MODULE 2: MEASUREMENT of HORIZONTAL DISTANCES

This module will gives you a detailed procedures on solving problems involving
Horizontal distances and Tape Corrections and Errors in measurement.

Pre-assessment: Research on the different types of tape used in measuring distances.

Illustrate and gives atleast a brief description on it.

Read: Measurement of Horizontal Distances

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 DISTANCE BY PACING
Pacing consists of counting the
number of steps or paces in a
required distance. A pace is
defined as the length of a step in
walking. It may be measured from
heel to heel or from toe to toe. In
surveying, pacing means moving
with measured steps; and if the
steps are counted, distances can
be determined if the length of a
step is known. Counting strides
instead of paces is sometimes
preferred by surveyors. A stride is
equivalent to two paces or a
double step.

Pace Factor (PF) = Length of a line/ Mean number of paces

DISTANCE BY TAPING

Taping consists of stretching a calibrated tape

between two points and reading the distance
indicated on the tape. It is a form of a direct
measurement which is widely used in the
construction of buildings, dams, bridges, canals,
and many other engineering as well as non-
engineering activities.

DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRY
Tachymetry or tacheometry is another procedure of obtaining horizontal distances.
 Stadia Method. It was introduced in 1771 by James Watt of Scotland and was at that
time referred to as micrometer for measuring distances.

D = Ks + C
D = Horizontal distance

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 K = Stadia interval factor of the instrument.
s = Stadia interval or the difference between the upper stadia hair reading and the
lower stadia hair reading.
C = stadia constant or the distance from the center of the instrument to the principal
focus.

DISTANCE BY GRAPHICAL AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS

Unknown distances may be determined through their relationship with known distances
geometrically. Determining distances by scaling from maps or aerial photographs could
also provide sufficiently accurate results.

DISTANCE BY MECHANICAL DEVICES

1. Odometer. The odometer is a simple device that can be attached to a wheel for
purposes of roughly measuring surface distances.
2. Measuring Wheel. A measuring wheel is very similar in operation to an odometer
except that it is a more portable and self-contained measuring device. It basically
consists of a small wheel which is attached to a rod and handle, and can be
pushed by an operator. As the wheel of the device is rolled along a line to be
measured, a built-in calibrated recorder automatically gives a distance readout
in meters and decimals of a meter. It is suitable for measuring distances along
irregular or curved lines and boundaries.

CORRECTION IN TAPING. Taping operations could either be of the following: taping

to determine an unknown length, or taping for the purpose of laying out a required or
specified length. Regardless of which of these two categories is involved, there are some
corrections which are applied to the original measurements to determine the correct
and more accurate length.

1st RULE: When a line is measured with a tape that is “too long”, the corrections are
applied to the observed length by adding.
2nd RULE: When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a tape that is “too
long”, the corrections are subtracted from the known length to determine
the corrected length to be laid out.
3rd RULE: When measuring or laying out lengths with a tape that is “too short”, the
corrections are applied opposite to those stated in the first two rules.

“When measuring with tape too long, add; tape too short, subtract. Do the reverse when
laying out.”

SLOPE TAPING.
Taped measurements may be made directly along the slopes when the ground is of
uniform inclination and fairly smooth, rather than break tape every few meters. This very

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 practical method is generally preferred since measurements could be made quickly and
more accurately than horizontal measurements.

A. CORRECTION DUE TO INCORRECT TAPE LENGTH

The absolute value for the correction per tape length (Corr) is determined from the
difference between the true or actual length of tape (TL) and the nominal length of
tape (NL).

Corr = TL – NL
TL = actual length of tape
NL = nominal length of tape

𝑴𝑳
𝑪𝒍 = Corr ( 𝑵𝑳 )
CL = ML ± 𝑪𝒍
𝐶𝑙 = total correction to be applied to the measured length or length to be laid
out.
CL = corrected length of the line to be measured or laid out
ML = measured length or length to be laid out
NL = nominal length of tape

B. CORRECTION DUE TO SLOPE

When distances are measured along the slope, the equivalent horizontal distance
may correspondingly be determined by applying an approximate slope correction.
𝒉𝟐
𝑪𝒉 =
(𝒔+𝒅)
s = measured slope distance between points A and B
h = difference in elevation between A and B
d = equivalent horizontal distance AC
𝐶ℎ = slope correction or the difference between the slope length and the horizontal
distance, 𝑪𝒉 = s – d

For gentle slopes (less than 20%) it is safe to assume that the slope distance (s) is
approximately equal to the horizontal distance (d) or
𝒉𝟐
𝑪𝒉 =
𝟐𝒔

𝒉
Slope = 𝒅 (100%)

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 For steep slopes, 20% to 30% range.
𝒉𝟐 𝒉𝟒
𝑪𝒉 = 𝟐𝒔 + 𝟖𝒔𝟑

For very steep slopes are involved such as those greater than 30%.
𝒉
Sin𝜽 = , d = cos𝜃, and 𝑪𝒉 = s – d
𝒔
Therefore:
𝑪𝒉 = s – s cos𝜽 or 𝑪𝒉 = s (1 – cos 𝜽 )

C. CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE

“The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as the temperature falls”
𝑪𝒕 = α (T – 𝑻𝒔 )L
𝐶𝑡 = Correction due to temperature
α = Coefficient of linear expansion
T = is the observed temperature of the tape at the time of measurement
𝑇𝑠 = is the temperature at which the tape was standardized
L = Length of tape was standardized

D. CORRECTION DUE TO PULL (TENSION)

(𝐏𝐦−𝐏𝐬)𝐋
Cp=
𝐀𝐄
Cp = total elongation in tape length due to pull or the correction due to incorrect pull
applied on the tape
Pm = pull applied to the tape during measurement
Ps = standard pull for the tape or pull for which the tape is calibrated
L = measured length of line
A = cross sectional area of the tape
E = modulus of elasticity of the tape material

E. CORRECTION DUE TO SAG

The correction due to sag is the difference in length between the arc formed by the
tape and the subtending chord. In determining this correction, the arc is assumed to
be a parabola, and is computed with sufficient precision by the formula
𝐰 𝟐 𝐋𝟑
Cs = 𝟐𝟒𝐏𝟐
Since W = wL or W 2 =w 2 L2 , and substituting this to equation 1, we obtain
𝐖𝟐𝐋
Cs = 𝟐𝟒𝐏𝟐
Cs = correction due to sag or the difference between the tape reading and the
horizontal distance between supports (m)
w = weight of tape per unit length (kg/m)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg)
L = interval between supports or the unsupported length of tape (m)
P = tension or pull applied on the tape (kg)

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 F. CORRECTION DUE TO WIND
A strong wind blowing perpendicular to the direction of taping will move the middle
and unsupported portion of the tape to one side of the line measured. This introduces
an error to the measurement which is similar to the effect of sag but is usually much
less. To avoid this this type of error, it is preferable no to undertake any taping work
during windy days. If it cannot be avoided and the measurement has to be done on
windy days, efforts should be taken to support the tape from being affected by the
blowing of wind.

G. CORRECTION DUE TO NORMAL TENSION

The normal tension is the amount of pull required to make the end points coincide
with the marked points on the pavement.
𝟎.𝟐𝟎𝟒 𝐖 √𝐀𝐄
𝐏𝐍 =
√𝐏𝐍 −𝐏𝐬
PN = normal tension or the pull which will eliminate the effect of sag (kg)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg)
A = cross-sectional area of tape (cm2 )
kg
E = modulus of elasticity of tape material ( )
cm2
Ps = standard pull for the tape (kg)

COMBINED CORRECTIONS.
The corrections for the effects of incorrect length of tape, temperature, tension, slope,
and sag may be combined as a single net correction per tape length. Each correction
is computed separately and it is important to identify which correction tends to make the
tape too long or too short. Since the sign of each correction can be determined during
computation, it is then a matter of adding these quantities algebraically to arrive at a
single and overall correction to lengths which are measured or laid out. Combined
corrections are usually determined on the basis of the nominal tape length since each
correction is relatively small and do not appreciably affect each other. The resulting net
correction per tape length may be used as long as conditions remain constant during
taping. Variation in conditions may be due to changes in temperature during the day,
non-uniformity of pull exerted on the ends of the tape, the ground may be such that it
becomes necessary to support the tape at various intervals, and some other factors
which may affect the taping operation.

Illustrative Problems:
1. A 45 – m course, AB, on a level ground was placed by a surveyor for the purpose of
determining his pace factor. The number of paces for each trial taken are shown in
the accompanying tabulation.

a. Determine his pace factor.

b. If the surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, 772, and 769 paces in walking an
unknown distance CD, what is the length of the line?
c. Assuming that the taped length of line CD is 667.0 m, determine the relative
precision of the measurement performed.

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 TAPED NO. OF
TRIAL LINE MEAN
DISTANCE PACES

1 AB 50

2 BA 53

3 AB 51
45.000
4 BA 53

5 AB 52

6 BA 53

SOLUTIONS:
a) Determining Pace Factor (PF)
L= 45 m
M=( 50+53+51+53+52+53)/6
M= 52 paces
PF= 45m/52paces
PF= 0.865 m/pace
b) Determining Unknown Distance
Sum= (771+770+768+770+772+769)
Sum= 4620 paces
M= 4620/6
M= 770 paces
PD= 770 paces x 0.865 m/paces
PD= 666.1 m
c) Determining the Relative Precision
TD= 667.0 (taped distance)
PD= 666.1 (paced distance)
RP= (TD- PD)/ TD
RP= (667.0- 666.1)/667.0
RP= 1/741 or say 1/700

2. A line was determined to be 2395.25 m when measured with a 30-m steel tape
supported throughout its length under a pull of 4 kg and at a mean temperature of
35ᵒC. Determine the correct length of the line if the tape used is of standard length
at 20ᵒC under a pull of 5 kg. The cross-sectional area of the tape is 0.03cm2, its
0.0000116
coefficient of linear expansion is 1ᵒC , and the modulus of elasticity of steel is 2.0
kg
x106 cm2.

SOLUTIONS:
Ct= L (T- Ts) = 0.0000116(2395.25) (35-20)
Ct= +0.42m (correction for the measured length due to temperature. The positive sign
indicates that tape is too long)

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 Cp= (Pm- Ps) L/ AE = (4-5) (2395.25)/0.03(2.0x106)
Cp= -0.04m (the negative sign indicates that the tape is too short)

Correct Length= 2395.25+ 0.42- 0.04

Correct Length= 2395. 63

3. A 50- m steel tape weighs 0.04 kg/m and is supported at its end points and at the 8-
m and 25- m marks. If a pull of 6kg is applied, determine the following:
a) Correction due to sag between the 0-m and 8- m marks, 8-m and 25-m marks, and
the 25- m and 50- m marks.
b) Correction due to sag for one tape length
c) Correct distance between the ends of the tape.

Solutions:

a. Determining correction due to sag for each span.

Cs1= ω2 L3/ 24P2

Cs1= (0.04)2 (8)3/ 24(6)2
Cs1= 0.0009 m (correction due to sag between 0m and 8m marks)

Cs2= (0.04)2 (17)3/ 24(6)2

Cs2= 0.0091 m (between 8m and 25m marks)

Cs3= (0.04)2 (25)3/ 24(6)2

Cs3= 0.0289 m (between 25m and 50m marks)

b. total sag correction

Cs= 0.0009+ 0.0091+ 0.0289

Cs= 0.0389 m

c. correct distance

L’= 50- 0.0389

L’= 49. 9611 m

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 4. A steel tape weighing 0.85 kg has a cross sectional area of 0.05 cm 2. The tape
measures exactly 30.0 m when supported throughout its length under a standard pull
of 5.5 kg. If the modulus of elasticity of the tape is 2.10 x106 kg/ sq. cm. determine the
tension required to make the tape equal to its nominal length when supported only
at the end points.

Solutions:
𝟎.𝟐𝟎𝟒 𝐖 √𝐀𝐄
𝐏𝐍 =
√𝐏𝐍 −𝐏𝐬

By trial and error method:

Try PN= 16.75 kg
56.188
16.75kg=
√16.75−5.5
16.75= 16.75 (check)
Therefore the tension is equal to 16.75 kg.

A 100- m steel tape is used to measure the distance of the line and found to be 1539.28
m long. During measurement, the tape is supported the ends under a pull of 10 kg and
the observed mean temperature is 31 deg. Celsius. The tape is of standard temperature
of 20 deg. Celsius and a tension of 12 kg. The cross sectional area of the tape is 0.035 sq.
cm. The coefficient of linear expansion is 0.0000116/ deg. Celsius and the modulus of
elasticity of steel is 2.0 x 106 kg/ sq. cm. The tape weighs 1.5kg.

a) Determine the total correction for temperature.

b) Determine the total correction due to sag.
c) What is the correct length of the line?

Write a brief conclusion on the answer that you obtain from the above question. Is it liable
and okay to obtain this amount of error? Explain your point of view.

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