Longitudinal Autopilots

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Introduction

 Autopilot uses:

 For safety reasons

 Lowers pilot workload (especially for long flights)

 Types

 Control or Hold certain flight parameter(s)

 Perform navigational tasks

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Introduction

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Longitudinal Autopilots

 Pitch Hold
 Altitude Hold
 Airspeed Hold
 Mach Hold
 Climb/Descend Rate Hold

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Pitch Attitude Hold Autopilot

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 Prevents pilot having to constantly control pitch attitude
in turbulent air (e.g. TURB switch in 747-400)
 During a climb to a cruise altitude assigned by air traffic
control, the autopilot mode may be engaged to hold
pitch attitude with some fixed throttle setting.
 Autopilot mode analysis/design, 2 important questions:
 Which type of control device do we use?
Elevator

 What type of feedback loop structure (sensor)?

Vertical gyro

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 Block Diagram

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 Block Diagram

𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠)

1
𝐻𝐻𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≈
𝜏𝜏𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 1

𝐻𝐻𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ≈ 1

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Example: Cessna 620

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Reduced elevator deflection to pitch altitude transfer
function in approach:

𝜽𝜽(𝒔𝒔) −(𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑)

=
𝜹𝜹𝒆𝒆 (𝒔𝒔) 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝒔𝒔𝟑𝟑 + 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
𝒒𝒒(𝒔𝒔)
 Open loop damping: 𝜻𝜻 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
𝜹𝜹𝒆𝒆 (𝒔𝒔)
𝒒𝒒(𝒔𝒔)
 Open loop frequency: 𝝎𝝎𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓/𝒔𝒔
𝜹𝜹𝒆𝒆 (𝒔𝒔)

 Required short period damping: 𝟎𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 ≤ 𝜻𝜻 ≤ 𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑

 Required short period frequency: 𝟎𝟎. 𝟗𝟗 ≤ 𝝎𝝎𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 ≤ 𝟒𝟒 𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓/𝒔𝒔

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Structure

𝜃𝜃𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝛿𝛿𝐸𝐸 −(𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑) 𝜃𝜃

𝐾𝐾
𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝒔𝒔𝟑𝟑 + 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 + 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
−

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AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems
 Simulink or Sisotool
 Vary Pitch feedback gain
 𝑲𝑲 = −𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓
 Short period damping goes from 𝜻𝜻 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 to 𝜻𝜻 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓
 But it still satisfies the requirements, so no inner loop (SAS
loop) is required.

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AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems
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Example: Douglas DC-8

𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) −1.39(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306)

=
𝛿𝛿𝑒𝑒 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 2 + 0.805𝑠𝑠 + 1.325)

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Example: Douglas DC-8

𝜃𝜃𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 10 𝛿𝛿𝑒𝑒 −1.39(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306) 𝜃𝜃

𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 2 + 0.805𝑠𝑠 + 1.325)
𝑠𝑠 + 10
−
servo system
dynamics dynamics

The open loop transfer function for the root locus is

−13.9(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306)
𝜻𝜻 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
(𝑠𝑠 + 10)𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 2 +0.805𝑠𝑠 + 1.325)
Short Period Damping Requirement: 𝟎𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓𝟓 ± 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

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Example: Douglas DC-8

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Example: Douglas DC-8
 While this autopilot has stable short-period roots for a limited
range of 𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 (0 to − 3.65), it fails our requirement of 𝜻𝜻 = 0.55
because the maximum short-period damping ratio is 0.35,
which occurs at the open-loop poles. As seen from the root
locus, the damping ratio decreases as 𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is increased and
a damping ratio of 0.55 cannot be achieved with this
feedback configuration. Therefore, this system is unsatisfactory.
It is important to note the migration tendency of the short-
period root locus with pitch attitude feedback: as 𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is
increased, the damping ratio decreases and eventually the
system goes unstable.
 To meet the short-period damping ratio requirement, we will
add an inner-loop utilizing pitch rate 𝜃𝜃̇ feedback and a rate
gyro. Recall

̇
𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) 𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) −1.39(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306)
= 𝑠𝑠 =
𝛿𝛿𝑒𝑒 (𝑠𝑠) 𝛿𝛿𝑒𝑒 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠 2 + 0.805𝑠𝑠 + 1.325

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Example: Douglas DC-8

𝜃𝜃𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠 10 𝛿𝛿𝑒𝑒 −1.39(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306) 𝜃𝜃̇ 1 𝜃𝜃

𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠 2 + 0.805𝑠𝑠 + 1.325
− + 𝑠𝑠 + 10 𝑠𝑠

𝐾𝐾𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟

The open loop transfer function for the inner loop is

−13.9(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306)
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 =
(𝑠𝑠 + 10)(𝑠𝑠 2 +0.805𝑠𝑠 + 1.325)

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Example: Douglas DC-8

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 Example: Douglas DC-8
With rate feedback, notice that as 𝐾𝐾𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 is increased, the short

period damping ratio is increased from the open-loop value of

0.35. To obtain an overall system response of 𝜻𝜻 = 0.55, we must

select a damping ratio for the inner loop larger than 0.55

because we know that closure of the outer loop will decrease

the damping ratio as 𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is increased. The choice of the inner

loop 𝜻𝜻 (and the 𝐾𝐾𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 needed to obtain it) is typically a

compromise between the desirability of rapid response and the

desire to reduce excessive overshoot.

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 Example: Douglas DC-8
For our inner loop we select a 𝜻𝜻 = 0.7, which is obtained with

𝐾𝐾𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 0.6577. The closed-loop system for the inner loop is

−13.9(𝑠𝑠+0.306)
̇
𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) (𝑠𝑠+10)(𝑠𝑠2 +0.805𝑠𝑠+1.325) 𝐺𝐺
= (0.6577)(−13.9)(𝑠𝑠+0.306) =
𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) 1− 1−𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
(𝑠𝑠+10)(𝑠𝑠2 +0.805𝑠𝑠+1.325)
(For positive feedback)

Or, in simplified form

̇
𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) −13.9(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306)
= 3
𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠 + 10.805𝑠𝑠 2 + 18.52𝑠𝑠 + 16.05

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Example: Douglas DC-8
The block diagram for the system with 𝐾𝐾𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 0.6577 can be
represented as
𝜃𝜃𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 −13.9(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306) 𝜃𝜃̇ 1 𝜃𝜃
𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑠𝑠 3 +10.805𝑠𝑠 2 +18.52𝑠𝑠 + 16.05 𝑠𝑠
−

The next step is to find 𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 such that the overall damping
ratio is 0.55. The open-loop transfer function for the outer
loop is
−13.9(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306)
𝐺𝐺 ∗ 𝐻𝐻 =
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 3 +10.805𝑠𝑠 2 +18.52𝑠𝑠 + 16.05)
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Example: Douglas DC-8

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 Example: Douglas DC-8
This looks like the root locus for the autopilot with 𝜃𝜃 feedback; however, the open-

loop poles are now at 𝜻𝜻 = 0.7 because of the inner-loop utilizing rate 𝜃𝜃̇ feedback. By
selecting 𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = − 0.4688, we can obtain an overall system damping ratio that
meets our requirement of 𝜻𝜻 = 0.55 ± 0.01.

The CLTF for the autopilot is

(−0.4688)(−13.9)(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306)
𝜃𝜃 𝐾𝐾𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 3 + 10.805𝑠𝑠 2 + 18.52𝑠𝑠 + 16.05)
= =
𝜃𝜃𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 1 + 𝐾𝐾𝐺𝐺 (−0.4688)(−13.9)(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306)
1+
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 3 + 10.805𝑠𝑠 2 + 18.52𝑠𝑠 + 16.05)

Notice that 𝐾𝐾𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is in the forward path and appears as part of 𝐺𝐺 when forming the
CLTF. This simplifies to

𝜃𝜃 6.52(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306)
=
𝜃𝜃𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 4 + 10.805𝑠𝑠 3 + 18.52𝑠𝑠 2 + 22.56𝑠𝑠 + 1.99
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Example: Douglas DC-8

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Example: Douglas DC-8

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Flight Control Systems
Pitch Response
Elevator Deflection
Example: Douglas DC-8
While the response has a sufficient damping ratio 𝜻𝜻 = 0.55 , it takes more
than 40s to reach steady state; this is because of the root near the origin
at 𝑠𝑠 = −0.0954. This root has a large time constant that slows the time
response. Although not specifically requested, we can significantly
improve the time response with the addition of a pre-filter lead
compensator to eliminate the pole and zero near the origin. The lead
compensator to do this is
0.306(𝑠𝑠 + 0.0954)
𝑇𝑇F (lead compensator) =
0.0954(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306)
This pre-filter compensator will eliminate the pole at 𝑠𝑠 = −0.0954 and zero
at 𝑠𝑠 = −0.306 and hence should improve the time response. The system
with the lead compensator is

𝜃𝜃𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 0.306(𝑠𝑠 + 0.0954) 6.52(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306) 𝜃𝜃

0.0954(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306) (𝑠𝑠 + 0.0954)(𝑠𝑠 2 + 1.68𝑠𝑠 + 2.31)(𝑠𝑠 + 9.028)

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Example: Douglas DC-8

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Example: Douglas DC-8

𝜃𝜃𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

0.306(𝑠𝑠 + 0.0954)
0.0954(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306)

𝑒𝑒𝑎𝑎𝑠𝑠 10 −1.39(𝑠𝑠 + 0.306) 𝜃𝜃̇ 1 𝜃𝜃

−0.4688
− + 𝑠𝑠 + 10 𝑠𝑠 2 + 0.805𝑠𝑠 + 1.325 𝑠𝑠

0.6577

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Altitude Hold Autopilot

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 Prevents pilot having to constantly control altitude during
the flight
 To prevent collisions, aircraft on easterly path are required
to be on an odd multiple of 1000 ft and on even multiple
on westerly path. A pilot needs to be able to hold altitude
to less than a hundred feet.
 A well trained pilot can manually maintain ± 50 ft altitude
 Altitude hold pilot lessens the pilot work
 Autopilot mode analysis/design, 2 important questions:
 Which type of control device do we use?
Elevator
 What type of feedback loop structure (sensor)?
Altimeter

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AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems
 Static Holes for Altitude Sensor of BAe RJ 85
 Picture of GPS Antenna for Altitude Sensor of BAe RJ 85

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 Picture of Static Holes for Altitude Sensor of Airbus A319

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Altitude Sensor Model Representations:

 Radar or GPS Altimeter:

𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ≈ 1

 Altimeter:

1
𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ≈
𝜏𝜏𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠 + 1

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 𝒉𝒉(𝒔𝒔)
 How to get the transfer function
𝜹𝜹𝑬𝑬 (𝒔𝒔)

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 Transfer Function

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 Transfer Function
𝐻𝐻̇ = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 sin 𝛾𝛾 ≈ 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝛾𝛾

𝑠𝑠𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝛾𝛾(𝑠𝑠)

𝛾𝛾 ≡ 𝜃𝜃 − 𝛼𝛼

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 (𝜃𝜃 𝑠𝑠 − 𝛼𝛼 𝑠𝑠 )

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜
𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 = (𝜃𝜃 𝑠𝑠 − 𝛼𝛼 𝑠𝑠 )
𝑠𝑠

𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝜃𝜃 𝑠𝑠 𝛼𝛼 𝑠𝑠
= −
𝛿𝛿𝐸𝐸 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿𝐸𝐸 (𝑠𝑠) 𝛿𝛿𝐸𝐸 (𝑠𝑠)

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Example: Douglas DC-8

 Wing Span: 46 ft.

 Planform Area: 280 ft.
 MAC: 6.5 ft.
 Altitude: 20,000 ft.
 Cruise Velocity (TAS): 450 ft/s
 Weight: 11,000 lbs

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 𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠) −10371.2086𝑠𝑠 2 − 12042.5102𝑠𝑠 − 226.3310
=
𝛿𝛿𝑒𝑒 (𝑠𝑠) 451.8346𝑠𝑠 4 + 2197.1573𝑠𝑠 3 + 11332.6989𝑠𝑠 2 + 154.0270𝑠𝑠 + 101.9633

𝛼𝛼(𝑠𝑠) −62.6410𝑠𝑠 3 − 10412.5899𝑠𝑠 2 − 129.8301𝑠𝑠 − 107.8977

=
𝛿𝛿𝑒𝑒 (𝑠𝑠) 451.8346𝑠𝑠 4 + 2197.1573𝑠𝑠 3 + 11332.6989𝑠𝑠 2 + 154.0270𝑠𝑠 + 101.9633

𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 𝜃𝜃 𝑠𝑠 𝛼𝛼 𝑠𝑠
= − where 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = 450 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓/𝑠𝑠
𝛿𝛿𝐸𝐸 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠 𝛿𝛿𝐸𝐸 (𝑠𝑠) 𝛿𝛿𝐸𝐸 (𝑠𝑠)

𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) 450 62.6410𝑠𝑠 3 + 41.3813𝑠𝑠 2 − 11912.68𝑠𝑠 − 118.4333

=
𝛿𝛿𝑒𝑒 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠 451.8346𝑠𝑠 4 + 2197.1573𝑠𝑠 3 + 11332.6989𝑠𝑠 2 + 154.0270𝑠𝑠 + 101.9633

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 Pole-Zero Map
0.1

0.08

0.06

)
-1
0.04

0.02

Imaginary Axis (seconds

0

-0.02

-0.04

Pole-Zero Map -0.06

5
-0.08

-0.1
4 -0.1 -0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
-1
Real Axis (seconds )
3
)
-1

1
Imaginary Axis (seconds

>> zero(H1)
-1

-2

-3
ans =
-4

-5
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
-14.1247
Real Axis (seconds
-1
) 13.4733
-0.0099

Flight Control Systems

 Example: Douglas DC-8

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑅𝑅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 10 𝐻𝐻(𝑠𝑠) 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝐾𝐾𝑏𝑏
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠 + 10 𝛿𝛿𝑒𝑒 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
−

1
𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴)

450 62.6𝑠𝑠 3 + 41.4𝑠𝑠 2 − 11912.7𝑠𝑠 − 118.4 10 1

𝑠𝑠 451.8𝑠𝑠 4 + 2197.2𝑠𝑠 3 + 11333𝑠𝑠 2 + 154𝑠𝑠 + 102 𝑠𝑠 + 10 𝑠𝑠 + 1

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

 0.1

0.05

Root Locus (sys)

)
-1
10 0

(seconds
8
-0.05

6
-0.1
)

4
-1

-0.05 0 0.05
-1
(seconds )

2
Imaginary Axis (seconds

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
-1
Real Axis (seconds )

Flight Control Systems

 Root Locus (-sys)
10

6
)

4
-1

2
Imaginary Axis (seconds

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
-1
Real Axis (seconds )

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

 Due to presence of RHP zero, positive controller gain
causes instability. Even with –ve gain, it is seen that the
phugoid mode is driven unstable at very low feedback
gain. This problem is fairly typical for altitude hold control
in airplanes with low phugoid damping. Note that the
problem does not disappear even if the altimeter lag is
negligible. To solve this problem several options are
available:
 Pitch attitude feedback to stabilize the phugoid mode.
 Velocity feedback.

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems
 𝑲𝑲𝜽𝜽 = −𝟐𝟐. 𝟓𝟓

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

 𝑲𝑲𝒉𝒉 = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

 Step Response

Flight Control Systems

Flight Control Systems
Flight Control Systems
 Altitude Hold Autopilot

ℎ𝑟𝑟 + 10 𝛿𝛿𝑒𝑒
𝑘𝑘ℎ 𝐴𝐴/𝐶𝐶 ℎ
𝑠𝑠 + 10
− − −

𝑞𝑞

𝑘𝑘𝑞𝑞

𝜃𝜃

𝑘𝑘𝜃𝜃

𝐺𝐺𝐹𝐹

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

ℎ𝑟𝑟 ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑞𝑞𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 Elevator 𝛿𝛿𝑒𝑒 ℎ
Altitude Pitch
Damper Servo
Aircraft 𝑞𝑞
Controller
− − + 𝑉𝑉

𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 𝑉𝑉𝑒𝑒 Phugoid

Damper
−

Speed
𝑉𝑉
Sensor

𝑞𝑞
Pitch Rate
Gyro

Altitude
ℎ
Sensor

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

Airspeed Hold Autopilot

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

 Prevents pilot having to constantly control airspeed
during the flight
 A speed, or Mach No., hold is frequently used when a
vehicle is in climbing flight under air traffic control. For
example, the pilot may set the commanded speed or
Mach No. to the desired value, and then maintain a
constant thrust setting as the vehicle climbs.

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

 Outer loop analysis/design, 2 important questions:
 Which type of control device do we use?
Throttle

 What type of feedback loop structure (sensor)?

Airspeed Sensor
 In the aircraft application, the speed hold system
can be categorized into two types:
 Speed Hold System: for a low speed aircraft (low subsonic)
 Mach Hold System: for a high speed aircraft (high subsonic
to transonic)

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems
 Block Diagram of an Airspeed Hold Loop:

𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 𝑉𝑉𝑒𝑒 Airspeed 𝑐𝑐 Throttle 𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡 𝑇𝑇 𝑉𝑉

Engine Aircraft
Controller Servo
−

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 Airspeed
Sensor

 Or Lump Engine + Aircraft Model Together

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

 Block Diagram of an Airspeed Hold Loop:

𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 𝑉𝑉𝑒𝑒 Airspeed 𝑐𝑐 Throttle 𝛿𝛿𝑡𝑡 𝑉𝑉

Aircraft
Controller Servo
−

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 Airspeed
Sensor

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

Airspeed Sensor Model Representations:

 GPS Airspeed Calculations:

𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≈ 1

 Pitot Static Tube:

1
𝐻𝐻𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≈
𝜏𝜏𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 1

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

Engine and Throttle Servo Model Representations:

 Throttle Servo:

𝐻𝐻𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≈ 1

 Engine:

∆𝑇𝑇(𝑠𝑠) 1
𝐻𝐻𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = ≈ 𝐾𝐾𝑇𝑇
𝛿𝛿𝑇𝑇 (𝑠𝑠) 𝜏𝜏𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠 + 1

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

 Picture of Pitot-Tube for airspeed sensor on BAe RJ 85

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

Flight Path Angle Hold
Autopilot

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

 Prevents pilot having to constantly control flight path angle
during the flight
 The flight path angle hold mode is similar to the pitch attitude
hold mode. However, this time the flight path angle is kept
constant. As input (feedback), the flight path angle is used
 Autopilot mode analysis/design, 2 important questions:
 Which type of control device do we use?
Elevator

 What type of feedback loop structure (sensor)?

Flight Path Angle??

 It is not directly measureable so rate gyro and angle of attack

sensor are used.

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

𝛾𝛾𝑟𝑟 𝛾𝛾𝑒𝑒 Flight Path 𝑐𝑐 Aircraft 𝛾𝛾
Controller (+SAS)
−

𝛾𝛾𝑚𝑚 Flight Path

Sensor

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

𝛾𝛾𝑟𝑟 𝛾𝛾𝑒𝑒 𝑞𝑞𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 Elevator 𝛿𝛿𝑒𝑒 𝛼𝛼
Flight Path Pitch
Controller Damper Servo
Aircraft 𝑞𝑞
− − + 𝑉𝑉

𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟 𝑉𝑉𝑒𝑒 Phugoid

Damper
−

Speed
𝑉𝑉
Sensor

𝑞𝑞
1 Pitch Rate
𝑠𝑠 Gyro
−
𝛼𝛼
Angle of
Attack Sensor

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

Summary

 For each Hold Autopilot there are two important

questions:
 Which type of control device?
 Which type of feedback? loop structure? sensors?
 Keep controller as simple as possible
 Proportional only (if acceptable)
 PD, PI, Lead/Lag, etc…
 The closed loop system must comply with the
airworthiness requirements

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems

Summary

 Take into account the inner loop, when constructing the

outer loop.
 Keep in mind the possible effects on the closed loop
system of:
 Servo break frequency
 Flight condition (airspeed, altitude)
 etc...

AAE – 342 Flight Control Systems