation of Belief (1877)— developed.

Also called intuition method. You make a decision before you can express the decision. You have
a huge experience, and you make a choice.

You get a previous idea about something, but you can add this to previous experience.

 Normally, experts have a big intuition about specific knowledge.

EXAMPLE: ANDREAS BECHTOLSHEIM

Andreas Bechtolsheim. He was the first angel investor of Google. He spent the first 100000
dollars for Google inks.

In 2000 nobody considered this kind of investment really worthy. Andreas decided to persist on
this decision. Why? He explained that he did visit the people working in Google and he
discovered passion and these people were able to explain their purposes simply. Simple
explanations are key to success.

PREVIOUS IDEA + EXPERIENCE + FASTER DECISION.

All of them happened in his mind in just one second.

The speed factor is really interesting, you make a decision before any other.

EXAMPLE: AXEL GANZ

He is another example of the intuition method. He is considered the Midas King of Magazine
Industry.

He was the founder of so many magazines.

 Capital magazine

Specific case of magazine, Capital. They recommended him not to launch it at this time,
but he avoided all this advice and started it in France. Nowadays it is one of the most
important magazines in France. Market research said it was going to be a big fail.

PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE + PREVIOUS IDEA + FASTER THAN ANYONE.

We can train people to develop intuition.

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Q.17: Definition of Authority Method

It is one of the 4 methods of acquired knowledge that Charles Pierce, one of the fathers of
scientific research —he wrote The Fixation of Belief (1877)— developed.

Something is true because a trusted source said it.

In a way, journalists always look for trusted sources. This kind of method refers to experts.

 Journalists tend to cultivate authority methods always. We look for experts and we try
to make the most of them.

Here in Spain, we have a panel of experts. Especially in sports, politics, society, public health,
etc.

We support our ideas by extrapolating the explanation of the expert ( “a trusted source said
it”).

EXAMPLE: SHONDA RHIMES

*VIDEO: Shonda Rhimes on the Future of Shondaland.

Sitcoms: television series that involves a continuing cast of characters in a succession of comedic
circumstances: situation comedy … lame, formulaic sitcoms driven by an over insistent laugh
track.—

“Good ideas come from everywhere”.

Way of Approach of Shonda Rhimes, her methods of working:

 Compulsive reader
She is one of the famous designers of our imaginary readings and she is a compulsive
reader.

 Open-minded to embrace ideas because they can come from everywhere.

 Social commitment. That links with the story.

 Legacy
Legacy is another big commitment. Netflix allows her to spread her ideas.

 Interaction
She tries to adapt her script to the timing of the actor. She understands, you are not
prepared to do it now but in the future. She is more flexible than any other. She does
not try to force them but to adapt and develop themselves to be the characters.

 Journalism as an inspiration
She uses journalistic stories as an inspiration. That happened with her series “Inventing
Anna”. She is using journalism to develop stories.
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Q.18: Definition of Scientific Method

It is one of the 4 methods of acquired knowledge that Charles Pierce, one of the fathers of
scientific research —he wrote The Fixation of Belief (1877)— developed.

Is believing that something is true because it has been verified so far.

Verification is the core of scientific methods. Something has been demonstrated so far.
 You need to add evidence to prove it.

They follow logical order and specific connection between reality and the logical order, but
verification is the core of the process.

Verification is a habit for scientific research.

 It does not take anything for granted. Even if something has been well-known as a social
phenomenon, we need to prove it and look for additional information to support
everything stated.

EXAMPLE: TIM BERNERS-LEE

Tim Berners-Lee was the creator of www.

He explains that he wrote these code 33 years ago and during that day nothing happened until
he proved that this code works.

He achieved this demonstration on Dec 25, 1990. That day, he connected one computer with
another at a very long distance and proved that we can exchange information and develop a
specific interaction by using this code.

You can connect computers and they can exchange information no matter what type of device.
He had to prove that idea.

From that day on, the Internet has been growing at an exponential level. But, when it was
invented, at that time, it was useless. Sometimes you work on something and most people
around you regard it as a useless thing (that is what happened with www, they saw it as a useless
code). You need to demonstrate things most of the times.

*NOTE: Digital footprint. This system allows us to connect with people at a very long distance.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1. PUBLIC

Scientific research should be freely communicated between one researcher to another.

Free flow of (scientific) information among scientific research creates richness and
wealth, more than any other aspects in the world. We need to guarantee a free flow of
information and thinking among us.
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This concept is strongly related to the journalistic world. It is a MINDFACTURE WORK:

o I exchange my ideas with anybody, and this act of exchanging ideas generates
richness, it creates an amplification of knowledge about us.

E.g.: if I discuss with someone about a specific topic, we can enrich each other
and we can grow up with our mind facture work.

The exchange of knowledge is a really important part of the process.

o E.g.: you get an excellent idea, discuss it with other people and explain to the
rest why we should consider your idea as a relevant one. This exchange of ideas
generates more knowledge.

You create a better idea when you handle the critics you receive. No matter where you
work.

2. OBJECTIVE AND EMPIRICAL

3. SYSTEMATIC AND CUMULATIVE

4. PREDICTIVE

You try to connect the present to the future. You develop a specific forecast for the
future.

Most studies reports try to address these characteristics.

o E.g.: you conduct a specific survey about political candidates you try to
determine who will be the winner.

You try to generate a clearer future. We need additional information to predict and
that is why we need other scientific methods.

o E.g.: with Aitana Mc Menu, they made a previous forecast.

Q.19: What is the maximum level for field period of poll during electoral
times? Why?
International standard recommends to not exceed the 7 days. Things happen faster than in any
case, so it is important that in the field works do not last more than 7 days.

IMPORTANT: According to experts THE MAXIMUM LEVEL IS 7 DAYS (no puede haber un margen
de más de 7 días). If you exceed that level of time, you can probably achieve inaccurate
representation of the public opinion. Electoral opinion tends to change faster.

In Spain is used to exceeded it all the time if they do not appear you can call the survey company
and demand that information as a journalist.
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Q.20: What is Prime-Time and how many are there in Spain, according to
experts?

It is the level of audience (level of achievement) that you can reach at a specific hour, moment
of the day.

 It is a number, usually a percentage.

The highest level of rating used to be placed at night.

 Normally in Spain 22’00-00’00h. It shows a habit of the people to watch TV at this time.

You can use the tenacity method —is a method for acquired knowledge related to someone
who believes in something that it has always been true— to explain this.

In the rest of the world:

 It has between 20’00-22’00h.

In Spain:

 Normally 22’00-00’00h
 Another big tradition is between 14’00-16’00h, because we have lunch at this hour.

Only in Spain do we get these two levels of rating. The problem in most of the cases around the
world is that there is only one period of time for rating, while in Spain we have two of them.

In Spain it is strongly related to the way of living, to habits. These kinds of habits transform the
way of consumption of so many other media products.

For example, Kantar —is a data analytics and brand consulting company, based in London,
England— established the prime time by measuring the rating of tv programs and channels.
They also use panel study or discussion —which is a qualitative methodology based on a focus
group identifying phenomenon.

However, because of the technological era we live in, things have changed. Before, people were
watching a specific program at the exact time scheduled. This was because you could not repeat
what was once on tv (for example). However, nowadays with the introduction of online
platforms you can consume tv whenever you want, and whatever program or content you want

Besides, there is a dependency factor. For example, if you like a series too much you will create
a strong link with that kind of interaction, and you’ll be watching that series for hours.
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Q.21: Name three advice we can learn from Shonda Rime’s way of working
*VIDEO: Shonda Rhimes on the Future of Shondaland.
Shonda Rhimes, (born January 13, 1970, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.), American writer and producer who was best known
for creating such popular TV series as Grey's Anatomy (2005– ) and Scandal (2012–18); also the Bridgerton (2021-)

Sitcoms: television series that involves a continuing cast of characters in a succession of comedic
circumstances: situation comedy … lame, formulaic sitcoms driven by an over insistent laugh
track.

“Good ideas come from everywhere”.

Way of Approach of Shonda Rhimes, her methods of working:

 Compulsive reader
She is one of the famous designers of our imaginary readings and she is a compulsive
reader.

 Open-minded
To embrace ideas because they can come from everywhere. Nevertheless, you also need
to know that every idea is not a good idea and just because you get a note it does not
mean that it needs to be taken.

 Social commitment.
That links with the story.
For example, with his series Anatomy of Grey, she has helped people knowing how to
do a CPR or discovering their familiars had a disease. What is more, a lot of young people
have decided studying medicine because of this program.

Knowing you have power and owning the power are two different things. It’s taken her
a lot longer to just own having power, and she is trying to use it for good.

 Legacy
Legacy is another big commitment. Netflix allows her to spread her ideas.
A lot more of women go into science (after having watched her series Anatomy of Grey),
which is the biggest media legacy. They are making more female surgeons every day.

 Interaction
She tries to adapt her script to the timing of the actor. She understands, you are not
prepared to do it now but in the future. She is more flexible than any other. She does
not try to force them but to adapt and develop themselves to be the characters.

 Journalism as an inspiration
She uses journalistic stories as an inspiration. That happened with her series “Inventing
Anna”. She is using journalism to develop stories.

She was inspired by the work that the article’s author did. She built a story about what
happens when a journalist tries to delve into the life of a person and really find the truth
about them.
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Q.22: What does “free flow of scientific knowledge” mean?

PUBLIC

One of the characteristics of scientific method —believing that something is true because it has
been verified so far— is that it is public

Scientific research should be freely communicated between one researcher to another.

FREE FLOW OF (SCIENTIFIC) INFORMATION among scientific research creates richness and
wealth, more than any other aspects in the world. We need to guarantee a free flow of
information and thinking among us.

This concept is strongly related to the journalistic world. It is a MINDFACTURE WORK:

 I exchange my ideas with anybody, and this act of exchanging ideas generates richness,
it creates an amplification of knowledge about us.

E.g.: if I discuss with someone about a specific topic, we can enrich each other and we
can grow up with our mind facture work.

The exchange of knowledge is a really important part of the process.

 E.g.: you get an excellent idea, discuss it with other people and explain to the rest why
we should consider your idea as a relevant one. This exchange of ideas generates more
knowledge.

You create a better idea when you handle the critics you receive. No matter where you work.

Q.23: Lasswell Model of Communication. Definition, relevance.

FIELD OF MASS COMMUNICATION RESEARCH

This model tries to explain the process of communication in a broad sense, but this explanation
(Internet’s one) is false. (That is what a lot of people actually think)

IMPORTANT: Recent research about this model establishes that Lasswell wrote this model to
introduce mass communication research as a valid field of studies among scientific society,
among researchers.
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That is why he divides all the communication process into five questions. It is a vindication of
the scientific character of communication research.

“This is a valid scientific field of studies” (communication). That is why we call Lasweell the
father of communication, because he vindicated the scientific character of mass
communication.

 During that time, most of the people considered sociology as a science, but nobody
considered mass communication research as a valid field of studies, and he wrote this
paper to vindicate the scientific character of mass communication research.

This paper was written around 1948 (Reading Media Theory), when nobody took
communication seriously as a valid field of study, and that was the problem.

1. WHO?

Who? Is related to CONTROL ANALYSIS.

Tries to explain who is behind the communication process (enterprises, companies,

that hide behind the communication process).

o Who is behind El País, Who is behind Antena 3

You can address political explanations by using control analysis. You can speak about
commercial interests.

*NOTE: Comparing Media Systems. Daniel C.Hallin and Paolo Ma

They try to explain how the Spanish media system suffers a political bias, because there
are some media that support ring or left wing political parties.

Media economics is related to control analysis. You find information about the
commercial system, their policies and so on.

2. SAYS WHAT?

They try to address CONTENT ANALYSIS, which is related to says what. We try to explain
the message embedded in the text.

It is linked with the topic / issue.

o Content analysis tries to look for more information about this subject

What does the media message consist of in the end?

o TRADITIONAL CONTENT ANALYSIS

Past: what media said about a specific profit.
 20

It is important to establish that traditional content analysis tries to explain the

explicit content of the media.

o PRESENT CONTENT ANALYSIS

Present: what our consumers say about our specific brand.

There has been an evolution in content analysis. In former times it helped us to

interpret the media message, but nowadays it helps us to interpret what the
audience is thinking about.

Content analysis helps us to interpret what the audience is thinking about in

the end (ex: about your brand or your media).

 E.g.: in specific platforms such as booking or trip advisor, when you book
some trip, place to go or any other, you take into account user’s
opinions.

Sometimes we use the audience's experience to make decisions. Content analysis

helps us to take all this information into account to earn more profits.

3. IN WHICH CHANNEL?

Is strongly related to the TYPE OF TECHNOLOGY we tend to use to communicate.

What kind of technology do we tend to use in Spain? Which channel do we use?

o E.g.: ComScore, which is a web page which provides us with this data, says that
the most popular channel in Spain right now is WhatsApp Messenger. We use
it more than Google Search, Facebook or YouTube.

o E.g.: the Smartphone mobile phone web we use the most is Google.com and,
after that, as. com

We can infer that people prefer Google over media webpages to look for information,
rather than El País, El Mundo or whatever.

For example, you can connect with people using sports at first, and then provide them
with other kinds of information (As.com).

By studying those things, we can establish relationships between what the audience
consumes and how they consume it.

4. TO WHOM?

We speak about AUDIENCE ANALYSIS, which is strongly related with target

information:
 21

o Information about psychographic and demographic conditions of your

consumers. (NOTE: Psychographics is the qualitative methodology of studying consumers based on
psychological characteristics and traits such as values, desires, goals, interests, and lifestyle choices)

All this kind of information is important while talking about important brands.

o E.g.: Grand Theft Auto represents a specific relevant age of consumption, a way
of thinking and consuming.

Audience analysis is related to what the audience does with the media.

5. WITH WHAT EFFECT?

The ISOLATION PROCESS occurs at the same level even when you are using a
newspaper (this isolation process existed before mobile phones appeared).

This effect is related to media consumption. The isolation process is a huge effect
because of the media and, if you replace all these newspapers with books, the process
is exactly the same. (It is not only related to media consumption).

o E.g.: amusing our-selves to death.

Q.24: What is “media economics”?

Media economics embodies economic theoretical and practical economic questions specific
to media of all types

Media economics is related to control analysis. You find information about the commercial
system, their policies and so on.

Of particular concern to media economics are the economic policies and practices of media
companies and disciplines including journalism and the news industry, film production,
entertainment programs, print, broadcast, mobile communications, Internet, advertising and
public relations

Media economics has social, cultural, and economic implications. Regular study of media
economic issues began in the 1970s but flourished in the 1980s with the addition of classes on
the subject at U.S. and European universities.

Tries to explain who is behind the communication process (enterprises, companies, that hide
behind the communication process).

 E.g.: who is behind El País, who is behind Antena 3

You can address political explanations by using control analysis. You can speak about
commercial interests.
 22

Comparing Media Systems. Daniel C.Hallin and Paolo Mancini

They try to explain how the Spanish media system suffers a political bias, because there are
some media that support ring or left-wing political parties.

Q.25: Formulate one example of Social Fact and explain it by clarifying

three levels of influence: economical, behavioral and way of expression.

Q.26: Explain what is social fact by explaining RIOJA Designation of Origin.

Clarifying three levels of influence.
 23

Q.27: Explain what is social fact by explaining Atlético de Madrid's sense

of belonging. Clarifying three levels of influence.

Q.28: Compare academic and private sector research

There are two major sectors of research: Academic and private. The two sectors are equally
important and, in some cases, work together to answer mass media questions.

1. SIMILARITIES:

o The two sectors have common research goals: To understand problems and/
or predict the future

o Academic and private sector research follow a basic eight-step procedure,

these steps do not guarantee that the research is good. Both use similar
methodologies and statistical analyses

1. Select a problem.
2. Review existing research and theory (when relevant).
3. Develop hypotheses or research questions.
4. Determine an appropriate methodology/research design.
5. Collect relevant data.
6. Analyze and interpret the results.
7. Present the results in an appropriate form.
8. Replicate the study (when necessary).

o Both start with a clear research question or hypothesis that requires a

conceptualization of the research problem.
 24

2. DIFFERENCES

o Sometimes there is a change of roles and the boundaries are not so clear, as
they can even work together to answer mass media questions.

 ACADEMICIANS (professors) perform many studies for industry (those

studies use to be covered by private commercial research).

They also work as consultants

 PRIVATE SECTOR groups conduct researches that can be classified as

theoretical (those studies use to be performed by academic research).

o Step 2 and step 8 can be skipped by commercial/private research:

Steps 2 and 8 are optional in the private sector (2: review existing research and
theory, and 8: replicate the study).

It happens because some research is conducted to answer a specific and

unique question related to a future decision (e.g.: whether to invest a large sum
of money in a developing medium)

In this type of project generally, there is no previous research to consult, and it

is not always replicated because decisions use to be made based on the first
analysis that use to be conclusive.

When you work in private research you need to skip some steps because of not
having money and time enough to fully complete this process

o Different selection of topics:

 ACADEMIC SECTOR: can select topics interesting to them.

 PRIVATE SECTOR: generally does not have flexibility, they conduct

studies to answer questions raised by management or for which they
are hired. But in their favor, they usually have control over how to
perform the research.

o Different approaches:

 ACADEMIC SECTOR: Scholars from colleges and universities conduct

public sector research (academic), generally with a scholarly or
theoretical approach. The results are intended to help explain the mass
media and their effects on individuals, or usually, various media-related
items, such as video games, effects of media “Overload” on consumers.

 PRIVATE SECTOR: nongovernmental companies conduct private-sector

research with the end of facilitating the desition making. Typical
 25

research topics in the private sector are media content and consumer
preferences.

o Public/private:

 ACADEMIC SECTOR: is public, anyone can use the raw data of those
researchs.

 PRIVATE SECTOR: usually can’t be obtained by other researchers. Some

private-sector research is released to the public soon like opinion polls,
some others could be released after several years.

o Deadlines:

 ACADEMIC SECTOR: do not have specific deadlines for their research.

 PRIVATE SECTOR: used to have a deadline imposed by management or

an external client that needs to make a decision.

o Costs:

 ACADEMIC SECTOR: used to be less expensive than private. The low

cost of academic research sometimes motivates large media
companies and groups to use them.

 PRIVATE SECTOR: must consider expenses like personnel, equipment,

and office place, academicians usually don't need to cover overhead
costs.

o Goal:

 PRIVATE SECTOR: develop a method that is fast, inexpensive, reliable,

and valid.

Q.29: Audience measurement organizations in Spain. Explain

They try to measure the interactions or the reach a media has developed. In this sense, by
establishing which is on the top they calculate the prices of the advertisement on those
media outlets.

1. OJD (Oficina de Justificación de la Difusión)

It is a diffusion justification office that calculates newspapers, magazines and

professional publications daily produced in Spain.
 26

It appeared in 1964. Every newspaper that exists here in Spain needs an audit. They
measure the circulation of every print product here in Spain.

2. GfK (Growth from Knowledge)

It is a German company that is now as important in Spain as it is in its original country.

They replaced comScore. They measure digital audience by using different

approaches like the user center point of view.

They core business is collecting and processing data on consumer behavior.

3. EGM (Estudio General de Medios)

It is probably one of the most giant measurers of the media. One of the most
traditional, strongest and loyal brands.

The companies always tend to be specialized in a specific media (such as television,

radio, etc.), but EGM tries to measure every platform incorporating them in a crossed
media measurement.

This study is made by AMC (Asociación para la Investigación de Medios de

Comunicación), which is the Association for Media Investigation.

4. KANTAR

It is a data analytics and brand consulting company, based in London.

They established the prime-time by measuring the rating of tv programs and channels.

They also use panel study or discussion, which is a qualitative methodology based on a
focus group identifying phenomenon.

One of the most important phenomena here is time shifted audience, this means a new
behavior in the audience.

 Before, people were watching a specific program at the exact time scheduled. This was
due to the fact that you could not repeat what was once on tv (for example). However,
nowadays with the introduction of online platforms you can consume tv whenever
you want, and whatever program or content you want.

 Besides, there is a dependency factor. For example, if you like a series too much you
will create a strong link with that kind of interaction, and you’ll be watching that series
for hours.
 27

Nowadays if you want to get an accurate approach for your content it is important to see OJD
and EGM. Both together.

Q.30: What is EGM?

It is probably one of the most giant measurers of the media.

The companies always tend to be specialized in a specific media (such as television, radio, etc),
but EGM tries to measure every platform incorporating them in a crossed media
measurement.

The General Media Study or EGM is a study on media consumption in the world carried out
by the Association for Media Research (AIMC).

This study is made by AMC (Asociación para la Investigación de Medios de Comunicación),

which is the Association for Media Investigation.

The EGM enables the socio-demographic profile of the audience of each medium to be
known and audience forecasts to be made in the media planning of advertising campaigns
through the use of computer applications.

Q.31: What is OJD?

The OJD (Oficina de Justificación de la Difusión) is a diffusion justification office that calculates
newspapers, magazines and professional publications daily produced in Spain. Responsible for
controlling the circulation and distribution of printed newspapers and magazines in Spain.

It was founded 20th October 1964.

There are currently three divisions:

 Oficina de Justificación de la Difusión (OJD), which certifies the circulation data of the
print media.
o
 Publicaciones Gratuitas Ejemplares Distribuibles (PGD), which monitors the free
distribution press in Spain.
o
 OJDinteractiva, which monitors the circulation of websites on the Internet.

Q.32: What is the main difference between Comscore measurement and

GfK digital measurement?

When we speak about reliability, we can talk about a specific tool of measurement like rating,
but we can also talk about reliable enterprises.
 28

 COMSCORE: is an American media measurement and analytics company providing

marketing data and analytics to enterprises; media and advertising agencies; and
publishers.
o
 GfK: is a provider of data and intelligence to the consumer goods industry. It is
headquartered in Nuremberg, Germany

Comscore is one of the highest and most valuable market research enterprises around the
world. Nevertheless, here in Spain they do not reach enough public support to stay in the
market. Nowadays (2021) it has been replaced by another firm called Gfk.

The latter, GfK is a German company that is now as important in Spain as it is in its original
country. They replaced ComScore. They measure digital audience by using different
approaches like the user center point of view (POS). They core business is collecting and
processing data on consumer behavior.

MAIN DIFFERENCE

 Comscore mixes data from a panel representative of society with data generated by a
tracking code installed on the audited website.

 GfK DAM is based solely on a panel focused on collecting information on the activity
of individuals, regardless of the devices they use.

While Comscore was really related to devise measure, with the one which has replaced it, Gfk,
it does not matter who is behind the device and they collect all the information by using the
device.

Moreover, Comscore, an auditor since 2011, has been questioned for counting repeat readers
the same as users who only visit the media for a few seconds a month, which encourages
practices such as clickbait.

Therefore, the traffic acquisition strategies that used to work to improve in Comscore,
especially focused on SEO, are less efficient in GkK

GfK DAM measures the digital consumption of individuals regardless of the device, format and
content they are consuming.

 In other words, it provides detailed information on all the activities that users carry out
on their devices throughout the day.

 The result is a single dataset that collects and unifies the measurement regardless of the
devices, whether Smartphone, PC, smart speakers, wearables..., or the type of
consumption, whether via web or app.
 29

Q.33: What are Research Procedures?

What are research procedures?

The purpose of research is to follow a scientific method with rigorous observation and analysis.

Those research procedures try to provide an objective, unbiased collection and evaluation of
data. Each step in the eight-step process depends on all the others to produce a maximally
efficient research study. All the steps are interactive.

Research procedures are steps that we have to follow in order to achieve scientific research.

We need to follow eight steps. We need to follow all these steps. Every single step guarantees
we get valid and reliable research.

Q.34: What are the differences between quantitative and qualitative

methods?

How many types of social research methods are there?

The traditional methods are qualitative and quantitative.

 QUANTITATIVE: pay attention to numbers, percentages points, proportion, units, etc,.

They provide us numbers that are reduced to an explanation.

E.g. Barcelona against Atlético de Madrid.

 30

Types:

o Survey

o Content analysis

These methods give accuracy and veracity to the eyes of the public.

 QUALITATIVE: pay attention to the characteristics, attitudes, beliefs, people’s

thoughts … qualitative methods pay attention to specific characteristics of people
basically. Some researchers use these specific frequencies.

Helps us to connect with a story and with people.

o E.g., How can you connect with people? How can you formulate a story that
connects so good with people? Sometimes you need a story

o Shonda Rhimes in an example of qualitative method because this method does

not pay attention to the number of successes a person has, but the connection
the person has with people. Therefore, Shoda Rhimes is one of the most
influential women in the world.

Human beings create and adjudicate meanings to people, things, animals, etc.
Qualitative methods allow us to explain this kind of associations.

Types:

o Field observation

o Focus group

However, of course, today we can mix both: qualitative and quantitative methods.
Nevertheless, numbers do not tell us anything or connect with people (quantitative methods).

DETERMINATION AN APPORPIATE METHODOLOGY & RESEARCH DESIGN (Unit 2)

 QUANTITATIVE:
It is based on quotation or explanations, its designed before, it is about the law theory

 QUALITATIVE:
It is symbols, its flexible because the design evolves with the field work and has a
particular explanation.

 Ex. Liam the dog (Cesar Millan). In this case the expert is irreplaceable,
which is a characteristic in qualitative diagnoses.
 31

Q.36: Elements of Measurement. Definition of variable. Traditional

Typology.

DEF: it is the empirical counterpart of a concept.

They are the phenomena and events that are measured or manipulated in research.

 We need MONITOR VARIABLES every year or every time to find relevant information
about the sector.

They are important because:

 They link the empirical world with the theoretical.

Sometimes we need to establish specific features that we are going to monitor in the real
world.

 E.g.: to determine who is or not an influencer we can establish specific features as the
number of followers, likes, reviews, etc. We can establish that someone can be an
influencer by using this criteria. We can count these features in order to determine if
someone should or should not be an influencer.

o FOLLOWERS: According to experts and international standards, someone

should be an influencer when they surpass 500,000 followers. Someone should
be called an influencer when they pass this number.

If you have this number means whether you are an influencer or not. To arrive
at that conclusion the followers should be measured and that is the variable.

o LIKES: reach or surpass 1 million of likes. It is a material unit of measure.

When we speak about measurement, we refer to every single property, characteristic, etc.,
and all of them should be called variables.

The variable is the empirical counterpart of a concept.

 You can establish some ingredients of a specific definition by establishing these
variables.

 Sometimes you can use only one variable to distinguish or measure a specific concept,
while other times you need a bunch of relevant variables to establish other concepts.

There are different situations:

 Sometimes you need to look for international standards.
 32

 Other times you need to create those.

o E.g.: industries talk about micro-influencers, establishing that the required

number of followers is 100,000. They design it because they consider micro-
influencers more influential than international ones. Why? If you work with
social media, you need to support all your work by using micro-influencers
because sometimes huge influencers are too far away to negotiate prices and
all those things.

Variables: the concept and every single feature that we can use to establish a concept.
 E.g.: KANTAR brands in Spain (is in Aula Global). They select the most important brands
in Spain (that is the concept). Every year they have to monitor variables such as net
income, public perception (which should be positive public perception of the brand),
countries were they have presence, etc.

We need to monitor the reality and to do so, we need to establish the most important
variables.
 First of all, we need to establish the concept we want to measure.

There are a huge number of variables. According to experts there are two types of variables:

1. INDEPENDENT

Def: Independent variables are or may be systematically varied by the researcher.

Are the quantities that we can monitor in reality to explain the dependent variable.
They are strongly linked with the definition of the dependent variable.

E.g.: number of followers, number of likes, streaming of their material, etc.

We cannot control all the independent variables but only confirm them.

2. DEPENDENT

Def: Dependent variables is what researchers wish to explain.

E.g.: what is an influencer?

E.g.: The summer 's song. (Pepas last summer)

They have a relationship with one another, one that is dependent on one research can be
independent in another one.

Variables help us to identify specific concepts in reality.

 33

MARKED VARIABLES

For example, marked variables should be established.

 E.g. they establish what should be an influencer or not, what should be a youtuber or
not. Based on quantities such as likes we can distinguish reality.

Metrics that matter for a specific concept. Researchers need to determine market variables
(number of visualizations, likes, etc.). As a researcher you need to choose specific variables to
transform them into marked variables.

You can choose your variables depending on your object of study.

Q.37: Levels of Measurement. Definition of Nominal Level

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: refers to different types of data that we can collect when we
measure reality, and we try to establish a specific topic.

NOMINAL
When you use a name or number or symbol to refer, to explain, explicit reality.

EXAMPLE: TRADITIONAL SEGMENTATION IN MARKET RESEARCH

The traditional segmentation in market research (socioeconomic status A, B, C).

This nominal information represents a specific reality (being part of group C means being poor).
Most market researchers use this.

The traditional market segmentation represents reality at the same level (a higher, medium and
low level).

This kind of segmentation was created during the 19th century in the Chicago University. All
societies transformed into this order and other groups such as D or E were ignored during those
times.

EXAMPLE: PLATFORMS

You divide media according to the platform (television, radio, magazines, etc.)

EXAMPLE: POSTAL CODE

The postal code. Every time you go to Leroy Merlín you need to give them your postal code. Ikea
also does so to know where you come from to maybe establish a new one in another zone.
 34

Q.38: Levels of Measurement. Definition of Ordinal Level

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: refers to different types of data that we can collect when we
measure reality, and we try to establish a specific topic.

ORDINAL
This data allows you to establish specific order, a sequency. It is usually about numbers and
percentages.

EXAMPLE: READERS

In terms of readers the most read newspaper (El Mundo, el País, etc.). It measures it in terms
of number of readers.

Why is it important?

For example, for money investment, the price of advertisement, etc., (There is a really long
distance between Marca and ABC).

Marca is for example linked with Real Madrid and every single time Cristiano Ronaldo appeared
with his muscles Marca reached a higher number of readers. There was a Cristiano Ronaldo
dependency on Marca. Also, there was a dependency with Messi.

EXAMPLE: CLIENTS

The brands who grew the most in 2021. One of those is Dia. Why? They sell all around Spain and
there is an agreement between Dia and Amazon (Amazon Delivery). Because of the pandemic
conditions most of the people tended to buy on the Internet.

EXAMPLE: LOS 40 PRINCIPALES

Los 40 Principales is based on ordinal measurements. Is not the same when you trade with the
leader of the sector or the last actor.

Q.39: Levels of Measurement. Definition of Interval Level

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT: refers to different types of data that we can collect when we
measure reality, and we try to establish a specific topic.

INTERVAL
You need to establish an order. The most important thing is that the distance between one
value and the next one is equally split.
 35

When we need an interval, we normally need to produce additional information to specify

specific behavior or way of thinking.

It is not the same considering something “not a priority” or “essential priority”. The thing is that
we use interval data because we need to produce more information.

 E.g.: brand trust scores (Don’t trust, Neither, Trust)

Q.40: Identify 3 levels of measurement in the following chart

Refers to different types of data that we can collect when we measure reality, and we try to
establish a specific topic.

Q.41: Identify ratio level of measurement in the following chart

Refers to different types of data that we can collect when we measure reality, and we try to
establish a specific topic.
 36

Q.42: What was the first Measurement Specialized Scale in the world?

MEASUREMENT SCALES

1. A scale represents a composite measure of a variable. It is based on more than one

item.

2. Generally used with complex variables that do not easily lend themselves to single-
item or single-indicator measurements.

When do we need them?

Sometimes, unit of measurement is not enough to describe a specific topic

 E.g.: the level of satisfaction with a specific service. It is gradual (Nothing, a little bit, a
lot, etc.)

When we get a complex unit of measurement, a complex variable, in general, experts

recommend that we need measurement scales.

 E.g.: in Netflix you can place content in your personal list of consumption. Another one
is the content you like. This list is based on engagement.

Social networks try to establish different measurement scales based on the level of content
consumption.

SPECIALIZED RATING SCALES

1. THURSTONE (1928)
Is the first measurement scale around the world invented by L.L. Thurstone in 1928.

It is not useful in media studies, but it is in education for example.

Thurstone scale is defined as a unidimensional scale that is used to track respondent’s

behavior, attitude or feeling towards a subject. This scale consists of statements about
a particular issue or topic where each statement has a numerical value that indicates the
respondents attitude towards the topic as favorable or unfavorable.

2. GUTTMAN/CUMULATIVE (1944)

3. LIKERT (1938)

4. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALES (1957)

 37

Q.43: What is the most frequent Specialized Measurement Scale in Media

and Communication studies?

LIKERT (1938)
It was invented by Rensis Likert in 1937.

It is one of the most important ones used in communication studies.

 Why? In media studies we need to measure opinions toward specific products, ideas
(political), TV, radio or any other programs.

It is the most common specialized scale in media and communication studies.

When we see any research in media studies (professional or academic), the Likert scale is really
common.

Establish the gradation of specific attitude, behavior or opinion.

Some of them involve specific symbols.

 E.g.: only U.S. citizens should be allowed to own broadcasting stations.

o Strongly agree
o Agree
o Neutral
o Disagree
o Strongly disagree

Q.43: What is the Guttman Scale?

GUTTMAN/CUMULATIVE (1944)
It measures how much of a positive or negative attitude a person has towards specific topics.
Level of empathy with a specific topic.

It is common in advertisement, for example:

 Indecent programming on TV is harmful to society.

 Children should not be allowed to watch indecent TV Shows.
 Television station managers should not allow indecent programs on their stations.
 The government should ban indecent programming from TV. (You include all the
previous ones by marking this last option)

The graduation level is strongly related with the number of statements and level of statements.

You introduce the idea that managers should make a decision about some specific TV contents.
 38

It depends on the description level you need for your research.

The Guttman scale was invented in 1944 by Louis Guttman. It is really useful when you try to
establish the level of approval or implication or attitude or sympathy towards specific ideas,
products, contents, etc.

Another name for this scale is cumulative scale, as you accumulate the previous one by marking
one that is at the bottom.

It is difficult to prepare and establish a Guttman scale. According to experts we need:

1. Establish a specific idea. (Ex: Zoilo, Messi)

2. People write down the first idea that comes to their mind when seeing, hearing,
reading, etc., this name. For example, you conduct a focus group (a discussion
group).
3. Then you have to place the ideas you collected in a logic order
4. We have to place them into a valuable order, with specific new answers.

Additionally, the Guttman scale should be approved by psychology or psychiatric experts. You
need their approval.

Q.45: What is the Osgood Scale?

SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALES (1957)

It was invented by Charles E. Osgood in 1957

Are common in PR and political communication.

It is really common in the magazine industry to establish if these magazines are biased or
unbiased, trustworthy or untrustworthy, etc.

You can establish it by splitting the opposites in a specific terminology.

 E.g.: the Brand Trust Scores (interval level but also an Osgood example) that appear
in the report the teacher gave us.

There is a gradation among trust and don’t trust.

Time Magazine

1. Biased/__:__:__:__:__:__:__Unbiased
2. Trustworthy/__:__:__:__:__:__:__Untrustworthy
3. Valuable/__:__:__:__:__:__:__Worthless
4. Unfair/__:__:__:__:__:__:__Fair.

They allow us to go in depth about specific sentiment, feeling, description, attitude, way of
thinking about a specific topic or reality.
 39

Q.46: Explain the validity of measurement. Use an example

VALIDITY Is achieved by examining the measurement device to see whether, on face of it, it
measures what it appears to measure.

VALIDITY
It is achieved by examining the measurement device to see whether, on face of it, it measures
what it appears to measure.

 Examples

o VAR

VAR. It helps us to make a decision around a specific or difficult situation during

a game. In the past there was no VAR. Before, there was a lot of pressure over
the referee. He was trying to measure something that he could not.
Nevertheless, the VAR has a higher validity.

In the past, the referee's eyes were the ones in charge of making those
decisions.

According to experts it is not complete, we still need more accuracy but VAR is
an evolution to gain more accuracy when we are trying to measure an specific
complex situation during the match.

VAR is more valid than referee’s eyes, but we are still looking for
complementary elements of measurement

Validity is strongly related to precision and accuracy of the measurement.

Sometimes we try to measure some things that we cannot. Validity is the specific unit of
measurement that allows you to establish what is true or not, properly or unproper a specific
situation, etc. The level of accuracy is higher and stronger than anyone.

RATING IS NO LONGER USEFUL

In media studies, in the past, rating defined the most complex and valid measurement for
audiovisual problems.

Nevertheless, it is not valid or enough anymore to measure the success of TV programs. We

need additional information about this time of video content (followers, subscribers, etc.)

Sometimes TV channels use influencers to increase the level of streaming, subscribers and so
on. As a result, rating is not valid anymore as a unit of measurement to define the success of a
TV programme.
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Nowadays binge watching (the practice of watching multiple episodes of a television programme in rapid
succession, typically by means of DVDs or digital streaming.) is the new measurement, it is the king.

Consequently, validity is strongly linked with the level of accuracy.

Q.48: Definition of Opinion Poll

CONCEPT
Measurement technique to collect information or opinions from a population of interest,
using a structured questionnaire that was applied to a small number of citizens, -sample- that
represents the total (Cea D’Ancona, 2004: 28 & Crucianelli, 2006).

Political polls allow us to draw a public opinion statement.

We need them to take a specific picture in a specific period of time.

 We need information in order to interpret opinion polls properly.

STRUCTURED QUESTIONNAIRE

A list of questions that should apply:

1. The same list of questions to every member of the sample.

2. It should be applied in the same way. We need to apply the list of questions in the same
way, with the same tone of voice, at the same time, with the same options’ order, etc.
We need to equally apply to this questionnaire. (Ex: if you use an artificial machine to
conduct it with one person, you need to use it with the whole sample).

Every time you need to conduct a survey, it is necessary to train your interviewees in order to
achieve the same way of application.

Every time you need to conduct a survey you need to train your interviewer, and assistances,
to achieve the SAME WAY OF APPLICATION.

SAMPLE
The simple random sample is the most common way of sampler that researchers use.

It should be statistically representative (generalized to the population of the study).

It helps us to generalize the obtained results to the population under the study.
 It is important that the sample should be representative. If you respect the level of
representation of it, at the end you apply the results and you can extrapolate them to
the rest of the population.
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We need to understand how this survey finally achieves the representation of the population.
This is the core of the proposal.

Q.49: History of Opinion Poll

There was a problem of validity. Until 1936, the most prestigious magazine called Literary
Digest tended to conduct a survey with a sample of around 2 million people. They predicted
on electoral results that Alfred Landon was going to be the winner of that time.

A new idea emerged. Scientists could work together and develop a different prediction by
using a smaller sample, between 4 and 5 thousand people.

The prediction of Gallup, Crossley and Roper won that electoral campaign and Roosevelt was
that year’s winner.

Literary Digest used 2 million while George Gallup, Archibald Crossley and Elmo Roper used
around ⅘ thousand people as a sample. The difference between 2 million and ⅘ thousand is
large.

Why did the first one get the wrong result and the second one with a smaller sample got the
right answer?

 The experts said that the only difference is the statistical representation of the sample.
The latter worked hard to preserve the statistical representation of the sample.

Gallop appeared on the front page of the Time Magazine because he correctly predicted the
elections of that time. This is the fact, during that time with a small sample he correctly
predicted an electoral campaign result. If you respect the statistical representation of the
sample, you will probably obtain a better result. Everything began there.

Many media copied this strategy to keep the audience well informed around a specific
electoral period of time.

Many mainstream, legacy media, developed or designed a new unit of business on specific
opinion poll sections very close to their news desk in order to produce opinion polls for every
electoral period of time. Every single media started doing so.

Q.50: What is Tracking Poll?

It is one of the types of opinion poll. According to the moment you can differentiate between
Benchmark and Tracking Polls.
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TRACKING

You follow the trace of a specific candidate. You try to develop the evolution of a specific
process.

 E.g.: the one of Macron and Le Pen in the French elections.

It helps you change, maintain or invent a new strategy in order to go up during the process.

 They are really helpful to strategic planning during the campaign.

Q.51: What is Exist Poll?

It is one of the types of opinion poll. According to goal you can differentiate between
Descriptive and Predictive Polls.

PREDICTIVE

E.g.: EXIT POLLS

During the electoral campaign, exit polls (encuesta a pie de urna) are the ones taken once you
have voted. All this information contributes to predicting the result of the elections.

Exit polls tend to be a frequent reality during the electoral campaign. After the electoral period,
when it finishes, experts tend to use an exit poll to predict the future, especially in TV channels.

Q.52: On Political Poll. Explain the problem of Population in European

Countries.

Survey standard specifications are factors to interpret political polls correctly and one of them
is the population, the total number (N).
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What is the problem with the population?

The problem is that among European countries voting is not mandatory. We do not know with
100% certainty this number. In fact, it is really important to establish the rest of the data. We
do not know which will be the exact number of people voting.

How do experts solve this problem? LIKELY VOTER

They create a specific definition called LIKELY VOTER.

 They to replace the concept using a specific approximation number. People who
usually attend to voting.

Likely voters replace N. We need to know the average number of the population but, especially
for political polls, we need to introduce a new term, such as likely voters.

It is used to replace the total number of population under the study.

Q.53: What is MOSE and how do we use it to read de Poll?

It is one of the survey standard specifications, which are factors to interpret political polls
correctly.

It is the marginal sampling error. It is a number which allows us to create a

range and read the poll numbers correctly.

DEF: Margin of Sampling Error. The difference between the true value of a
parameter in the population and a value derived from a survey.

This appears at the end of the report, (European standard).

This is a quantity expressed by percentage points.

 Typically, IS ABOUT 2% IN ELECTORAL POLL.

What happens if we find the MOSE +/- 3%?

In simple words, the poll is not reliable. They are not working according to standards

In Spain, most of the electoral polls overpass the 3%, especially in electoral forecasts.

What happens if we find the MOSE +/- 1%?

It is too close to reality.

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The average number is behind the standard level. In this case, the survey would be reliable.

Some American polls reach this number and it is good.

Spain is used to exceeded it all the time if this data does not appear (MOSE) you can call the
survey company and demand that information as a journalist.

Most of the surveys are estimations which means we need to read the number in a specific
range, that range is the MOSE, the real number lays between that range of approximation and
the use an official one so you have to read the survey. It is relevant because that number allow
us to detect statistical times and so on.

 E.g.: 56.5 for Macron, but it appears when you add and subtract 1.4, which is the MOSE
(55,1-57.9). The real number lies on this approximation. Then, 56.5 is an approximation.

The MOSE allows us to detect statistical ties, etc.

 E.g.: (French elections): Page 31: it is 1.4 (the 3,1 is in the more disadvantages positions,
the important is the first one)

Q.54: Traditionally, How many survey sample methods do we have?

Explain.

SURVEY SAMPLING METHOD

DEF: The way that observations are selected from a population to be in the sample for a
sample survey.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING:
It is a statistical rule that establishes that the results
should be generalized to the population under the study.

Involves random selection, allowing you to make strong

statistical inferences about the whole group.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING:
Involves non-random selection based on convenience or
other criteria, allowing you to easily collect data

In Europe most of the pollsters work with probability sampling (especially when there are
political elections) and, sometimes, they mix them with non-probability ones.