CHAPTER 2

Basic Computer Organization

and cost of computers have been changing over the last

Even though the size, shape, performance, reliability,
on the stored program concept), as proposed by Von Neumann.
several years, the basic logical structure (based
and size of computer we are talking about, all computer systems perform
has not changed. No matter what shape
raw input data into useful information and presenting it to a user:
the following five basic functions for converting
AInputting. It is the process.of enteringdata and instructions into a computer
system.

Storing. It is the process of saving data and ínstructions to make them_readily available for initial or

additional processing as and when required.

Processing. Performing arithmeticoperations (add, subtract, multiply, divide, etc.), or logical operatians
(comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, etc.) on datato convertthem into useful information
known as processing
Outputting. It is the process of producing useful information or resultsfor a user, such as printed.report
or visual display.
5Controlling. Directingthemannerand sequence in which the above operations are performed is know
as controlling.

Theg0al of this chapter is to familiarize you with the units of a computer system that perfom these functions.
orovides an overview of computer systems as computer system architects view them.

omputers differs from one system model to another. However, basic

2uns

Internal architecture
of com
organization re
the same for all computer systems. Figure 2.1 shows a block diagram of basic computer organization. [n
 Asyatiom Aoopatua InputUnit19

figure, solid lines indicate flow of instruction and data, and dotted lines represent control exercised by control
unit. It displays the five major building blocks (functional units) of a digital computer system. These five units
corespond to the five basic operations performed by all computer systems. Functions of each of these units are
described below.

Storage unit

Secondary
storage
Program and data Input Output Information(Result5)
unit unit
Primary
storage

Control
Indicates flow of
Unit instructions and data Aot taus
issesgs5E9assssresessssd

Arithmetic ******* Indicates the control Krtre to

Logic Unit exercised by the
control unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Figure 2.1/Basic organization of a computer system.

INPUT UNIT

Data and instryctions must enter a computer system before the computer can perform any computation on the
Supplied data. The input unit that links a computer with its external environment performs this task. Data and
instructions enter a computer through an input unit in a form that depends upon
the input device used. For
and this differs from the way in
example, data can be entered using a keyboard in a manner similar to typing
which data is entered through a scanner, another type of input devicekHowevera.computer s memery is designed
to accept input in binary code and hence, all input devices must transform input signals to binary codes. Units

called input interfaces accomplish this transformation. Input interfaces match the unique physical- or electrical
characteristics of input devices to the requirements of a computer system.

functions:
In short, an input unit performs following

I t accepts (or reads) instructions and data from outside world.

2Itconverts these instructions and data in computer acceptable. form, Units calfed input interfaces
accomplish this task,
3 I t supplies the converted instructions and data to the storage unit for storage and further processing.

OUTPUT UNIT

An output unit performs the reverse operation of that of an input unit. It supplies information obtained from data
processing to outside world. Hence, it links a computer with its external cnvironment. As computers work with
binary code, results produced are also in binary form. Therefore, before supplying the results to outside world, the
 20 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization

systenm ust.convert them so human acceptable.(readable) form. Units called ouput interfaces accomplish this
ask.Output inserfaces match the unique physical or electrical characterisics of output devices (teminals,
printers, cc) to the requirements of an external environment.

ns short, an output unit performs following functions:

h acceps the produced results, which are in coded form. We cannot understand the coded results easily.
h converts these coded resuits so-human acceptable (readable) form. Units called outpu interfuces
accomplish this task.
t supplies the convernted results to outside world.

STORAGE UNIT 1vsrcri

Data and instructions entered into a computer system through input units have to bestored insidethe computer
before actual processing starts. Similarly, results produced by a computer after processing have to be kept
sotewhere inside the computer system befóre being passed on to an output unit. Moreover, a computer must also
preserve inmermediate results for ongoing processing. Storage unit of a computer system caters to all these needs.
t provides space for storingdataandinstructions, intermediate results, and results for output.

In shon, a storage unit holds (stores)

The data and instructions required for processing (received from input units).
Intermediate results of processing
Final results of processing, before the system releases them to an output unit

Storage unit of all computers is comprised of following two types of storage:

Primary storage. Primary storage of a computer system, also known as main memory, stores pieces of
program instructions and data, intermediate results of processing, and recently produced results of those
jobo, on which the computer system is currently-working. The central processing unit can access these
pieces of information directly at a very fast speed because they are represented electronically in the main
memory chip's circuitry. However, primary storage is volatile, and it loses the information in it as soon
as the computer system switches off or resets. Moreover, primary storage normally has limited storage
caacity because it is very expensive, Primary storage of modern computer systems is made up of
AnConductor devICes

2. secondry storage. Secondary storage of a computer system, also known as auiliary storage, takes care
of the limittions of primary storage. It supplements the limited storage capacity and volatile
characteristic of primary storage. This is because secondary storage is much cheaper than primary storage
and it can reain information even when the computer system switches off or resets. A computer system
uses secondary storage to store program instructions, data, and information of those jobs on-which the
computer system is currently not working but needs to hold them for processing later The most
Commonly used secondary storage medium is magnetic disk.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU)21

ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

A computer performs all calculation and comparison (decision-making) operations in the ALU. During processing
needed.
stored in its primary storage to ALU as and when
ofa job, the computer transfers data and instructions there back to
ALU does the processing and the computer temporarily transfers the intermediate results generated
several times between primary storage
storage until needed later. Hence, data may move back and forth
primary
and ALU before processing of the job is over.

of arithmetic and logic operations

The engineering design of a computer's ALU determines the type and number
to perform the four basic arithmetic
that a computer can perform. However, almost all ALUs are designed
such as, less than, equal to,
operations (add, subtract, multiply, and divide) and logic operations comparisons
or

and greater than.

CONTROL UNIT (CU)

it is time for it to feed data to storage unit? How does
How does an input device of a computer system know that
receives them. Moreover, how it is that the computer
its ALU kndw what should be done with the data once it due to the
not the internediate results? All this is possible
sends only the results for output to an output device and
control unit of the computer system.

jobs, of but acts as the central nervous system

A computer's unit does not perform any actual processing
control
coordinates the operations of all other components.
It and
for other components of the computer system. inmanages
main memory, interprets the instructions, and issues signals
It obtains instructions from a programstored
them.
causing other units of the system to execute

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

as the Central
of a computer system are together known
Control (CU) and arithmetic logic unit (ALU)
unit takes all major decisions
system. In a human body, the brain
Processing Unit (CPU). It is the brain of a computerthe CPU performs
brain, Similarly, in a computer system, the
and other parts of the body function as directed by
and also controls the operations of other units of the
activates and
all major calculations and comparisons,
Computer system.

THE SYSTEM CONCEPT

is
been referring to a computer as a system (computer system). This
You might have obseryed that we have
purpose of achieving some objective(s). Hence, a
because a system is a group of integrated parts having common
a

system has following three characteristics:

1, It has more than one element.

All its elements are related logically.

2
3 All its elements are controlled in a manner to achieve the system goal.
 22 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization

and CPU), which work together

components (input unit, output
unit, storage unit,
has integrated
Input and output Usefulness of each until
Ince a computer units cannot function
the called for in an executing program, it is a system. unit
to pertorm steps is of no use.
unit or CPU alone
they receive signals from the CPU. Similarly, storage Hence, we reter to a
when integrate all units to form a system.
depends on other units and is realizable only we

computer as a system (computer system).

Points to Remember
Two types of storage are
output results of processing.
As compared to
1. All computer systems perform the following five -

primary and secondary storage. is slower in

basic functions for converting raw input data into primary storage, secondary storage and
useful information- inputting, storing, processing operation, larger in capacity, cheaper in price,
retain information even when computer system
outputting, and controlling. can
switches off or resets.
Figure 2.1 shows the main components of a computer
system. 8 During processing, actual execution of
data
Unit
and.instructions to
instructions takes place in the Arithmetic Logic
3 Input unit enables feeding of data (ALU) of a computer system.
a computer system from
outside world in computer
acceptable form. 9. Control Unit (CU) of a computer system manages
and instructions and coordinates the operations of all other
Input interfaces transform input data components of the computer system.
(fed to a computer through its input devices) into
10. Control unit and arithmetic logic unit of a computer
binary codes that are acceptable to the computer. Unit
system together form the Central Processing ,
Output unit enables a computer system to supply (CPU), which serves as the brain of the computer
information (obtained from data processing) to the
outside world in human acceptable (readable) form.
system and is responsible for controlling
operations of all other units of the system.
6. Output interfaces transform information (obtained 11. We often refer to a computer as a compurer system
human
from data processing) from binary form to
acceptable (readable) form. because it consists of integrated components (input
unit, output unit, storage unit, and CPU) that work
Storage unit of a computer system holds data and together to perform the steps called for in a program.
instructions to be processed and intermediate and

Questions

1 What are the five basic functions performed by a 5. Differentiate between the characteristics of primany
computer system? and secondary storage of a computer system.
Draw a block diagram to illustrate basic 0. What are the two main components of CPU ot
2.
organization of a computer system and explain the computer system? List the main functions of eac
functions of various units. component.
What is an input interface? How it differs from an Write the logical steps taken
by a computer syste
Output interface? along with the roles óf its main units in each
while
step
How many types of storage a computer system transtorming input data to useful informato
for
normally uses? Justify the need for each storage presentation to a user.

type. 8. What is a
system? Why do we often refer to
computer as a
computer system?