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Composite Nanoparticles

Chapter · January 2014

DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-27758-0_243-3

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Composite Nanoparticles
particles using microparticle image velocimetry tech-
nique. Electrophoresis 27(4):620–627
9. Yan DG, Yang C, Huang XY (2007) Effect of finite
reservoir size on electroosmotic flow in
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10. Herr AE, Molho JI, Santiago JG, Mungal MG,
Kenny TW (2000) Electroosmotic capillary flow
with nonuniform zeta potential. Anal Chem
72(6):1053–1057
Compact Support
Definition
A function is said to have compact support if its
value vanishes outside a certain distance. In other
words, the function is nonzero only within a certain
region. In the finite element method, compact sup-
port ensures that the solution inside an element
depends only on its nodal points. In meshless
methods, the notion of compact support ensures
that the number of neighboring nodes or particles
affecting the solution at a certain point is finite.
Cross-References
▶ Finite Volume and Finite Difference Methods
for Modeling and Simulation
▶ Meshless Methods
Composite Nanoparticles
Guangsheng Luo, Le Du, Yunjun Wang and
Kai Wang
The State Key Laboratory of Chemical
Engineering, Department of Chemical
Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing,
China
Synonyms
Core/shell nanoparticles; Multifunctional
nanocomposite; Quantum dot-quantum well
(QDQW nanoparticles)
453 C
Definition
Composite nanoparticles are defined as the
nanomaterials with composite structure which
are constituted by two or more components of
nanoscale with special physical and chemical
properties. C
Mutual contact interfaces exist between the
respective components. The components with
different functionalities have significant and
strong mutual coupling effect on a nanometer
scale. Thus, the composite nanoparticles are not
simply integrating these components’ effects.
The composite nanomaterials not only enhance
intrinsic performance significantly but also show
a variety of novel features and break the limita-
tions of single-component properties. The com-
posite nanoparticles have demonstrated excellent
prospects in some important areas, such as devel-
opment of new functional materials, effective
utilization of new energy, wastewater treatment,
and biochemical medicine.
Overview
In the past two decades, composite nanoparticles
have attracted great attention for their special and
multiple properties. The synthesis of composite
nanoparticles has not been confined to simply
integration of some categories with special
effects. The structure has become much more
complex, and the scale of composite has been
reduced to less than 1–20 nm, which can be
referred to as quantum dots. According to the
structural features, composite nanoparticles can
be mainly grouped into three categories: simple
hybrid, core/shell structured composite
nanoparticles, and multifunctional quantum
dots, as shown in Fig. 1.
Synthesizing nanoparticle with core/shell
structure is a way to combine multiple function-
alities on nanocomposites. Core/shell
nanomaterials are generally composed of the
core in the center and the coated shell outside,
which are structured by a variety of materials,
including polymers, inorganics, and metals [1].
Most of the synthesis strategies are based on
C 454
Composite Nanoparticles, Fig. 1 Schematic representation for the basic structures of composite nanoparticles: (a)
simple hybrid (10–100 nm); (b) core/shell structured (10–100 nm); (c) multifunctional quantum dots (1–20 nm)
chemical incorporation, such as fluorescent or
photoreactive organic dye molecule cross-linked
shell or surface coating on a nanoparticle core.
The earlier core/shell nanoparticle architectures
were synthesized mainly for the basic research,
such as optical tracer diffusion measurements
and optimized preparation of homogeneous
nanoparticle–polymer composites. Recently, the
focus in core/shell nanoparticle design has shifted
to more complex nanoscopic core/shell architec-
tures and multiple functionalities. The core/shell
structure has exhibited the potential scientific and
medical benefits for optical, electrical, magnetic,
and catalytic applications. Especially the interest
in multifunctional biocompatible nanoscopic
core/shell systems has promoted the combination
of supramolecular surface chemistry and nano-
particle synthesis.
Semiconductor nanocrystals can be referred to
as quantum dots; the nanoparticles are composed
of Group II–VI or III–V elements. Since the
1970s, quantum dots have been applied to the
electronic and optical material field due to their
unique optical properties [2]. With the prepara-
tion of quantum dot technology developed, quan-
tum dots have been more and more widely
applied to biological research. Quantum dots
behave differently from bulk solids due to the
reduced size and quantum-confinement effects
that are responsible for their remarkably attrac-
tive properties. The size of the quantum dots has
great influence on its light absorption and emis-
sion characteristics. Quantum dot particles with
a single component are susceptible to the impu-
rities and lattice defects, and the traditional syn-
thesis generally obtains low fluorescence
quantum yield. But with another semiconductor
material coated, which means after the core/shell
Composite Nanoparticles
structure formed, the quantum yield can be
increased up to about 50–70 %. Furthermore,
the extinction coefficient has been increased by
multiple manyfold, and a strong fluorescence
emission has been formed. For instance, more
current research on quantum dots is mainly
based on CdX (X = S, Se, Te).
The strategies for composite nanoparticles can
be divided into vapor phase method, precipitation,
sol–gel, self-assembly, magnetron sputtering, and
laser synthesis. Among these methods, precipita-
tion has been paid much attention for the low-cost
process and facility to industrialization. The syn-
thesis of nanoparticles typically involves three
stages: nucleation, growth, and agglomeration.
Especially synthesizing composite nanoparticles
with efficient functionality, specific morphology
and small size, homogeneous reaction environ-
ment, and ultrafast mixing is obviously essential.
Thus, the decrease of linear dimension of the
device and the increase of temperature and con-
centration gradients are of great importance. Since
the 1990s, microfluidics has become one of the
best options to create an effective and homoge-
neous mixing environment for nanoparticle prep-
aration. Microfluidic devices can provide precise
control on mixing scale, contact area, residence
time, and reaction temperature [3]. Owing to these
advantages, microfluidics has been applied to syn-
thesize particles with novel morphologies and spe-
cial properties.
Basic Methodology
Precipitations are by far the most widely used
strategies for synthesizing composite
nanoparticles in both bulk solutions and
Composite Nanoparticles
Composite Nanoparticles, Fig. 2 Schematic representation for the basic structures and operation mode of different
microfluidic devices: (a) fast mixing flow; (b) segmented microfluidic; (c) steady laminar flow
microfluidics. Generally, two or more reactants
are employed in the reactions and the products
with low solubility precipitate, which are the
required composite nanoparticles. During the
precipitation process, nucleation, growth, and
agglomeration occur simultaneously in bulk sys-
tems due to the difficulties of isolating these
processes independently – not to mention the
complex nanocomposites via multistep reactions.
Microfluidics employs millimeter or submillime-
ter scale fabricated devices by microtechnology
and precision engineering, which exhibits precise
control and homogeneous reaction environment.
Compared with bulk reactions, microfluidics
exhibits relatively outstanding advantages of
controllability and precise operation as follows:
first of all, the intrinsic small scale of micro-
devices efficiently utilizes some expensive or
toxic chemicals with hardly any waste or pollu-
tion in the process. Secondly, the large surface
area to volume ratio of micro-devices can provide
enhanced heat and mass transfer performance
compared with traditional reactors. Thirdly, coat-
ing or growing process for some composite
nanoparticles can be easily accomplished in
micro-devices due to the massively reduced char-
acteristic time and utilization of diffusion for the
transport process. Moreover, precise control is of
great importance for preparing monodispersed
nanoparticles via multistep processes.
Microfluidic devices provide potential for accu-
rately operating, such as combining different
reactions, cross-linking, coating, growing, and
purification in one or more simple microchips.
In a word, microfluidic devices keep offering
potential opportunities for exploring and devel-
oping novel nanoparticle synthesis routes.
455 C
C
Generally microfluidic devices for synthesizing
composite nanoparticles can be mainly grouped
into four categories: fast mixing flow, segmented
microfluidic, steady laminar flow, and multistep
reactions (can be combined by the three afore-
mentioned devices). The basic structures and
operation mode are shown in Fig. 2. These dif-
ferent strategies are reviewed in this section.
Synthesis of Nanoparticles by Fast Mixing
Flow
Synthesis of nanoparticles with fast mixing flow
is by far the most widely utilized tunable strategy
in microfluidics, because a variety of reactions
can be carried out in a homogeneous liquid phase.
Fast mixing flow has exhibited the potential use
due to its high level of controllability. Generally
the flows are sprayed and interdigitated in the
outer space, so that efficient mixing is achieved
in the mixer and there is no fouling in the reactant
inlet. Thus, the monodispersity of particles was
significantly improved.
However, the strategies for synthesizing com-
posite nanoparticles usually tend to be too com-
plex to be carried out via simply fast mixing. The
design of microfluidic device requires higher
accuracy, such as position of the mixing and
size of the microchannel for multiple reactants’
contact, and also the length of channel for suffi-
cient compound or growing.
For instance, Nightingale et al. [2] developed
a continuous in situ synthesis of ZnSe/ZnS core/
shell quantum dots in a microfluidic reaction
system. Once the precursors were mixed, the
mixture solution was moved to the heating zone
for the further nucleation and growth of core and
shell of quantum dots. The continuous flow
C 456
microfluidic reaction systems have exhibited
effectively and alternatively due to precise con-
trollability of reaction conditions.
As well known, enhancing mixing and
suppressing fouling are key factors for continu-
ous fast mixing flow. Thus, the strategies usually
require low concentration, relatively high flow
rate and separation of reaction from microstruc-
tures. Single-phase flow exhibits a variety of
advantages, such as controllable operation and
high-throughput and facile separation. However,
limitations still remain in synthesizing multiple
functional composite nanoparticles only using
fast mixing flow. Because mostly, both mass
transfer and growth of nanoparticles need
multistep, it is difficult to control the mixing
conditions and the residence time. Thus, the
selection of reactants and the design of
microfluidic devices when utilizing fast mixing
flow must be handled with great caution.
Controllable Coating/Growing with Steady
Laminar Flow
Owing to the simple geometries of microfluidic
devices, fluid behavior is primarily influenced by
viscosity rather than inertia, which results in lam-
inar flow. Thus, diffusion is effective for moving
and mixing reactants on the micrometer to milli-
meter length scales in laminar flow. The mixing
process only by diffusion in microfluidic systems
is slow, which goes against fast nucleation for
nanoparticles. However, the hydrodynamic flow
in microchannels can be fairly directed and
highly symmetric. Compared to macroscale
tubes in which flow regimes are always turbulent,
it is beneficial to synthesize composite
nanoparticles needing growth or coating process.
With reactants mixing and reacting under
diffusion-based laminar flow, reaction time, tem-
perature, diffusion rate, and reactant concentra-
tions are the typical control parameters for the
synthesis of composite nanomaterials.
Coaxial flow microchannel is one of the most
widely used laminar flow microchannels. For
instance, Hong et al. [4] used microfluidic hydro-
dynamic focusing to control the convective–-
diffusive mixing of two miscible nanoparticle
precursor solutions. By varying microfluidic
Composite Nanoparticles
mixing conditions, they were able to control the
size of the liposome molds that encapsulated the
gel precursor. The microfluidic approach can be
customized for the synthesis of a wide variety of
soft nanoparticles that are currently prepared via
bulk methods.
Laminar flow microfluidic devices have
exhibited some advantages such as simplicity
and high flexibility for operating, and also ease
for manufacture. But some serious problems still
remain, including frequent blockage of the chan-
nel and fouling on the channel surface with
a relatively high product polydispersity. Further-
more, the laminar flow leads to a broad residence-
time distribution, which causes the generation of
large particles and wide particle size distributions.
Thus, the design and manufacture of microfluidic
devices when utilizing steady laminar flow must
be carried out with great caution. And sometimes,
enhancing the mixing performance in laminar flow
microfluidic devices is an extremely important
objective especially in the initial stage of synthe-
sizing composite nanoparticles.
Synthesis of Nanoparticles via Segmented
Flow Microfluidic Devices
Segmented flow is based on multiphase flows in
microfluidics, which have been applied in nano-
particle preparation. One strategy is processing
without interphase mass transfer, which means
a continuous phase flow is introduced to form
downstream a non-coalescing train of droplets/
bubbles to overcome blockage or fouling of chan-
nels and control the residence time in the micro-
device. Especially for the highly uniform com-
posite nanoparticles, this strategy can provide
relatively precise control over the synthesis. Gen-
erally, the reactants are introduced into the main
channel, and droplets/bubbles are formed by
a strong shearing force of the continuous phase.
The inert phase is usually used to control the
subsequent step and isolate the reactants from
the channel. This strategy prevents not only clog-
ging by introducing an inert phase but also
intense advection within the reactants droplets.
Another strategy is processing with interphase
mass transfer, which means two or more fluid
phases are involved in the reaction. By adjusting
Composite Nanoparticles
concentrations of the different phases and flow
rates, droplets/bubbles with different shapes and
sizes are generated. In this situation, mass transfer
and chemical reaction can significantly influence
the interfacial tension and flow patterns. For
multiphase flow, appropriate microfluidics can
facilitate the synthesis of composite nanoparticles
with complex structures and special functions.
Chang et al. [5] utilized microtubes to gener-
ate micro-segmented flow. Upon surface modifi-
cation, the prepared nanoparticles were mixed
with a monomer and emulsified into uniform
droplets in a capillary-based microfluidic device.
The microchannel-based reactor offered reliable
control over the nanocomposite products by pre-
cisely adjusting the interfacial tension.
The gas–liquid-based segmented flow offers
easy separation of gas from liquid, but still suffers
from clogging since the composite nanoparticles
produced may contact the channel wall. In con-
trast, the liquid–liquid segmented flow approach
encapsulates the reactants in liquid droplets to
avoid contacting with channel walls. Further-
more, the droplets or plugs can be precisely con-
trolled and delivered in microfluidic reactors.
Segmented flow has been intensively investi-
gated in recent years, and more functionalized
composite nanoparticles such as magnetic
nanoparticles, quantum dots, or drugs have been
successfully synthesized.
Multistep Continuous Synthesis
Generally, the complex structure and morphol-
ogy of composite nanoparticles are difficult to be
obtained by single step. Thus, a multistep contin-
uous synthesis in a microfluidic device is
expected to provide qualified functional products
with improved controllability for complicated
reactions. The process is carried out by precisely
combining all of the three strategies as mentioned
before.
Hassan et al. [6] synthesized magnetic and fluo-
rescent core/shell g-Fe2O3@silica nanoparticles as
a model for demonstrating the practicability of the
multistep microchemical synthesis. The choice of
this system was motivated by numerous applica-
tions of these core/shell nanoparticles in the bio-
medical field and the need for scale-up. Moreover,
457 C
the possibility of carrying out further online mod-
ifications of the silica surface and online detection
has been demonstrated.
In a continuous flow system, reactions are
performed at steady state, which makes it possi-
ble to achieve better control and reproducibility.
Furthermore, the ability to manipulate reactant C
concentrations in both space and time also pro-
vides a high level of reaction control than that of
bulk stirred reactors. The spatial and temporal
controls of chemical reactions in microfluidic
devices are useful to control and alter chemical
reactivity according to the preliminary design.
And usually multistep synthesis can produce par-
ticles with fairly complex shapes and functional-
ities. However, the coalescence between
droplets, the stability of flows after several
times of mixing, and the controllability of the
fluid by multistep still remain to be improved.
Key Research Findings
As described above, the controllability and mass
transfer performance provided by microfluidics
are well suited for the synthesis and modification
of composite nanoparticles. Microfluidic envi-
ronments have huge potential for the precise
aggregation or encapsulation of composite
nanoparticles to produce higher-order and accu-
rate structures with multifunctional properties.
According to the structural features, composite
nanoparticles can be mainly grouped into three
categories: simple hybrid, core/shell structured
composite nanoparticles, and multifunctional
quantum dots. Novel research findings on these
different categories are reviewed in this section.
Relatively Simple Hybrid Composite
Nanoparticles
The synthesis of hybrid nanostructured materials
has become a major interdisciplinary area of
research over recent decades. Hybrid composite
nanoparticles with relatively simple structure are
the most adjustably synthesized materials in
microfluidics. Generally, just an appropriate reac-
tants ratio, proper time for mixing and mass trans-
fer, and relatively precise operation can synthesize
C 458
the hybrid composite nanoparticles by a single
step. Thus, fast mixing process and laminar flow
approaches are most widely used for synthesizing
simple hybrid composite nanoparticles.
Hong et al. [4] presented a microfluidic
method to direct the assembly of liposome–poly
(N-isopropylacrylamide) hybrid nanoparticles.
The approach utilized microfluidic hydrody-
namic focusing to control the diffusive mixing
of two miscible liquids that separately contained
the precursors to the hybrid nanoparticles. By
varying the volumetric flow rate ratio of the aque-
ous outer streams to the central stream, the
convective–diffusive mixing conditions at the
interface are changed, and thereby the size of
the composite nanoparticles can be controlled.
The nanoparticle size distributions can be ranged
from 150 to 300 nm by controlling microfluidic
mixing conditions. The approach can be useful in
therapeutic agent delivery and cellular uptake
applications, which often requires different car-
rier materials and specific sizes to target different
types of cells.
Similarly, Lan et al. [7] developed a one-step
microfluidic method for fabricating
nanoparticle-coated patchy particles. A coaxial
microfluidic device was employed to produce
Janus droplets composed of curable phase and
non-curable phase. The results showed that
nanoparticles were dispersed either in the con-
tinuous fluid or the non-curable phase fluid. The
nanoparticles (30 nm or 300–500 nm) were
adsorbed onto the interface between these
phases, and the curable phase was solidified by
UV-irradiated polymerization. Thus, the patchy
microparticles asymmetrically coated by
nanoparticles were synthesized. They also
employed SiO2, TS-1, and fluorescent polysty-
rene nanoparticles as the coating materials to
demonstrate the validity of the method. The
microfluidic approach exhibited excellent con-
trollability in morphology, monodispersity, and
size for the nanocomposites. The morphology of
the particles could be controlled from less than
a hemisphere to a sphere by adjusting the flow
rate ratio of the two dispersed phases. The
method can be applied to other nanoparticles
with specific surface properties.
Composite Nanoparticles
Core/Shell Structured Composite
Nanoparticles
Core/shell materials exhibit some unique advan-
tages compared with uniform particles. Most of
the varied electronic, photonic, and chemical
properties of composite nanoparticles can be
formed with tailored structure and composition.
Furthermore, a robust shell can provide
a protective, biocompatible, or inert surface
with desired hydrophobic/hydrophilic wetting
ability. Typical particle cores can be polymeric,
inorganic, or metallic with size between 2 nm and
10 mm [8]. Generally, the synthesis of qualified
core/shell nanoparticles is of great difficulty to
precisely control the tailored structure. Any small
mistakes will lead to the final failure. Thus, pre-
cise and controllable microfluidic strategies such
as laminar and segmented flow are required.
Almost all the strategies are based on multistep
continuous synthesis.
As reported above, Hassan et al. [6]
developed a multistep continuous flow
synthesis of magnetic and fluorescent core/
shell g-Fe2O3@SiO2 nanoparticles by using
several flow-focusing microreactors. Three
microreactors were connected in series, each
one acting as a micro-unit for a defined opera-
tion. The first microreactor enabled the grafting
of (3-aminopropyl) triethoxysilane on the sur-
face of g-Fe2O3 nanoparticles previously coated
by citrate ligands. The second microreactor
enabled the fast mixing of the modified
magnetic nanoparticles with the fluorescent sil-
ica shell precursors TEOS and APTES
labeled with the fluorescent dye rhodamine B.
The final microreactor served for the
hydrolysis–condensation reaction of the silica pre-
cursors catalyzed by NH3 onto the magnetic
nanoparticles. TEM images of composite nanopar-
ticle showed almost spherical core/shell structure
with an average overall size of 50 nm with one or
more magnetic cores of g-Fe2O3 (5–10 nm). TEM
images also confirmed the acceleration of the coat-
ing process, as core/shell structures were observed
after only 7 min compared to several hours in
a conventional batch reactor.
Gomez et al. [9] prepared SiO2–Au
nanoshells in a three-stage microfluidic system.
Composite Nanoparticles
Some variation in the final nanoshell size
(100–200 nm) was obtained as a consequence
of the particle size distribution of the silica cores
(2–4 nm), which was caused by the radial veloc-
ity profiles leading to a range of reaction times in
the first reaction stage. In spite of this,
nanoshells with suitable properties were
obtained with good reproducibility. The synthe-
sis was carried out continuously and, in
a controlled manner, provided that a fast mixing
of the reactants was achieved in each stage. By
comparison, the same process carried out in
a batch reactor system was considerably more
expensive in terms of time, reactants, and more
heterogeneous products.
Multifunctional Quantum Dots
Quantum dots have attracted great interest,
especially in recent 10 years, which is probably
due to the ease of using online characterization
methods (absorption and fluorescence spectros-
copy) to study their synthesis process. Fluores-
cence has been mostly used because of its
simplicity of implementation in microscopic
formats and its widespread use as a sensitive
and quantitative spectroscopic tool. Usually sev-
eral hours are required to prepare crystalline
quantum dots with different size using batch
experiments at atmospheric pressure, and even
longer reaction times are needed to produce
larger quantum dots through traditional ripening
process. The development of microfluidic
devices allows access to synthesize high integ-
rity quantum dots within minutes, with the par-
ticles having high crystallinity, strong emission,
and narrow size distribution. Thus, fast mixing
process and segmented flow approaches are
most widely used for synthesizing
multifunctional quantum dots.
As reported above, Kwon et al. [2] developed
a continuous in situ synthesis of ZnSe/ZnS core/
shell quantum dots in a microfluidic reaction
system. For the successful synthesis of ZnSe/
ZnS core/shell quantum dots using
a microfluidic reaction system, the optimized
synthetic condition of ZnSe quantum dots should
be confirmed before the shell coating for further
comparison between ZnSe and ZnSe/ZnS
459 C
quantum dots. The particle size of the ZnSe quan-
tum dots was 3.17  0.45 nm. Nightingale
et al. [10] modified the non-coordinating
solvent-based synthesis procedure to effectively
control the synthesis of high-quality InP quantum
dots in simple microfluidic devices. The
microfluidic devices which were simple in struc- C
ture provided a remarkable degree of control over
the dots’ properties. The microfluidic systems
comprised a single capillary immersed in
a heated oil bath, through which premixed
reagents can be driven hydrodynamically. The
emission spectra were affected varying the flow
rate, temperature, and indium content. The results
show that the yielding quantum dots were of
comparable quality (5–10 nm) to those obtained
using bulk methods. In addition, as with II–VI
syntheses, it was obviously feasible to employ
much more complicated fluidic architectures
which could enable nucleation and growth pro-
cesses to be effectively separated in time and to
offer a promising route to preparing quantum dots
with improved monodispersity.
Future Directions for Research
Composite nanoparticles have been attracting
interest in the past decades, and the development
of microfluidic technologies provides a variety of
novel strategies for synthesizing the nanometer-
or micrometer-sized nanocomposites. The pro-
gress in multifunctional composite nanoparticle
design is really overwhelming both in amount
and quality of contributions being published in
this field. Microfluidics provides precise control
and analysis of effective transfer and uniform
reaction conditions to produce composite
nanoparticles with tailored structure, particle
size, and physical and chemical properties. How-
ever, the quality, functionality, and yield of nano-
particle remain to be enhanced. Especially in the
designed particles with distinct structures such as
core/shell, hybrid particles, or quantum dots, it is
still of great difficulty to realize the large-scale
production.
For further development and applications of
microfluidic technology and related composite
C 460
nanoparticles, more extensive studies should be
carried on, which include:
1. It is highly required to design new composite
nanoparticles with new structures, different
morphologies, or special components for
extensive applications.
2. Simple devices and green synthesis technolo-
gies should be developed to provide more
precise control abilities at nanoscale and
microscale to meet high demands from
increasingly complex composite nanoparticles
with multifunction.
3. Fundamental principles and CFD simulation
of multiphase microflows remain to be further
investigated.
4. Scaling up strategies of microfluidic processes
should be exploited to realize large-scale
production of composite nanoparticles for
industrial applications.
Considering the rapid development in
microfluidic technology, the controllable prepa-
ration of composite nanoparticles with
microfluidics will obtain another breakthrough
with developments of novel approaches of the
micro-dispersion and new microfluidic theories.
We certainly will see more and more applications
of highly sophisticated systems in the very near
future.
Acknowledgement We gratefully acknowledge the sup-
port of the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(21036002) and the National Basic Research Program of
China (2012CBA01203) on this work.
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Compression Ratio
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Compression Ratio
Definition
In a ▶ positive displacement pump, a moving
boundary changes the volume of a pump cham-
ber. The compression ratio is the ratio of the
difference between the maximum and minimum
volume (also called the stroke volume), and the
minimum volume (or dead volume).
Cross-References
▶ Dead Volume
▶ Electrostatic Valves
▶ Magnetic Pumps
▶ Membrane Actuation for Micropumps
▶ Microactuators
▶ Peristaltic Pumps
▶ Piezoelectric Valves
▶ Pneumatic Valves
▶ Positive Displacement Pump
▶ Stroke Volume
▶ Thermomechanical Valves
▶ Thermopneumatic Valve