UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF EARTH AND CLIMATE SCIENCES

GEOLOGICAL FIELD MAPPING REPORT FOR EMBU COUNTY

SIAKAGO AREA
TOPO SHEET NO. 136/1

SGL 308: INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGICAL FIELD MAPPING

Presented by:

GEORGE JEFF ONYANGO

REG. NO. I13/1580/2019

A report submitted to the Department of Geology in partial fulfillment of requirement

for the award of the Bachelor of Science degree in Geology of the University of Nairobi

11th July 2022

DECLARATION
I declare that this report is my original work and has not been submitted elsewhere for
examination, award of degree, or publication. Where other people’s work or my work has been
used, this has been properly acknowledged and referenced in accordance with the University of
Nairobi’s requirements.

Signature ……………………………...……
Date………………………………………

George Jeff Onyango

I13/1580/2019
Department of Earth and Climate Sciences
Faculty of Science and Technology
University of Nairobi.
This report is submitted for examination with our approval as Supervisors:
Name Signature Date

1. Gladys Kianji ………………………………………………….…… ………………………….

2. Dr. Japhet Kanoti ……………………………………………………… ………………………….

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Declaration of Originality Form
This form must be completed and signed for all works submitted to the University for
Examination.
Name of Student: George Jeff Onyango
Registration Number: I13/1580/2019
College: Biological and Physical Sciences
Faculty/School/Institute: Faculty of Science and Technology
Department: Earth and Climate Sciences
Course Name: Introduction to Geological Field Mapping
Title of your report: Geological Field Mapping of Siakago-Kiritiri Area

DECLARATION

1. I understand what Plagiarism is and I am aware of the University’s policy in this regard
2. I declare that this report is my original work and has not been submitted elsewhere for
examination, award of a degree, or publication. Where other people’s work or my work has been
used, this has properly been acknowledged and referenced in accordance with the University of
Nairobi’s requirements.
3. I have not sought or used the services of any professional agencies to produce this work
4. I have not allowed, and shall not allow anyone to copy my work with the intention of passing
it off as his/her own work
5. I understand that any false claim in respect of this work shall result in disciplinary action, in
accordance with University of Nairobi Plagiarism Policy.

Signature _______________________________________________

Date ___________________________________________________

ii
Dedication
I dedicate this report to my family, especially my father Elly Odongo, and my siblings.

iii
Acknowledgment
I sincerely thank the Almighty God for granting and opportunity and his protection throughout
the time I carried the fieldwork. I thank my parents and family a lot for their support.

A lot of thanks to the Department of Geology. My sincere gratitude to our lecturers, Dr. Kianji
and Dr. Kanoti for their support, guidance, and supervision during the entire fieldwork. I thank
our technicians Md. Pamela and Md. Elizabeth Njeri for their support and guidance.

To my fellow students, a lot of thanks for such cooperation, teamwork, and discipline throughout
the days of fieldwork. Sincere and honest gratitude to the student organizing committee for
making our stay as comfortable and smooth as possible.

Finally, I thank the Siakago community for allowing us to traverse their lands and the area police
for providing security and safety during our time of stay.

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Abstract

The report provides geological information about the Siakago-Kiritiri area, mapped between
June 9th, 2022 to June 15th, 2022. Siakago-Kiritiri area is located in Embu County, Kenya, UTM
zone 37M; south of the equator.

The field study was carried out to map different rock types in the area, gain skills in geological
field mapping and prepare a geological map alongside a geological cross-section of the study
areas. The method of collecting field data involved traversing across the areas to cover different
types of rocks. The traversing was done along the roads, dry riverbeds, and on top of hills where
there were good outcrops for the study.

The field equipment used during the study includes geological hammers, a compass, a sack for
carrying rock samples, a rock brush, and Garmin GPS used to track the exact location and
altitude before transferring the data onto a map. The GPS coordinates were in UTM coordinate
format. During the study, a compass with a clinometer was used to determine direction as well as
dip direction and strike of the outcrops. Strike and dip directions of the foliations and joints were
used for further fieldwork analysis.

The study showed that the Kiritiri-Siakago area has different types of rocks ranging from igneous
to metamorphic rocks and some few sediments deposits downslope. The rock types are mainly
classified as, Embu series rocks, and Mount Kenya series which are of volcanic types and
include tuffs. The metamorphic rocks include; granitoid gneiss, augen gneiss, quartz-feldspar-
schist, meta diorite, meta-conglomerate, hornblende-biotite-gneiss, migmatites, quartz-feldspar-
gneiss, ultra-mylonite. Igneous rocks found in the area are volcanic tuffs, and phonolites which
were found in the extrusive structures. Igneous rocks in the area are of the Mt. Kenya rock series.
A type of dyke known as aplite dyke intruded on a quartz-feldspar outcrop. Sedimentary rocks in
the region included laterite, kunker limestone, and sandy clay. Sedimentary rocks are mainly
found on downslope or along river channels.

v
1 Table of Contents
2 Chapter 1 - Introduction.................................................................................................................1
1.1 Geographic Setting.......................................................................................................................1
1.2 Regional Geological Setting..........................................................................................................1
1.3 Purpose of the project..................................................................................................................1
1.4 Project methodology...................................................................................................................2
1.5 Previous Geological works..........................................................................................................2
3 Chapter 2 – The geology of the study area...................................................................................3
2.1 General lithology – distribution, shape and thickness of unit......................................................3
2.2 Detailed description of lithology and mineralogy including lateral variations.............................3
2.3 Definition of contacts................................................................................................................11
2.4 Fossil, if any...............................................................................................................................12
2.5 Age and origin of the unit...........................................................................................................12
4 Chapter 3 – Geological structures...............................................................................................12
3.1 Introduction to geological structure..........................................................................................12
3.2 Unconformities..........................................................................................................................12
3.3 Folds..........................................................................................................................................13
3.4 Faults.........................................................................................................................................13
3.5 Joints..........................................................................................................................................14
3.6 Foliation.....................................................................................................................................14
3.7 Lineation....................................................................................................................................15
3.8 S.C fabric....................................................................................................................................15
3.9 Structures formed in and around intrusive bodies....................................................................16
Chapter 4 - Geological history and stratigraphy..............................................................................17
4.1 Geological history................................................................................................................................17
4.2 Stratigraphy...............................................................................................................................18
Chapter 5 – Economic Geology............................................................................................................19
5.1 Precious and base metals..........................................................................................................19
5.2 Non-metallic minerals................................................................................................................19
5.3 Construction-grade stone including building stone and aggregates..........................................20
5.4 Hydrogeology.............................................................................................................................22
5.5 Environmental geology..............................................................................................................23

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 Chapter 6 - Discussion, conclusions and recommendation........................................................24
6.1 Discussions......................................................................................................................................24
6.2 Conclusions................................................................................................................................24
6.3 Recommendation......................................................................................................................25
Chapter 7- References...........................................................................................................................25
Chapter 8- Appendices..........................................................................................................................25
Chapter 9- Detailed geologic map and sections...............................................................................25

LIST OF FUGURES

Figure 1map of study area (Embu).............................................................................................................1

Figure 2 Granitoid Gneiss outcrop...............................................................................................................3
Figure 3 Thin section of granitoid gneiss (PPL (left) and XPL (right))...........................................................4
Figure 4 Muscovite Schist outcrop..............................................................................................................5
Figure 5 Hornblende Biotite Gneiss outcrop...............................................................................................6
Figure 6 Biotite schist outcrop.....................................................................................................................7
Figure 7 Meta-conglomerate hand specimen..............................................................................................8
Figure 8 Feldsparthic Gneiss outcrop..........................................................................................................9
Figure 9 Biotite Schist outcrop...................................................................................................................10
Figure 10 Meta Diorite hand specimen.....................................................................................................11
Figure 11 Quartz-Feldspar-Gneiss outcrop................................................................................................12
Figure 12 Ultra-mylonite hand specimen..................................................................................................13
Figure 13 Ultra-mylonite thin section (PPL(left) and XPL(right))................................................................13
Figure 14 Tuff outcrop...............................................................................................................................14
Figure 15 Olivine basalt outcrop................................................................................................................15
Figure 16 Alluvial deposit outcrop.............................................................................................................15
Figure 17 Laterite deposit..........................................................................................................................16
Figure 18 Picture showing unconformity in a quarry.................................................................................17
Figure 19 Folding.......................................................................................................................................18
Figure 20 Sinistral fault..............................................................................................................................19
Figure 21 Joints..........................................................................................................................................19
Figure 22 Foliations...................................................................................................................................20
Figure 23 Lineations..................................................................................................................................20
Figure 24 S.C fabric in a mylonite(left). S.C fabric diagram(right)..............................................................21
Figure 25 Veins and vein-lets.....................................................................................................................21
Figure 26 Dyke...........................................................................................................................................22
Figure 27 Building blocks from tuff............................................................................................................25
Figure 28 Laterite......................................................................................................................................26
Figure 29 Sandy clay..................................................................................................................................26

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Figure 30 Granitoid gneiss used to build a resort (right)...........................................................................27
Figure 31 Sand harvested in bags(left) Sand sieving machine (right).........................................................27
Figure 32 Gabions to control erosion........................................................................................................28
Figure 33 Stagnant water along a river bed...............................................................................................29
Figure 34 Digitalized geological map of Siakago-Kiritiri area (Embu County)............................................32

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Granitoid-gneiss composition........................................................................................................4

Table 2 Muscovite schist composition........................................................................................................5
Table 3 Hornblende Biotite Gneiss composition........................................................................................6
Table 4 Banded schist composition............................................................................................................7
Table 5 Meta-conglomerate composition..................................................................................................8
Table 6 Feldspathic gneiss composition.....................................................................................................9
Table 7 Biotite schist composition............................................................................................................10
Table 8 Meta-diorite composition............................................................................................................11
Table 9 Quartz-feldspar-gneiss composition............................................................................................12
Table 10 Ultra-mylonite composition.......................................................................................................13
Table 11 Stratigraphy of study area...........................................................................................................23
Table 12 Strike and Dip Measurement.....................................................................................................31
Table 13 Measurements of meta-conglomerate clasts............................................................................31

viii
2 Chapter 1 - Introduction

1.1 Geographic Setting

Siakago-Kiritiri area is located about 20km east of Embu town. It lies in the UTM zone 37S. The area of
study is South of the equator and lies along the Mozambique belt and covers an area of about 240km 2.

The map below shows the study area.

Figure 1map of study area (Embu)

1.2 Regional Geological Setting

Siakago-Kiritiri area lies within the Mozambique belt and the area is mainly dominated by metamorphic
rocks. The general strike direction of the outcrop is north-south direction. The area is too dominated by
igneous rocks, known as Mt. Kenya series, which are extrusive igneous rocks during the formation of Mt.
Kenya.

The main structures in the areas include foliations, veins, vein-lets, pegmatites, joints, s-c fabrics, faults,
and aplite dyke. These structures are as a result of both tectonic, igneous and metamorphic activities in
the area.

1.3 Purpose of the project

The purpose of the study was to achieve the following goals.

 To understand rocks in their natural environment and their natural setting and their relationship
to one another.
 To introduce us to the techniques and skills of geological field mapping.
 To put into practice the theoretical knowledge learnt in class lectures.
 To determine and come up with a report on whether the area of study has economic value
when it comes to mining and geological exploration.

1
 1.4 Project methodology
The following are methodology that was implemented during the fieldwork.

Desk study: the topographical map of the area of the area was issued on that evening of arrival and we
went through it thoroughly to determine the areas suitable and worth visiting for the study during the
limited time of the study.

Field study: we began the field study the next day. Here we both used topographical maps and GPS for
locating the actual site of study and recording the data on the map as well as the field notebook. We
collected rock samples during the time of study and different groups participated in outcrop study and
sample study during the time. All the important information such as rock type or structure were noted in
the field notebook as well as the official copy. Sketches alongside photographs were taken for further
help in the study.

Analysis: more analysis like the thin sections was done using the rock samples carried to the lab.

1.5 Previous Geological works

Previous geological work was done by JJ Schoeman. His study was done between Meru and Embu. In his
report, he divided the area of physiography into;

 Mt. Kenya series

 The basement system.
 Pleistocene sediments
 The Nyambeni volcanic series.

In his report, he states that the basement is made of heterogeneous gneisses, granulite and different
schists. That the regional metamorphism and variable through intense granitization were dominant
processes. Volcanic extrusion also took place forming the aplite dikes, veins and pegmatites.

According to Schoeman, Mt. Kenya series in the western area of his field study was due to lava flow
erupting from the vent of Mount Kenya, which includes phonolites and tuffs.

He also mentions Pleistocene sediments which include gravels.

Geologist L.M Bear also studied the area. His study was focused on south east of Embu. In his report he
divides the rocks of the area into;

 The basement system which is of schists and gneisses. Other rocks formed from them through
granitization which are responsible for the formation of granitoid gneiss. The border zones of
granitoid gneiss, stretching for considerable distances are confined to that portion of the
basement system.
 The Embu series which are non-granitized are younger than basement system and went through
some contact metamorphism.
 Tertiary volcanic which source is possibly the vent of Mount Kenya, they include phonolite and
tuff.
 Pleistocene and recent sediments. He mentions that they are the unconsolidated gravel and
sand and laterite.

2
3 Chapter 2 – The geology of the study area
2.1 General lithology – distribution, shape and thickness of unit.
The rocks found in the area are metamorphic rocks, igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks. The dominant
rocks are metamorphic rocks, followed by igneous rocks and a few sedimentary rocks. The metamorphic
rocks are ranging from high-grade metamorphic rocks to low grade metamorphic rocks. They include
gneiss, schists, mylonite, migmatites, meta-diorite and meta-conglomerate. Tuff and phonolite are of
the igneous type. Sedimentary rocks found in the area include; kunkar limestone, laterite, siltstone, and
rudaceous deposits.

2.2 Detailed description of lithology and mineralogy including lateral variations.

Metamorphic Rocks
These are rocks that were originally of sedimentary or igneous type but were later subjected to pressure
or temperature or both causing structural and mineralogical transformation. Rocks belong to different
grades of metamorphism; low grade, medium grade and high grade.

Granitoid Gneiss

Encountered along Embu-Kiritiri Road; 11km from Siakago town. This rock covers the lager part of
Siakago as it was dominant in many stations that were covered in the study area. It was mostly
discovered on hill tops and outcrops along river channels.

The outcrop occurrence was massive, exfoliated, and had lineations. The mineral lineations were in the
north-south direction; it was more felsic than mafic. The outcrop has veins and veinlets (quartz veins).
The makeup minerals according to sample analysis was feldspar, biotite and quartz.

Granitoid gneiss is of high-grade metamorphism; origin is granite. (Mozambique Belt Series)

Figure 2 Granitoid Gneiss outcrop

3
 Qtz- Quartz
qtz
Plg- plagioclase
Bt
Bt-biotite
plg

Figure 3 Thin section of granitoid gneiss (PPL (left) and XPL (right))

MINERAL PERCENTAGE (%)

Quartz 30
Feldspar 40
Biotite 15
Hornblende 10
Accessories 5
Total 100

Table 1 Granitoid-gneiss composition

Muscovite Schist

Located along Siakago Kiritiri road, Gagara hills on the west, along a cross cutting. The outcrop has
foliation plains, it is highly foliated and highly felsic. Extends about 30m. The outcrop is weathering
quickly. The rock is friable.

From the hand sample, the rock is fine grained, highly felsic with some deformation. The specimen is of
sedimentary origin. The rock composition is, muscovite, feldspar, and quartz.

Muscovite Schist is of low-grade metamorphism (Embu Series)

4
Figure 4 Muscovite Schist outcrop

MINERAL PERCENTAGE
(%)
Feldspar 60
Muscovite 20
Quartz 5
Accessories 15
Total 100

Table 2 Muscovite schist composition

Hornblende Biotite Gneiss

Located north 1km from Siakago town the outcrop is on an active quarry. The outcrop is foliated. The
veins are oblique to the strike direction. Veins are concordant, there are some banded rocks. Tectonics
joints were also observable. There is intercalation of rocks.

From the hand specimen, the felsic minerals are abundant. The mineral composition is biotite, quartz,
feldspar. The hand specimen is fine grained.

Hornblende-biotite-gneiss is of high-grade metamorphism (Mozambique Belt Series)

5
Figure 5 Hornblende Biotite Gneiss outcrop

MINERAL PERCENTAGE (%)

Biotite 60
Quartz 25
Feldspar 15
Accessories 10
Total 100

Table 3 Hornblende Biotite Gneiss composition

Banded Schist

The outcrop was encountered south of Siakago town; 150m from the junction along Siakago-Kiritiri road.
The outcrop is massive and foliated. The outcrop has intermittent variations. The outcrop is mafic and
tectonic features such as microfolds are observable. Outcrop has quartz veins

The hand specimen is banded with fine grains. The specimen has a mixture of mafic and felsic minerals.
The mineral composition are quartz, feldspar, muscovite and biotite.

Banded schist is of low-grade metamorphism (Embu Series)

6
Figure 6 Biotite schist outcrop

MINERAL PERCENTAGE (%)

Muscovite 35
Biotite 30
Feldspar 20
Quartz 15
Total 100
Table 4 Banded schist composition

Meta-Conglomerate

Located along Gikuyari Kirie road, south 5km from Siakago town. The outcrop is massive, non-foliated,
not jointed. The outcrop is varying in several colours. There are several inclusions about 3cm by 3cm,
which are sub-angular. The outcrop has clasts which are cemented. The meta-conglomerate is aligned in
north-south direction. The outcrops consist of cobbles and pebbles which are elongated in N-S direction.

The hand specimen is composed of muscovite, biotite, felspars and quartz.

Meta-conglomerate is of low-grade metamorphism (Embu Series)

7
Figure 7 Meta-conglomerate hand specimen

MINERAL PERCENTAGE (%)

Muscovite 35
Feldspars 25
Quartz 25
Biotite 10
Accessories 5
Total 100
Table 5 Meta-conglomerate composition

Feldsparthic Gneiss

The outcrop was discovered 1.5km from Siakago town, next to Hillspan lodge, slopes of Kiamakungure
hill. The outcrop is non-foliated, with fractures. Some outcrops are felsic while others are mafic.
Predominant colour is pinkish brown with the outcrop fully exposed.

The hand specimen is medium to fine grained. Felsic is dominant to mafic. The sample composition is
feldspar, quartz and hornblende.

Feldsparthic gneiss is of high-grade metamorphism (Mozambique Belt Series)

8
Figure 8 Feldsparthic Gneiss outcrop

MINERAL PERCENTAGE
(%)
Feldspar 70
Quartz 20
Hornblende 5
Accessories 5
Total 100
Table 6 Feldspathic gneiss composition

Biotite Schist

Along Siakago-Kiritiri road. 6km south of Siakago town. The outcrop has foliated schists. The outcrop is
situated along a contact zone.

The hand specimen is 40% felsic and 60% mafic. The hand specimen is fine grained. The mineral
composition in the hand specimen is feldspar, quartz, and biotite.

9
Figure 9 Biotite Schist outcrop

MINERAL PERCENTAGE (%)

Biotite 40
Feldspars 30
Quartz 20
Accessories 10
Total 100
Table 7 Biotite schist composition

Meta Diorite

Outcrop is situated along Siakago-Kiritiri road, 6km south of Siakago. The outcrop is having man made
fractures, it has quartz veins. It is highly weathered and non-foliated. The outcrop is mafic with little
bands.

The hand specimen is fine grained, metallic lustre. The mode of occurrence is intrusive that has been
metamorphosed. The hand specimen composition is Na-Feldspar, Quartz, Hornblende and Biotite.

Meta-diorite is as a result of low-grade metamorphism. (Embu Series)

10
Figure 10 Meta Diorite hand specimen

MINERAL PERCENTAGE (%)

Hornblende 50
Biotite 30
Quartz 7
Feldspar 10
Accessories 3
Total 100
Table 8 Meta-diorite composition

Quartz-Feldspar-Gneiss

The outcrop is located in Kiritiri-Embu Road, junction from Siakago town. The outcrop has quartz veins,
non-foliated and strikes in the north-south direction. It is exfoliated and has parallel joints.

Hand specimen is of medium grain size, felsic and about only 10% mafic. The sample composition is
felspar, quartz and a little hornblende.

It is of high-grade metamorphism (Mozambique Belt Series).

11
Figure 11 Quartz-Feldspar-Gneiss outcrop

MINERAL PERCENTAGE (%)

Quartz 30
Feldspar 50
Muscovite 5
Accessories 15
Total 100

Table 9 Quartz-feldspar-gneiss composition

Ultra-mylonite

Mylonites are indications of shear zones. The outcrop is located 10km off road (Siakago-Kiritiri) road;
south of Siakago town. The outcrop is non foliated with elongated quartz crystals. The surface is coarse
grained with some fractures.

The hand specimen is felsic and about 40% mafic, medium grained.

The compositional minerals are, quartz, biotite, hornblende and feldspar.

Ultra-mylonite is an indication of high-grade metamorphism (Mozambique Belt Series).

12
Figure 12 Ultra-mylonite hand specimen

KEY

Hbl-hornblende

Hbl Bt- Biotite

Qtz- Quartz
Fld
Bt Fld - Feldspar
Qtz

Figure 13 Ultra-mylonite thin section (PPL(left) and XPL(right))

MINERAL PERCENTAGE (%)

Quartz 30
K-Feldspar 15
Na-Feldspar 15
Hornblende 15
Biotite 20
Accessories 5
Table 10 Ultra-mylonite composition

Igneous Rocks
Tuff

13
Located South of Siakago, 400m of Siakago Kiritiri road. The outcrop is non-foliated, it is coarse to fine
grained. The outcrop is weathered due to quarrying.

From the hand specimen, it is felsic, the texture is fine grained and it has vesicles. The mineral
composition is mostly groundmass and felspar.

Volcanic tuff is of intrusive nature (Mount Kenya Series)

Figure 14 Tuff outcrop

Olivine basalt

The outcrop is along Gitiburi, on a gentle slope, in a miraa farm, west of Siakago town. The outcrop is
non-foliated, there are dark coloured boulders about 50cm by 15cm. The boulders are sub-angular.
Boulders are weathering and are undergoing oxidation.

The colour of a fresh handle sample is dark grey. The texture is porphyritic. It is an extrusive igneous
rock. The specimen has some ferromagnesium minerals. The minerals present in the specimen is, olivine
and pyroxene.

The outcrop is extrusive volcanic rock (Mount Kenya Series)

14
Figure 15 Olivine basalt outcrop

Sedimentary Rocks
Alluvial Deposit

The outcrop was located along murram road to Mushoke. It is a clay layer with high silica minerals. It has
sharp conical pillars. Minerals are not evenly distributed. The clay has more sand. The pillar maybe as a
result of differential erosion. The outcrop is well sorted.

The hand specimen is white coloured. The mineral composition is mainly quartz.

The outcrop is of sedimentary origin

Figure 16 Alluvial deposit outcrop

Laterite.

15
Laterite is rich in iron oxide that’s giving it its red brown colour. It forms in humid climate. It is formed
due to leaching of soils leaving only oxides of iron and aluminium. It was encountered along river banks
and down slopes.

The outcrop is of sedimentary origin.

Figure 17 Laterite deposit

2.3 Definition of contacts.

A contact is a boundary which separates one rock from another. A contact can be formed during
deposition, by the intrusion of magma, or through faulting or other deformation of rock beds that brings
distinct rock bodies into contact.

In Siakago Kiritiri area several contact zones such as shear zone, intrusive and non-conformable.

Unconformity.

Unconformity are gaps in geological record within a stratigraphic unit. The station was located north of
Siakago town, 1km to a quarry. The outcrop on the quarry indicates a gap in geological time.

There was a period of erosion and non-deposition as there is a gap in the stratigraphic column.
Unconformities also indicate episode of crustal deformation.

Shear zone.

16
Shear zones are represented by ductile deformation without a physical break in stratigraphy.

In the study area shear zone is depicted mainly by the presence of Ultra-mylonite which has S.C fabric.
This is seen on a hill, south 5km from Siakago town, along Siakago Kiritiri road, 10km right of the road.

S.C fabric indicates a shear zone as well as a region of high-grade metamorphism.

Intrusive.

Intrusive contacts are the surfaces between host rock and an intrusive magmatic body. Older country
rock is cross cut by younger magmatic body.

Intrusive is located west 700m along Siakago Kiritiri road on a outcrop uphill. There is an igneous dyke
cutting across a granitoid gneiss outcrop.

During intrusion the immense heat from the magma ‘baked’ the surrounding outcrop through contact
metamorphism. This resulted into non-foliated metamorphic rocks. The result is a distinct boundary of
very fine-grained igneous dyke along the border of the outcrop or country rock.

4 Chapter 3 – Geological structures

3.1 Introduction to geological structure.
Different geological structures were encountered on the outcrops during the field study of Siakago-
Kiritiri area. The structures range from metamorphic structures, sedimentary structures and igneous
structures.

3.2 Unconformities
An unconformity is a buried erosional or non-depositional separating two rock masses or strata of
different ages, indicating that sediment deposition was not continuous.

The term is used to describe break in the sedimentary geologic record.

1km north of Siakago town on a quarry, a man-made cliff shows an unconformity. The cliff has igneous
layers overlain by sedimentary layers about 7m in height; bottom of the cliff is metamorphic layer.

 Unconformities represent large intervals of time missing in stratigraphic sequence.

 Theres was a period of erosion and non-deposition as indicated by the outcrop.

Figure 18 Picture showing unconformity in a quarry

17
 3.3 Folds
Fold is a stack of originally planar surface that are bent during permanent deformation. Folds vary in size
from microscopic crinkles to mountain folds.

Some outcrops in the study area underwent folding during metamorphism.

 Impermeable rock beds referred to as seals trap hydrocarbons in the anticline peaks hence
folding areas can be explored for hydrocarbons.
 Folding brings valuable minerals to the surface
 Folds indicate regions where tectonic plates collide hence can be used as fields od geological
study.

Figure 19 Folding

3.4 Faults
Fault is a planar or curved fracture in the rocks where tensional, compressional or shear forces causes
displacement of rocks. During the study of an outcrop, a fault was discovered on an aplite dyke (sinistral
fault).

 Faults control movement of ground water, hence fault zones can be a good station for ground
water drilling.
 Faults influence distribution of minerals and sub- surface accumulation of hydrocarbons.

18
Figure 20 Sinistral fault

3.5 Joints
A joint is a fracture of natural origin in a layer or body of rocks that lacks measurable movement parallel
to the plane of the structure. The outcrops have both parallel and perpendicular joints. Most
encountered were perpendicular joints.

Perpendicular joints are in right angle with the strike direction.

 Joints are important in developing natural resources, and in the safe design of structures.
 Well jointed rock forms a good aquifer or a good oil and gas reservoir.

Figure 21 Joints

3.6 Foliation.
Foliation is a sheet like repetitive layering of metamorphic rocks. Each layer can be as thin as a piece of
paper with a thickness of even over 1m.

Most of the outcrops in the study area are highly foliated, due to pressure that elongate minerals within
a rock so they become aligned. Foliation were dominant in the schists and a few gneisses.

Foliations were seen on the quartz-feldspar-gneiss and granitoid gneiss outcrop.

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Figure 22 Foliations

3.7 Lineation
Lineation is formed by nearly parallel alignment of minerals during deformation of rocks.

Siakago- Kiritiri area, most mineral lineations are aligned in north-south direction; the strike direction.

Lineation was also found in the outcrops of granitoid-gneiss.

Figure 23 Lineations

3.8 S.C fabric

S.C fabric is a metamorphic fabric formed by intersection of shear surfaces within rocks affected by
dynamic metamorphism. It was seen in deformed granitoids; along Kiritiri- Gekero road, under a bridge.

Fabric was observed on granitoid gneiss outcrop and an ultra-mylonite outcrop in the study area. S.C
fabric is an indication of a shear zone.

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Figure 24 S.C fabric in a mylonite(left). S.C fabric diagram(right)

3.9 Structures formed in and around intrusive bodies.

Veins and Veinlets

Veins are dilated fractures filled with oriented crystal fibres or non-oriented mineral deposits. Veins
occur in rocks of all types. They can be of igneous intrusion or mineral precipitation in cracks.

In Siakago Kiritiri area outcrops with veins are of igneous intrusion, during volcanic activities in Mt.
Kenya. Veins are mostly quartz veins or quartzite veins. Veins were either concordant or discordant.

Veins were mostly resistant to weathering due to quartz mineral.

Figure 25 Veins and vein-lets

Dyke.

Dykes are formed when molten magma intrudes upward through near-vertical cracks towards the
surface and cools. Dykes are sheet like igneous intrusion that cut across existing rocks.

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West 10km from Siakago town, an aplite dykes intrudes a granitoid gneiss outcrop. The dyke has a
sinistral displacement. (faulting)

Figure 26 Dyke

Chapter 4 - Geological history and stratigraphy

4.1 Geological history

Geological history follows the major geological events in earths past based on geological time scale, a
system of chronological measurement based on rock studies.

In Siakago Kiritiri area there was a large amount of sedimentation during Archean times. The sediments
were later acted upon by tensional forces and compressional forces. These forces acted on the sediment
deposits accompanied by intense heat and pressure. Under these deformation forces the sediments
were metamorphosed into schists and granulites. Intense deformation due to high pressure and led to
formation of migmatites as observed in the aplite dyke.

Between the Archean and tertiary period erosion took place with no clear record of deposition. The
oldest erosional surface in the study area is seen in to have happened during the sub-Miocene period.

Evidence shown by tuffs and phonolites indicates that Mt. Kenya eruption followed. This marked the
Pleistocene.

During the upper Pleistocene and Quartenary period, erosion and sedimentation took. This is evident by
presence of kunkar limestone and laterites.

In recent times, erosion and deposition in dominant in the area, marked by presence of rudaceous
deposits, sand deposits downstream and silt stones. Rivers downstream are highly silted.

According to Dr. Lynn Fitcher, the geological history of the area can be constructed from the study of
Wilsonian Cycle. The cycle has the opening phase and the closing phase. The cycle describes the
evolution of tectonic plates and their interaction through time. This helps understand Mozambique belt.

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The Mozambique belt strikes in the North-South direction. It evolved as tecto-morphic complex
between 850 and 500Ma. The meta-sediments are estimated to have been deposited about 900Ma.
From the available geochronological data there are two collisions that occurred. One is estimated to be
800Ma east of Baragoi and Chaparkom ophiolites. The collision produced intense recumbent fabrics and
metamorphism reaching granulites facies in the lower crust. The second collision is about 580Ma in
West Pokot sature.

4.2 Stratigraphy
With the knowledge of chronostratigraphy and principles of stratigraphy, the stratigraphic column and
age of the rocks were constructed as provided in the table.

QUARTENARY SEDIMENTS
SEDIMENTS Alluvium deposits

Kunkar limestone
PLEISTOCENE TO MOUNT KENYA SERIES (IGNEOUS)
MIOCENE Mt. Kenya volcanic tuff

Olivine basalts
LATE PROTEROZOIC EMBU SERIES (LOW-GRADE METAMORPHISM)
Biotite schists

Meta-conglomerate

Banded schists

Muscovite schists

Hornblende-Biotite schists
PROTEROZOIC MOZAMBIQUE BELT SERIES (HIGH-GRADE
METAMORPHISM)
Quartz-feldspar gneiss

Augen gneiss

Ultra mylonite

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 Granitoid gneiss
INTRUSIVES
Meta-diorite
Table 11 Stratigraphy of study area

Chapter 5 – Economic Geology

5.1 Precious and base metals
Magnetite

Magnetite is a mineral, one of the main ores of iron. It is black in colour with metallic lustre.

 It’s an iron ore used in steel manufacture

 Used as catalyst in Haber process
 Used in nano particles for various purposes

Tourmaline.

Tourmaline was encountered as phenocryst in muscovite schist in Mlachake area south of Siakago town.

 Used for industrial applications such as pressure gauges and water purifiers
 Tourmaline can be polished and used as a gemstone.

5.2 Non-metallic minerals

Mica

Mica is a mineral with vitreous lustre and flaky fracture with perfect cleavage. Was encountered along
the Siakago Kiritiri road, 4km south of Siakago town; on a muscovite schist outcrop.

 Mica sheets are used as electrical insulators

 Mica is also used in cosmetics as eyeliners and lip-gloss
 Mica is used as cement filler
 Mica ash can be used in treating liver and kidney ailments.

Feldspar.

Encountered 10km from Siakago town, west of Embu Kiritiri Road on a granitoid gneiss outcrop.

 Used as functional fillers in the paint

 Fluxing agent in ceramics

Quartz

It’s the most abundant mineral after feldspar, colourless with no cleavage. Encountered on a quartz-
feldspar-gneiss outcrop, on a river behind Elas Academy next to Siakago town.

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  Used as an abrasive: due to its hardness of 7, its used as grinding media.
 Gemstone: used as gemstone because of its hardness and durability e.g., Rose quartz and
Citrine.
 Molten quartz is used in glass making.
 Watches and clocks: quartz crystals contain oscillators that vibrate at specific frequencies and
produce electricity to move watches.

5.3 Construction-grade stone including building stone and aggregates

Tuffs

Tuffs are found north 1km from Siakago town on an active quarry.

 It is chiselled and shaped into building blocks. Tuffs can also be used as road metal.
 Tuff can also be crushed into smaller pieces and used as concrete.

Figure 27 Building blocks from tuff

Laterite

Laterite is formed due to leaching leaving only oxides of iron and aluminium. It is reddish brown in
colour.

 Can be used as road metal.

 Can be shaped and used as building bricks.
 Laterite can be an indicator of iron ore

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Figure 28 Laterite

Sandy Clay

It is white in colour.

 Sandy clay can be mined and used for plastering

 Can be used in modelling ceramics

Figure 29 Sandy clay

Granitoid gneiss

Found along Kiritiri-Gekero road, 1km from Gekero secondary school.

 Used as road metal

 Can be used as ballast
 Can be polished and used as tiles or table tops

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Figure 30 Granitoid gneiss used to build a resort (right)

Sand deposits

Sand deposits are along river channels or river banks. Sand is harvested by residents in the area for
economic use.

 Used for construction; as mortar and for plastering.

 Molten quartz is used in glass manufacturing.
 Sand is used in water filtration.

Figure 31 Sand harvested in bags(left) Sand sieving machine (right)

5.4 Hydrogeology

Ground water is water that exists underground in saturated zones beneath the land surface.

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The study area has several seasonal rivers and a few permanent streams which source their water from
springs uphill. There are a few boreholes drilled in aquifer zones to sustain and enhance water
availability within the community.

The main river in the area is R. Thura which its tributaries dominate almost the whole study area.

Most of the outcrop are impervious i.e., granitoids, hence can be a good platform to hold water. The
outcrops can create a good dam and water table within the join regions.

5.5 Environmental geology

Environmental geology is the study of the interactions between humans and their geologic environment.

The study area has several environmental impacts to the community and human activity in a large scale.

The outcrops together with human activities pose a greater potential hazard in the area; which are:

 Rockfall

This is the rapid downslope movement of rocks. Most residential building are situated on slopes of hills.
The hills have boulders and rock outcrops that are loosely held thus pose a risk of falling hence
destroying human life and property all together.

 Soil erosion

erosion in the study area is mostly due to weathering and transportation of materials from uphill. Most
erosion in the area is due to water, mostly rain water. Erosion silts the rivers with sand and destroys
most vegetation and landscape uphill. In some areas gabions were used to reduce erosion.

Figure 32 Gabions to control erosion

 Stagnant water

Stagnated water mostly was seen with impervious outcrops where there is no drainage. These are
mosquito breeding sites hence increase spread of malaria.

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Mitigation for environmental hazards

 Most of the quarry sites have destroyed vegetation: the sites especially the abandoned quarries
should be reclaimed for the vegetation to recover.
 The quarries should be fenced and signs put in place to prevent human accidents and animal
accidents especially during the night.
 Residents should avoid settling close to hills that have boulders to prevent rock falls
 Planting of trees uphill should be a priority to prevent erosion hence reduce siltation of the
rivers. Terraces should also be more built to prevent erosion.

Chapter 6 - Discussion, conclusions and recommendation

6.1 Discussions

Metamorphic rocks in Siakago Kiritiri area include gneisses and schists. Igneous intrusions such as
veins, veinlets and migmatites are also subjected to low grade metamorphism; they include meta-
diorite and gabbro. Sedimentary rocks like conglomerate are too subjected to low grade
metamorphism forming meta-conglomerate.
The general strike direction of rocks is the North-South direction; aligned in the direction of
Mozambique mobile belt.
Geological history and stratigraphy were built based on the events; youngest are the sediments,
followed by volcanic then basement rocks being the oldest.
Study area has a lot of economic rocks and minerals which are granitoid-gneiss, kunkar limestone,
muscovite, quartz, tourmaline and magnetite

6.2 Conclusions

After the field study, the analysis and report compilation, it can be concluded that;
Most rocks in the area are metamorphic as result of Mozambique mobile belts. Presence of igneous
rocks are due to igneous rocks during the formation of Mount Kenya (Mount Kenya series).
Most of the exposed outcrops are highly exfoliated due to the harsh weather conditions in the
region.
Mylonites in the area indicates the area is located close to a shear zone.
Granitoid gneiss is the most common rock outcrop in the study area thus the dominant rocks in the
area are metamorphic.

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Discovery of ultra-mylonite along Siakago Kiritiri road indicates that the study area in close to a
shear zone.

6.3 Recommendation

 Sand mining along the river should be economized to the fullest.

 Hydrological survey in the area should be done to curb the water problem in the area
 Settlement on the slopes should be avoided to prevent accidents from falling boulders
 Safety measures should be taken in quarries to conserve the environment as well as human
safety.
 The quarry along the contact zone should be surveyed for presence of Beryl
 The National Government should enact rules to ensure that protects local communities
from greedy investors who might be in the act of misusing the mines.
 Feasibility should be carried out on the extraction and utilization of the economic minerals
and rocks established by this research like tourmaline.

Chapter 7- References
1. Schoeman J.J 1951- Geological Reconnaissance of the Country between Embu and Meru.
Geological Survey of Kenya Report No. 17.57pp.
2. Bear L.M 1952- Geological Reconnaissance of the Area of South Embu. Geological Survey of
Kenya Report No. 23. 39pp.
3. Prof. Nyamai Christopher- Introduction to Geological Field Mapping 2014
4. Angela L. Coe and David A. Rothery- Geological Field Techniques 2010
5. Fry, N.1991. The Field Description of Metamorphic Rocks. Blackwell Scientific Publication. 128pp

Chapter 8- Appendices

Foliation Measurement at STATION 4 Muscovite-Schist Outcrop (UTM 0348808, 9932422)

STRIKE DIP

N240 W 830 NE

N280 W 880 NE

N220 W 850 NE

N200 W 860 NE

N220 W 850 NE

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Table 12 Strike and Dip Measurement

Measurement of Meta-conglomerate clasts in STATION 5 (UTM 0350906,9930987)

LENGTH (cm) WIDTH (cm)

6.5 3.5

5 1.5

3 1

2.5 1

2 1.2
Table 13 Measurements of meta-conglomerate clasts

Preparation of Geological Map

 This was done using ArcGIS and a base map provided during the field study.
 Open the ArcGIS tool in a laptop and load the map as a raster then specify the coordinate
reference system.
 Georeferenced the map then load it. Start digitizing the roads, contours, rivers.
 The geology is digitized as polygons. The digitized elements are saved with the necessary fields
and saved as shape files.
 Digitized shape files are then added as vector layers on the geo-referenced map.
 Click the compose map option and give the map various specification like the tittle, scale, grid
and compass direction.
 Save the map in JPEG format.

Chapter 9- Detailed geologic map and sections

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Figure 34 Digitalized geological map of Siakago-Kiritiri area (Embu County)

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