This module contains three (2) lessons, namely:

LESSON 1 – FORMATION OF THE ELEMENTS DURING THE BIGBANG THEORY

AND DURING STELLAR EVOLUTION; and
LESSON 2 – ATOMIC CONCEPT

At the end of this module, the student is expected to:

 give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star
formation and evolution; and
 explain how the concept of atomic number led to the synthesis of new elements
in the laboratory.

General Instructions: Answer all the activities on this module. Use separate sheets of
paper for your answers.

Activity I. MODEL OF AN EXPANDING UNIVERSE. Perform the following activity

individually.
Objective: To demonstrate and explain the concept of the Big Bang Theory and the
expansion of the Universe.
Materials: One (1) round balloon, colored pens (at least 5 different colors), a 50 cm-
long string, tape measure, stopwatch or other timer
Procedures:

1. Setting up the balloon

a. Inflate and hold the balloon. Blow up the balloon slowly and close the opening,
but do not tie it up.
b. Randomly mark five different colors of dots over the whole balloon. Each dot
represents a whole galaxy, with the balloon being the space that they exist in.
c. Choose one of the dots to be your point of reference.
2. Measuring the distances
a. Use tape measure to determine the distance between two dots.
b. When you have measured the distance, write it down in your table in the D1
column.
c. Measure the distances from the “reference” dot to all the other dots as well and
fill in that column of the table. Note: The distance from your “reference” dot to itself is
zero.
3. Now carefully blow the balloon right up, using the stopwatch to time how long it
takes. Write down the time in seconds.
4. Repeat procedure 1-c and write them down in the D2 column of your table.
5. You now need to work out the speed of each galaxy. Speed=Distance/Time
6. Here, the Distance travelled is the difference between D1 and D2, so calculate D2-D1 for each
of your dots and write them in the 4 th column on the table.
7. The Time taken is the time to blow the balloon up. Work out the speed (v) for each dot and
put it into the 5th column. Because your “reference” dot has not moved, its speed will be zero.

Table 1.1 Distance and Speed of the dots in every balloon

Second Change in
First Distance Speed (v)
Color of Dot Distance (D2) Distance
(D1) in cm D1 – D2 in cm in
in cm
cm/second

Time to fully inflate the balloon: seconds

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Subject: Physical Science – Module 1
Questions:
1. How do the dots move relative to one another as the balloon expands?

2. How does the inflated balloon serve as a good model for the expanding universe?

3. In what ways might this balloon be not a good model for the expanding universe?

Introduction

“One may say that time had a beginning at the big bang, in the sense that earlier
times simply would not be defined. …One can imagine that God created the universe at
literally any time in the past… if the universe is expanding, there may be a physical
reasons why there had to be a beginning. One could still imagine that God created the
universe at the instant of the big bang, or even afterwards in just such way as to make it
look as though there had been a big bang, but it would be meaningless to suppose that
it was created before the big bang. An expanding universe does not preclude a creator,
but it does place limits on when he might have carried out his job.”
Stephen W. Hawking (1988) in his book A Brief History of Time
Elements
Elements are made up of tiny particles, the neutron, proton and electron.
Hydrogen and Helium are the elements that exist in the early beginning. Early in the
Big Bang, it was a tiny elementary particle. As the Universe expanded and cooled, there
was a period of proton-proton chain reaction wherein protons were fuse into Helium.
The Universe ran into a problem. Red giant cores get past this via the Triple-Alpha
process, but the Universe expands right through this possibility and the
density/temperature are quickly too low to synthesis any additional elements.

Activity II. SHORT ESSAY: Examine Figure 1.1 and briefly describe
Nucleosynthesis. Note: The figure 1.1 is in the What is It part of this module.

FORMATION OF to
Watch this video THE ELEMENTS
understand moreDURING THE
about our BIGBANG
lesson for theTHEORY
Big Bang AND DURING
Theory.
STELLAR EVOLUTION

The Big Bang Theory

A Ukrainian-American theoretical physicist and cosmologist, Georgiy Antonovich
Gamow, postulated that the Cosmos was just a single point in space which was
compact, dense and hot, the hypothetical singularity. All came from a gigantic explosion
of a super massive matter and energy, 14 billion years ago. Everything in the Universe
must have originated from a violent explosion known as the “Big Bang”.
Big Bang suggests that nothing existed before the Big Bang. There was no time
and no space.

Nucleogenesis and Nucleosynthesis

In order to know where elements come from or why some elements are common
on Earth while others are rare, scientists have to study some distant stars or the nearest
star which is the sun. By studying the stars and sun, scientists have formed models and
theories about the origin of matter on Earth.

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Subject: Physical Science – Module 1
 Nucleosynthesis or nucleogenesis is the process of making new atomic nuclei by
nuclear fusion of two or more nucleons. The nucleons are composed of protons and
neutrons, so it can produce new isotopes of an element, or a completely new element,
depending on the number and types of particles that are involved. There are several
processes that contribute to nucleosynthesis just like Big Bang Nucleosynthesis,
Stellar Nucleosynthesis, Supernova Nucleosynthesis, Cosmic Ray Spallation,
Neutron Star Collision and Nuclear Reactions. But this module will concentrate only
on the first three processes.

https://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook/32_n-synth/nucleosynthesis.php
Figure 1.1 Nucleosynthesis

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

To manufacture what we call “matter”, Big Bang must occur first. An enormous
cloud of immensely hot gas and dust known as primordial soup burst apart in the Big
Bang. Big Bang provides the greatest energy. Just a second after the Big Bang,
temperature fell to 100 billion degrees Kelvin, so high that the universe was filled with
primordial soup of quarks and leptons. Then the quarks bind together into free protons
and neutrons. Later on protons and neutrons fuse forming new atomic nuclei.
The quantity of proton signifies what element is formed. For example, Hydrogen
has one proton while Helium has two protons. On the other hand, neutron has a neutral
charge and easily absorbed by the nuclei. Therefore, nuclei could also have extra
neutrons with the same number of protons or isotopes just like Deuterium and Tritium,
known isotopes of Hydrogen. The process of adding protons to protons changed one
element to another element.
The rate of nucleosynthesis had slowed down as the universe had cooled to a
few billion Kelvin. The process also stopped when the universe was three minutes old.
The abundance of the elements was fixed at ratios that did not change for very long
time: 75% hydrogen, 25% helium, with trace amounts of deuterium (hydrogen-2),
helium-3, and lithium-7. The Big Bang Nucleosynthesis produced no elements heavier
than lithium. To do that you need stars, this means waiting around for at least 200 billion
years.

Watch the video link below about the Big Bang Theory.

Video link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GncYOf29uc4

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Subject: Physical Science – Module 1
Formation of Heavier Elements
When deuterium collided with hydrogen, it formed into helium. The chain of
reactions synthesized different isotopes of helium and it formed into beryllium and then
to lithium to boron.

https://images.app.goo.gl/uBoFsBPJ8eF9x5P29
Figure 1.2. Light elements produced in the first few minutes of Big Bang

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
All stars are formed by the aggregation of interstellar “dust”, which is mostly
hydrogen. This hydrogen exists at tremendously high pressure and hot temperatures,
forming dense plasma of ionized hydrogen nuclei. At this point, self-sustaining nuclear
reactions begin, and the stars “ignites”, creating a yellow star like our sun.

https://images.app.goo.gl/6sde4poTQnwBTTYMA
Figure 1.3. Nuclear reactions during the life cycle of a massive star

At each stage in the lifetime of a star, a different fuel is used for nuclear fusion,
resulting in the formation of different elements. As star ages, helium accumulates and
begins to “burn”, undergoing fusion to form heavier elements such as carbon and
oxygen. The heaviest elements are formed only during the final death throes of the star-
the formation of a nova or supernova.

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Subject: Physical Science – Module 1
Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion occurs when energy can be obtained when very light nuclei are
combined to form heavier nuclei. In stars, energy is produced out of the combination of
hydrogen nuclei, where they fuse together and release high amount of energy.

https://images.app.goo.gl/bLjdjk8F6Mg9BmEq8
Figure 1.4 Nuclear Fusion

In the first stage of its life, the star is powered by a series of nuclear fusion
reactions that convert hydrogen to helium. Four hydrogen atoms combine in the sun to
make a helium atom and high energy gamma rays. This nuclear fusion of hydrogen
occurs in three steps that involve two isotopes of hydrogen namely the ordinary
hydrogen 1 1 H and deuterium 2 1 H. The three steps are as follows:
1
1 H + 1 H 1
2
1H + 0
1 
2
1H + 1 1H
3
2He + 0
0
3
2 He + 3
2 He
4
2 He + 1
1 H + 1
1H

The large amounts of helium-4 formed become concentrated in the core of the star,
which slowly becomes denser and hotter. At a temperature of about 2 x 108 K, the
helium nuclei begin to fuse, producing beryllium- 8:
24 2He 8
Be

Despite the even mass number and an even atomic number of beryllium- 8, it is still
unstable because of low neutron-to-proton ratio, decomposing it in only about 10-16s.
But this is still long enough for it to react with a third helium-4 nucleus to form carbon-
12, which is very stable.
Huge amount of energy is released by the reactions causing the surrounding
mass of hydrogen to expand, producing a red giant star that is about 100 times larger
than the original yellow star.

Supernova Nucleosynthesis
All naturally occurring elements heavier than nickel are formed in the cataclysmic
explosions called supernovas. When the fuel in the core of a very massive star has
been consumed, it collapses due to gravity. As the core is compressed, the iron and
nickel nuclei within it disintegrate to protons and neutrons. This forms a dense and dark
neutron star where atoms no longer exist. The energy released by the collapse of the
core causes the supernova to explode. The explosive force blows star’s matter into
space, creating a gigantic and rapidly expanding dust cloud known as nebula.

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Subject: Physical Science – Module 1
Activity III ESSAY. Answer the following questions in a separate sheet of paper. Make
your answers in paragraph form.

1. What is the process that produces elements in the stars?

2. How can nuclear fusion result in the formation of heavier elements?

3. What is supernova?

For more than 2000 years, scientists and philosophers tried to find answers to
the question regarding the composition of matter. Using variety of experiments,
obervations, and indirect evidence, after 2400 years, they were able to find a solution to
the problem of what composes matter.
To have a firsthand experience of looking for indirect evidence in finding an
answer to a problem, you have to do the following activity.

Activity I. Finding Indirect Evidence in Solving a Problem

Procedure:
1. Prepare the following materials: 2 glasses, water, soap, and flashlight.
2. Fill two glasses with water. They must be completely full.
3. Set aside one glass of water and leave it alone.
4. Put a pea-size piece of soap to the other glass of water. Stir it to dissolve the soap.
5. Turn off all the lights in the room (or cover your room to make it dark). Make sure it is in
complete darkness.
6. Shine a flashlight beam horizontally on the side of the soapy water just below the level of the
surface water.
7. Repeat the pocedure this time with the glass of plain water.
8. Observe and record the effect of light beam on each glass of water.

Guide Questions:
1. Compare the effects of light on the plain water and on the soapy water.
2. What is the reason for the effect of light on the soapy water?
3. What is the reason for having a glass of plain water?

Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Atom

The development of the atomic model of matter started form the early Greek
concept of the atom in the 5 th century B.C.E. Greek philosophers and thinkers were the
first to describe matter and to wonder whether matter could be divided infinitely into
smaller pieces or if there was a limit to the number of times a piece of matter could be
divided. Foremost among them was the Greek philosopher Democritus who, after much
observation and thoughtful questioning, concluded that matter could not be divided into
smaller and smaller pieces infinitely.

List of Greek philosophers and their beliefs about atom:

Anaximenes during 585-524 B.C. believed that ais is the primary substance and
suggested that it could be transformed into other substances by thinning (fire) or
thickening (wind, clouds, rain, hail, erath and rock).

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Subject: Physical Science – Module 1
 Heraclitus of Ephesus during 544-484 B.C. said that the primeval substance is
fire and change is the only reality.
Empedocles during 450 B.C. is the first Greek philosopher who conceptualized
that all matter is made of earth, water, air and fire.
Leucippus and Democritus during 440 B.C. proposed that matter is made up of
invisible particles or atoms. Leucippus started this idea that atoms had to exist because
things were constantly changing in nature. Further concept of atom was actually
preserved and developed by Democritus. According to him, atoms are indivisible or
uncuttable, thus regarded as the basic building block of nature and the entire universe.
He also believed that everything in nature is formed by random collision of
unseen atoms. But this idea was largely rejected for thousands of years in favor of the
concepts of Aristotle.

Activity II. Enumeration. Enumerate the five (5) ideas of the Atomic Theory proposed
by John Dalton.

ATOMIC CONCEPT

John Dalton’s experiments eventually led to the acceptance of the idea of the atom. In
1803, he proposed an atomic theory that says:

a. Atoms are indivisible particles and all elements are composed of atoms.
b. Same elements have exactly alike atoms.
c. While atoms of same elements are the same, atoms of different elements are
different.
d. Two or more atoms of elements can be combined to form compounds. They combine
in fixed ratios of whole numbers forming particles of molecules.
e. Atoms are units of chemical change which involves combinations or rearrangements
of atoms where they are not created, destroyed, or changed.

Atomic Models
In 1808, John Dalton described the atom as an indivisible solid particle. He
thought that each element has its own kind of atom. In the early 1900s several scientists
made experimental investigations that reshaped Dalton’s idea of the atom.

Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model of the Atom

In 1897, J.J. Thomson, an English scientist, first speculated
that the atom is made up of even smaller particles. He researched
on the conduction of electirc current through gases at low pressure.
He used a magnet and cathode ray tube to demonstrate and found
out that electron, a negatively charged is part of the atom. After
discovering electrons, he proposed an atomic model known as
“Plum Pudding Model.” In this model, the atom is made up of
positively charged substance which spreads very thinly in the form of
a sphere. Embedded into its sphere are electrons. It was also assumed that the total
positive charge is equal to total negative charge, indicating that atoms are electrically
neutral.

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Subject: Physical Science – Module 1
Rutherford’s Model of the Atom
In 1908, Ernest Rutherford, a student of
J.J. Thomson, studied the other parts of the
atom. He conducted an experiment in which
he shot alpha particles through gold foil and
determined whether these particles were
deflected. He found out that most of the
particles made it through the foil but some
particles were deflected in other directions,
including straight back to their source. He later
on concluded that atom was mostly in empty
space and the positively charged particle
(proton) were concentrated in the nucleus
within the atom and the negatively charged electrons surround the nucleus.

Bohr’s Model of the Atom

Neils Bohr made the next fundamental revision

of Rutherford’s model. In 1913, he proposed an
atomic model where electrons are placed on a
specific energy level. This electron moved in
definite orbits around the nucleus just like the
movement of planets around the sun in the
solar system. These orbits or energy levels
were located at certain distances around the
nucleus.

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

Nucleus is found at the center of the atom. Ninety-nine percent of the mass of the atom
is located in this core.
Protons are positively charged sub-particle found in the nucleus of an atom. The mass
of a proton is 1 a.m.u.
Neutrons are electrically neutral. It has no charge. In 1932, James Chadwick
bombarded a thin sheet of beryllium with alpha particles. During the process, a high-
energy radiation was emitted by the metal and the emission was not deflected by either
electric or magnetic fields.
Electrons are negatively charged particle. Its mass is 1/1836 a.m.u. The location of the
electron in the cloud depends on the energy it possesses. An electron with lower energy
level is located to the nucleus while that with higher energy level is located far from the
nucleus.

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Subject: Physical Science – Module 1
Activity III. Concept Map. Complete the concept map using the following terms:
electrons, neutrons, matter, nucleus, proton, outside nucleus, atoms.
Copy this in your answer sheets.

Activity IV. IDENTIFICATION. Identify the following based on what you have learned.

1. He proposed a model of an atom where each electron is placed in a certain

energy level and are located at certain distances around the nucleus.
2. It is an atomic model proposed by Thomson where an atom is made up of
positively charged particle spread thinly in a form of a sphere where there are
electrons attached into this sphere.
3. He discovered an uncharged particle located in the nucleus of the atom.
4. It is equal to the number of protons in an atom and is the unique identification of
a particular atom.
5. He is a Greek philosopher who conceptualized that an element is made up of
earth, wind, fire and water.

Activity V. SHOW WHAT YOU KNOW. Identify each Atomic Model and write who
proposed that atomic model.

1. Atomic model: 3. Atomic model:

2. Proponent: 4. Proponent:

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Subject: Physical Science – Module 1
Activity VI-A. Matching Type. Answer the following items using the terms found inside
the Atomic Box.
“Atomic Box”

mass number nucleosynthesis Greeks

Edwin Hubble Romans elements

nucleogenesis universe nucleus

John Dalton atomic model Democritus

1. The is equal to the number of protons and neutrons.

2. The elements of the present universe were formed in a process known as .
3. It is the process of making a new atomic nuclei by nuclear fusion of two or more
nucleons.
4. The started in a great explosion called Big Bang.
5. He deduced that galaxies are continuously moving away from one another.
6. The development of the atomic model started with the .
7. The is found at the center of the atom.
8. He proposed a theory about the idea of the atom, and one of his atomic theory
states that matter is composed of small indivisible particles called atoms.

Activity VI-B. True or False. Write T if the statement is true, otherwise write F.

9. J.J. Thomson concluded based on his experiment that atom was mostly in empty
space and the positively charged protons were concentrated in the nucleus within
the atom and the negatively charged electrons surround the nucleus.
10. The neutrons are neutral subatomic particles of an atom which are found in the
nucleus together with the protons.
11. Aristotle concluded that matter is made up of indivisible pieces of matter called
atoms.
12. Heavier elements were formed in a process called nucleosynthesis.
13. Helium is the most common element found in stars.
14. Nitrogen 14 (14N) is an isotope with 7 protons and 7 neutrons.
15. Atoms of the same elements are mostly identical because most elements have
two or more isotopes.

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Subject: Physical Science – Module 1