ARC MAPPING

Things to Consider
By David M. Wheeler, IAAI-CFI, CFEI, CFII
Featured in Fire & Arson Investigator, July 2015 • Volume 1, Issue 1

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 David M. Wheeler, IAAI-CFI, CFEI, CFII
NEFCO Fire Investigations, Inc.
Arc Mapping
Things to Consider
INTRODUCTION
A great deal has been written about Arc-Mapping and
its effectiveness in identifying the origin of a fire, dating
back to the early 1970’s. [1] The concept is based on the
premise that fire attacks the insulation on the electrical
conductors in close proximity to where the fire originates,
causing abnormal electrical activity such as an arc fault
between the electrical conductors, which, in turn, trips
the overcurrent protection and produces characteristic
damage that may be recognized after a fire. Once the
overcurrent protection operates, the circuit being examined
is no longer energized, and no further arcing will occur on
that circuit. In theory, “evidence of this [abnormal] electrical
activity may be useful in locating the area of origin”. [2]
There are many factors that influence the reliability of
Arc-Mapping, however, and very little has been published
that specifically addresses such factors (or concerns).
Consideration must be given to such things as fire loads,
level(s) of protective coverings over the wiring, and
EXPERIMENTS
Three substantially identical
compartments with offset
doorways were constructed
and furnished. Each of the
compartments measured
approximately 16 ft. long,
12 ft. wide, and 8 ft. high. The offset door was placed in the
A-Side wall, as can be seen in Photograph 1. Walls and ceilings
were lined with unfinished standard sheets of ½-inch gypsum
wallboard to protect the wood framing of the burn cell. The floor
consisted of unfinished oriented strand board (OSB).
Each compartment was then wired with 14 AWG, non-metallic
cable, which was connected to a100-ampere electrical
distribution panel on the exterior of the compartment with
eight individual branch circuits. Each branch circuit, which was
protected by a 15-ampere circuit breaker was energized during
the experiments. The wiring ran up the interior rear walls, across
the ceilings, and down the front walls where they were connected
18 www.firearson.com
ventilation effects, to name a few, which can adversely
affect the reliability of Arc-Mapping. To that end, a series
of full-scale compartment fires were conducted in which
energized electrical conductors were exposed to fire
conditions. After the fires were extinguished, electrical
activity on the conductors was identified and mapped to
determine its relationship to the origin of the fires.
In an effort to produce differing fire growth scenarios,
a variety of solid fuel arrangements were positioned
throughout three burn cells, and differing levels of
protective covering was applied over the electrical wiring.
Some were covered with gypsum wallboard, while others
had -inch wood paneling, and others had no protection
whatsoever covering the wiring.
The burn times were determined by the activation of the
overcurrent protection at the electrical distribution panel,
at which point the fires were extinguished. As a result, the
level of fire growth varied in each of the experiments.
Photo 1
to a variety of electrical
loads on the exterior of the
cell. (See photographs 2, 3
and Figure 1, 2 & 3)
Each of the three burn cells
was arranged differently
with household furniture to represent various living spaces. A
fire was set in each of the cells and allowed to persist until the
over-current protection for the circuits tripped. The fires were
extinguished via one ceiling mounted sprinkler head to minimize
damage to the compartment.
For documentation purposes, each of the burn cells were
divided into four quadrants, beginning of the left-front corner,
which was designated as quadrant #1, and proceeding in a
clockwise fashion.
Still photography, video and thermal imagery was used to
document the experiment.
Fire&Arson Investigator July2015
EXPERIMENT #1

Ceiling coverings and

exposed electrical wiring.

Photo 2 - View of Left side, Cell 1 Photo 3 - View of Rear Side, Cell 1
During this experiment, the non-metallic cables were affixed to the gypsum wallboard and
exposed to the heat from the fire without any protective covering over them. This scenario was
designed to simulate an unfinished area, such as a basement or a portion of a dwelling at
various stages of construction. (See photographs 2 through 4)
In this experiment, Quadrants 1 & 2 had equal fire loads, consisting of a full-sized mattress in
each, and solid wood furniture in the remaining two quadrants. (See photograph 4 and Fig. 1)

Fire Load Arrangement –

Cell 1

Photo 4 - Quadrants 1 & 2 Photo 5 - Quadrants 3 & 4

The fire was set by applying an open flame to the side of a mattress at the extreme left-rear
corner in Quadrant #2 and allowed to burn for a period of 4 minutes, 34 seconds until the
over-current protection tripped at the panel. The compartment reached a temperature of 442°C
(829°F) and was extinguished before reaching flashover. (See photographs 6 through 8)

Fire Growth – Burn Cell #1

Photo 6 - Fire started at “B-C” corner Photo 7 Photo 8

Electrical arcing between the hot and neutral conductors was located on each of the energized
circuits, and their locations were documented with orange marking tape. The evidence of arcing
was found along the ceiling at the rear portion within Quadrants 2 & 3, extending across the
entire length of the ceiling with arcing located immediately over where the fire originated, as well
as at the right-rear corner opposite the doorway opening. (See photographs 9, 10, and Fig. 1)
. . .continued on page 20

www.firearson.com Fire&Arson Investigator July2015 19

 Arc Mapping
Things to Consider
Arc Mapping of Burn Cell #1
EXPERIMENT #1 continued

Figure 1 Diagram - Cell 1

Photo 9 - Quadrant #2
(Facing B/C Corner)

Photo 10 - Quadrants 2 & 3

(Facing Side–C, opposite doorway)

EXPERIMENT #2

Ceiling coverings –
Burn Cell #1

Photo 11 - Quadrants 3 & 4 Photo 12 - Quadrants 1 & 2

(Facing Side–D) (Facing Side–B)

During this experiment, non-metallic cables were affixed to the gypsum wallboard with all
electrical wiring on the walls then covered over with ½-inch gypsum wallboard to shield them
from the heat. The wiring across the ceiling in Quadrants 1 & 2 was also covered with ½-inch
gypsum wallboard. The wiring in Quadrants 3 & 4 was covered over with -inch wood paneling
to provide for differing levels of protective covering over the electrical wiring than those in
Quadrants 1 & 2. The scenario was designed to simulate a dwelling where various construction
materials are used. (See photograph 11). The fire load consisted of an overstuffed sectional
sofa and a wood desk in Quadrants 1 & 2, and a solid wood dresser in Quadrants 3 & 4.
(See photographs 13 & 14 on page 21)

20 www.firearson.com Fire&Arson Investigator July2015

 EXPERIMENT #2 continued

Photo 13 - Cell 2, Facing Side–B

Fire Load Arrangement

The fire was set in Quadrant 1 by applying an open

Photo 14 - Cell 2, Facing Side–C
flame to crumpled newspaper that was positioned
adjacent to the sectional sofa and immediately
beneath cotton draping attached to the B-side wall.
The fire was allowed to burn for a period of 5 minutes,
1 second until the over-current protection tripped at
the panel. The compartment reached temperatures of
454°C (850°F) and was extinguished before reaching
flashover. (See photograph 15 through 19)

Fire Growth – Burn Cell #2

Electrical arcing was identified on the

energized circuits, and their locations
were documented with orange
marking tape. Evidence of arcing was
found at ceiling level within Quadrant
3, immediately opposite the doorway
opening with no arcing located near
where the fire was started. (See
photographs 20 & 21, and Fig. 2 on
page 22)
Photo 15 Photo 16

Photo 17 Photo 18 Photo 19

. . .continued on page 22

www.firearson.com Fire&Arson Investigator July2015 21

 Arc Mapping
Things to Consider EXPERIMENT #3
Ceiling coverings – Burn Cell #1
EXPERIMENT #2 continued

Arc Mapping – Burn Cell #2

Photo 22

Photo 20 - A view facing Side–B

Photo 23

During this experiment, non-metallic

Photo 21 - D (opposite doorway) cables were affixed to the underside of
the gypsum wallboard, and all electrical
wiring was then covered with ½-inch
gypsum wallboard to shield them
from the heat, which provided equal
protection over all energized circuits.
This scenario was designed to simulate
a room of standard construction.
Fire loads in Quadrant 1 consisted of a
combination of a solid wood desk, chairs
and fabric-covered furniture. Crumpled
newspaper was arranged along the
floor in Quadrant 2 against the side of a
wood bookshelf, which was positioned
immediately adjacent to an overstuffed
chair. The fire load in Quadrants 2 & 3
consisted of an overstuffed chair and
pullout sofa bed with an assortment
of bedding material. The fire load in
Quadrant 4 consisted of a wood room-
divider and a solid wood bookshelf. The
fire was set in Quadrant 2 by applying
an open flame to the sheets of crumbled
Figure 2 Diagram - Cell 2 newspaper. (See photographs 24
through 32 and Fig. 3)

22 www.firearson.com Fire&Arson Investigator July2015

Fire Load Arrangement – Burn Cell #3
The fire was allowed to burn
for a period of 11 minutes,
1 second at which time
the overcurrent protection
tripped at the panel.
During this experiment,
the compartment reached
post- flashover conditions
with temperatures exceeding
648°C (1,198°F) before
being extinguished.

Photo 24 - Quadrants 2 & 3 Photo 25 - Quadrants 3 & 4

Fire Growth – Burn Cell #3

Electrical arcing was identified on the

energized circuits and their locations
were documented with orange marking
tape. Evidence of arcing was found at
ceiling level along the rear wall within
Quadrant 2 immediately over the
overstuffed chair, a short distance from
where the fire started.

Photo 26 Photo 27

Photo 28 Photo 29 Photo 30

Arc Mapping – Burn Cell #3

Photo 31 – Facing Side - B Photo 32 – Facing B/C Corner

. . .continued on page 24

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 Arc Mapping
Things to Consider
EXPERIMENT #3 continued
Figure 3 Diagram - Cell 3
Conclusions
In experiment #1, where all electrical
wiring was unprotected and equally
exposed to the heat, Arc-Mapping proved
to be useful in identifying the fire’s origin,
which was easily verified by visible fire
damage patterns. However, it is worth
noting that electrical activity (arcing) was
also present in the area immediately
opposite the ventilation opening, (At the
C – D corner), which was a distance
away from where the fire started.
In experiment #2, where the electrical
wiring had a greater degree of protective
covering (Gypsum) in Quadrants 1 and
2, and a lesser degree of protection over
the wiring in Quadrants 3 & 4 (1/8-inch
wood paneling), Arc-Mapping proved
completely ineffective in identifying the
origin. High velocity flows and turbulence
from the ventilation opening intensified
the fire in this location, which attacked
the insulation on the electrical conductors
early in the progression of the fire. This
resulted in tripping of the overcurrent
protection. Although Arc-Mapping was
ineffective in identifying where the fire
started, visible fire patterns clearly
identified the origin.
In experiment #3, the fire burned in a
localized area for a substantial duration
where the fire started before fuel
gases filling the compartment became
24 www.firearson.com
involved. Arc-Mapping was useful in
this experiment. However, the electrical
activity was not found immediately over
the fire’s origin, but rather in the general
proximity. Electrical activity was also
found opposite the ventilation opening,
away from where the fire started. Once
again, visible fire damage patterns clearly
identified the origin.
Several important concepts were
derived from the experiment with regard
to the effectiveness of Arc-Mapping.
Although proven to be an useful tool in
the identification of an area of origin,
a credible origin analysis hinges upon
consideration of many factors, including
the location(s) and configuration of fire
load, the recognition and understanding
of the influences of high velocity flows
and turbulence from the ventilation
openings, differing levels of protective
coating over electrical wiring, as well as
stages of fire growth attained.
As with any origin determination,
investigators must be able to identify
and then segregate fire scene damage
that may potentially be attributed to pre
and post-flashover fire conditions. In pre-
flashover conditions, fire pattern analysis
most often defines the origin, and Arc-
Mapping is used as a tool to confirm
what the patterns reflect. However, fire
Fire&Arson Investigator
loads that influence heat release rates and
burn damage within a specific localized area
may produce evidence of arcing that is not
associated with the fire’s origin.
Most notable in this experiment was the
evidence of arcing found in areas opposite
the ventilation openings where the fire
did not originate. High velocity, turbulent
flows opposite and around ventilation
openings produce a concentration of high
temperatures, which can impact electrical
conductors if present in that area, thus
produce arcing that, if misunderstood, could
lead to an inaccurate origin being identified.
Therefore, for Arc-Mapping to be useful in
identifying the origin of a fire, it is essential
that investigators distinguish between the
damage created by ventilation effects versus
the damage created purely by fire attack
around the location(s) where the fire started.
Careful steps must be taken to ascertain the
exact physical makeup of the compartment
in terms of wall, floor and ceiling coverings,
fuel packages and arrangements, window
treatments, the conditions of ventilation
openings and at which stage in the fires
progression they were opened or failed.
The failure to thoroughly investigate and
consider these factors may lead to an
erroneous origin.
1
Svare, R. Arc Mapping. 1999. Brunel
University, Uxbridge, London.
2
NFPA 921, Sec. 9.10.1, Guide for Fire &
Explosion Investigations, 2014 Ed.
ACKNOWLEDMENTS
The author wishes to thank the Concord, NH
Fire Department and its members for their
invaluable support, and the New Hampshire
Fire Academy for the use of their facility.
David M. Wheeler,
IAAI-CFI, C.F.E.I., C.F.I.I. (NAFI)
David is a full-time fire investigator with
NEFCO Fire Investigations, Inc. He
served 30 years in New Hampshire Law
Enforcement, and has more than 20 years
of experience as a volunteer firefighter. He
holds degrees in Fire Science and Criminal
Justice and serves as an Adjunct Instructor
in the Fire Science program at Lakes Region
Community College in Laconia, NH.
July2015