Chapter 5 Seismic refraction surveying

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Introduction General principles of refraction surveying

5.2.1 5.2.2 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.4.5 Critical refraction Field survey arrangements Planar interfaces Irregular (non-planar) interfaces Phantoming H agedoorn plus-minus method Generalised reciprocal method (GRM) Hidden-layer problem Effects of continuous velocity change Rockhead determination for a proposed waste disposal site Location of a buried do line Assessment of rock quality Landfill investigations

Geometry of refracted raypaths Interpretational methods

5.5

Applications and case histories

5.5.1 5.5.2 5.5.3 5.5.4

276 277 277 280 281 282 291 291 292 295 300 303 303 305 305 308 311 316

5.1

INTRODUCTION

Seismic refraction experiments can be undertaken at three distinct scales: global (using earthquake waves), crustal (using explosion seismology), and near-surface (engineering applications). For the purposes of this book, emphasis is placed on shallow investigations. Discussion of passive seismic refraction in earthquake studies can be found in other texts, such as those by Brown and Mussett (1981), Gubbins (1990) and Kearey and Vine (1990). The major strength of the seismic refraction method is that it can be used to resolve lateral changes in the depth to the top of a refractor

320

An introduction to applied and environmental geophysics

seismic measurements were made to determine the shear wave velocity (Vs ). Their results showed excellent correlation between Vs and the geotechnical properties of the tailings material. An integral part of the successful management of an enclosed landfill is the maintenance of the integrity of the compacted clay cap overlying the waste material. As long as this impermeable layer remains intact, gases are kept beneath (to vent in a controlled manner through appropriate outlets) and rain water/snow melt is kept out to run off into surface drains. However, erosion can occur into this clay cap and it can also degrade through differential settlement of the waste beneath. Carpenter et al. (1991) reported on their use of both seismic refraction and electrical resistivity surveys to examine the integrity of a clay cap over a municipal landfill at Mallard North, near Chicago, USA. They demonstrated that detailed mapping of P-wave velocities could be used to identify areas where the clay cap had been fractured (giving rise to low P-wave velocities) compared with the intact clay cap (with higher P-wave velocities). Similarly, variability in electrical resistivity with azimuth around a central point indicated the orientation of fractures within the clay cap. Maps of the site and of their survey locations are shown in Figure 5.30. Carpenter and co-workers found that average P-wave velocities determined along survey lines parallel and perpendicular to fractures were around 370 20 mls and 365 + 10 mis, respectively, compared with a value of 740 140m/s over unfractured clay cap. They also reported difficulty in obtaining refracted arrivals in some areas owing to the P-wave velocity in the underlying waste being lower than that for the clay cover. It is thought that where clay caps are of the order of 1.5-2 m thick, as in this case, electrical resistivity sub-surface imaging could provide a quick and reliable method of measuring the thickness non-intrusively.