Spill Prevention, Preparedness, and Response Program
Focus on: Environmental Harm from Oil Spills
Oil spills harm organisms and their habitats. Here, a large biodiesel fuel spill is coating debris and shoreline.
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Natural Resource Damage
Assessment Unit
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Spill Prevention, Preparedness,
and Response Program
ecology.wa.gov/SpillsProgram
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Publication 10-08-001
The Department of Ecology responds to oil or hazardous material spills
that pose an imminent threat to life, public health, or the environment.
If we know the type of oil spilled, we can select the right response
equipment and estimate the potential long-term impacts.
Impact of oil on the environment
When oil spills into the environment, plants, animals, and their habitats
are injured. Organisms such as plankton, plants, invertebrates, fish,
birds, and mammals live in habitats that include water, sediments,
beaches, wetlands, and forests. The level of impact the oil has depends
on many things, including the life stage of the organism (egg, larvae,
juvenile, adult), the time of year (wet or dry season), and other
disturbances, such as the presence of invasive species and the chronic
effects of the oil spilled. Although we do not know the total effects of oil
on the environment, we can make some generalities.
The following information is a guide to the potential harm that an oil
spill can cause.
Acute toxicity, mechanical injury, and persistence
Oil has three main environmental impacts:
• Acute (immediate) toxicity — A measure of the amount of volatile
compounds in the oil that readily dissolve into water and are
capable of killing plants and animals by poisoning. (Volatility is a
measure of how readily a substance vaporizes.) Inhalation of the
volatile compounds in the air may also kill by poisoning.
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• Mechanical injury — A measure of how much
harm oil causes to organisms and habitats due to
its physical impact (coating, smothering).
• Persistence — A measure of how long oil will stay
in the environment before it breaks down.
The specific effects of oil on the environment differ
depending on environmental conditions and the type
of oil spilled. The history of the oil can also play a
role. Used oils, waste oils, and mixtures of oils may
have different effects than fresh products.
Crude oil is processed to create refined products with
varying properties. Lighter, more refined oils have
higher concentrations of toxic components. Heavier oils
tend to have lower concentrations of toxic components,
but are more persistent in the environment.
Environmental conditions play a role in harm caused
by oil. Higher temperatures and/or winds create
conditions resulting in faster evaporation of volatile
products. Higher wind and wave conditions can mix
water into some oils, creating a mousse that is more
viscous (thick, sticky).
Bigger waves will also mix more of the oil into the
water column, increasing toxic effects, making it
important to know both the type of oil spilled as well
as the current environmental conditions, such as air
and water temperature, wind speed, wave height,
salinity, humidity, and direct sunlight.
Publication 10-08-001 September 2019 (revised)
Acute toxicity
Acute toxicity is a measure of the ability of a
substance to cause severe biological harm or death
by poisoning soon after a single exposure. Volatile
compounds in the oil can readily dissolve into the
water and kill plants and animals on contact. They
evaporate quickly, adversely affecting organisms that
breathe air, such as birds and mammals.
The following are relative acute toxicity
characteristics of various oils in order of most to least
toxic:
Gasoline, aviation fuel (AvGas), and naphtha
contain high levels of volatile compounds (essentially
100% will evaporate) and are the most acutely toxic
(lethal) petroleum products to organisms.
Jet fuel, kerosene, and No.1 fuel oil are
intermediate in acute toxicity, between gasoline and
diesel (80% to 90% will evaporate). The Navy uses
JP-5 (a type of jet fuel) for all shipboard fuel
requirements, including equipment that normally
uses diesel.
Diesel fuel, home heating oil, and No.2 fuel oil
contain some volatile compounds that are acutely
toxic to organisms (50% to 70% will evaporate).
Bunker fuel (intermediate fuel oil [IFO]-380, fuel
oil #6) contains no volatile compounds and is
generally not acutely toxic. However, adding diesel or
other solvents to most bunker fuel makes it burn
better. This increases the acute toxicity. Some IFOs
have shown acute toxicity when combined with
sunlight (phototoxicity).
Crude oil contains all components of refined
petroleum products (except additives), including
volatile compounds. It is acutely toxic to organisms
during the early stages of a spill incident (30% to
40% will evaporate).
Biological oils (lard, butter, fish oil, and vegetable
oil) are not petroleum-based, do not contain volatile
compounds, and are not generally considered toxic.
Some biological oils have petroleum additives that
increase their toxicity.
Lubricating oils (grease, gear oil, motor oil,
hydraulic oil, mineral oil) contain no volatiles and
have low acute toxicity.
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Dead fish and worms from a gasoline spill in Whatcom
Creek.
Mechanical injury
Mechanical injury is a measure of how much harm
oil causes due to its physical characteristics. This is
sometimes called the “coating” effect because oils
which are thick and sticky (viscous) tend to coat
plants and animals to a level that causes physical
injury. For example, loss of insulation, mobility,
possible smothering, etc., may occur. These oils can
also plug up crevices in habitat. The following are
relative mechanical injury characteristics of various
oils in order of most to least injurious:
Bunker fuel (IFO-380, fuel oil #6) is extremely
viscous and sticky and presents a major mechanical
injury threat.
Crude oils and the mousse they can produce are
viscous and present a serious mechanical injury
threat.
Lubricating oils (grease, gear oil, motor oil,
hydraulic oil, mineral oil) are somewhat viscous and
present a moderate mechanical injury threat.
Biological oils are somewhat viscous and present a
mechanical injury threat similar to lubrication oils.
Diesel fuel, home heating oil, and No. 2 fuel oils
are not viscous and present a minimal mechanical
injury threat, but loss of insulation can be a
significant concern for large spills.
Jet fuel, kerosene, and No. 1 fuel oils are not
viscous and present little mechanical injury threat.
Large quantities could cause loss of insulation.
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Gasoline, AvGas, and naphthas are not viscous and
present practically no mechanical injury threat. Large
quantities could cause loss of insulation, but toxicity
would likely result in death before hypothermia.
Birds coated in canola oil from the White Center Pond
spill, November 2015.
Persistence
Persistence is a measure of how long oil stays in the
environment before breaking down. Oils with high
persistence tend to foul habitats for longer periods
and pose ongoing threats to organisms that rely on
these habitats. Persistence is also a rough measure of
chronic (long term) toxicity. Certain compounds in
oil can persist in the environment for months or
years following a spill.
Many oils have components called polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH). Recent research
indicates that some types of PAHs cause long term,
sublethal, chronic effects to organism growth,
reproduction, and survival. This can result in harmful
effects to populations over time. The following are
relative persistence characteristics of various oils
from most to least persistent:
Bunker fuel (IFO-380, fuel oil #6) is extremely
persistent, lasting five to ten years or more in the
environment.
Crude oil is extremely persistent, lasting five to ten
years or more in the environment.
Lubricating oils (grease, gear oil, motor oil,
hydraulic oil, mineral oil) are moderately persistent,
lasting one to two years in the environment.
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Biological oils may be somewhat persistent, lasting
one month to a year in the environment.
Diesel fuel, home heating oil, and No. 2 fuel oil is
somewhat persistent, lasting one month to a year in
the environment.
Jet fuel, kerosene, and No. 1 fuel oil breaks down
quickly, usually lasting only days to weeks in the
environment.
Gasoline, AvGas, and naphtha breaks down very
quickly, usually lasting only days to weeks in the
environment.

Oil classes listed by acute toxicity, mechanical injury, and persistence

Oil class Acute toxicity Mechanical injury Persistence

Gasoline, AvGas, High Low Low

naphtha
Kerosene, jet fuel, fuel Medium Medium low Low
oil (FO) #1
Diesel, FO-#2, heating Medium Medium Medium low
oil
Bunker fuel, FO-#6, Medium High High
intermediate fuel oil
(IFO)-380
Alaska North Slope Medium low Medium high High
(ANS) crude
Biological oil Low Medium high Medium low

Motor oil, hydraulic oil Low Medium Medium

Hot mix asphalt Low High High

More information
• Chapter 173-183 WAC (see the compensation schedule) 1
• Ecology’s Guidelines for Determining Oil Spill Volume in the Field – Terminology, Ranges, Estimates and
Experts (Publication 96-250) 2

1 https://apps.leg.wa.gov/WAC/default.aspx?cite=173-183
2 https://fortress.wa.gov/ecy/publications/summarypages/96250.html

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