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10
ICTS FOR WOMEN’S POVERTY
ALLEVIATION
What does the theory and the practice tell us?
Galina Kondrateva and Mohamed Sami Ben Ali
10.1 Introduction
It has been 25 years since the Beijing Platform for Action (UN Women) identi-
fied 12 gender-related concerns in the world, namely health, poverty, education,
economy, violence, armed conflicts, power and decision-making, and the environ-
ment (Women UN, 2015). The results of its work concern noteworthy progress on
gender equality at all levels: governmental (laws, infrastructure, and resources),
institutional (initiatives, associations, and NGOs), personal (women’s participa-
tion and involvement). UN Women aims to continue reducing gaps in women’s
access to resources. The current draft Strategic Plan 2018–2021 (an updating of
the initial Platform for Action) identifies innovation and technology as key fac-
tors of development and change (UN Women Strategic Plan 2018–2021, 2017).
Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are regarded by the Platform
for Action as creating opportunities for women to improve their living conditions,
to contribute to knowledge sharing, networking, and other activities (UN Women
Annual Report, 2018–2019), and even to increase their involvement in political
life, as ICTs can promote democracy (Ben Ali, 2020). This is very important for
women as they are usually not sufficiently and equally involved in the political
life of their country.
At the roots of the poverty of women lie the gender-related division of work
and the associated gender identities (Novo-Corti et al., 2014). Nowadays the most
important factors are the lack of access to resources, including ICTs, illiteracy,
including computer illiteracy, and language barriers to accessing education (Kuo
et al., 2013; Samari, 2019; Ben Ali & Selmi, 2020).
UN Women proposed steps to ensure that women benefit from ICT and urged
governments to undertake some of these steps. As reported in Table 10.1, the cur-
rent level of infrastructure and the cost of access to ICT in developing countries
create obstacles to technology use.
The gender gap is another obstacle to access to ICTs. In this regard, the aver-
age global gender gap in Internet use in 2019 was 17%, ranging from a 0% gap
DOI: 10.4324/9781003045946-10
170
Table 10.1 Gender inequality index: regional dashboard
Gender Maternal mortality Adolescent birth rate Share seats Population with at least Labor force
inequality ratio (birth per 1,000 in parliament some secondary education participation
index (deaths per women ages 15–19) (% held by (%) rate (%)
100,000) women)
female male female male
2015 2015–2020 2018 2010–2018 2010–2018 2018 2018
171
Region 2018
Arab States 0.531 148.2 46.6 18.3 45.9 54.9 20.4 73.8
East Asia/Pacific 0.310 61.7 22.0 20.3 68.8 76.2 59.7 77.0
Eastern Europe/ 0.276 24.8 27.8 21.2 78.1 85.8 45.2 70.1
Central Asia
Latin America/ 0.383 67.6 63.2 31.0 59.7 59.3 51.8 77.2
Caribbean
South Asia 0.510 175.7 26.1 17.1 39.9 60.8 25.9 78.8
Sub-Saharan Africa 0.573 550.2 104.7 23.5 28.8 39.8 63.5 72.9
ICTs for women’s poverty alleviation
Source: Human Development Report, 2019.

in North America, through increasing difference in the Arab countries, Asia and
the Pacific, and reaching its highest level in Africa (ITU, 2019a). According to
ITU data, the African region has the lowest rates of Internet penetration, and the
biggest digital gender gap (22.6% of women using the Internet, versus 33.8%
of men) (ITU, 2019b). Yet nowadays the use of digital tools is crucial, because
modern society depends on digital networks, and the better access to produc-
tion, consumption, and communication that they enable provides for better living
standards. ICTs are also an essential pathway to poverty alleviation as access to
technology makes new opportunities available.
This chapter’s objective is to discuss and assess the role of ICT in reducing
women’s poverty. We mainly focus on different dimensions of poverty among
women and the way ICT use can be implemented to alleviate women’s poverty.
We focus in a first section on the role of ICTs to improve standards of living,
while focusing on rural women. We assess the impact of ICT in healthcare ser-
vices in the second section. The third section discusses how digital technologies
can enable access to education for women. The last section concludes and sug-
gests some policy implications and further development of the current study.
10.2 ICT for poverty alleviation: dimensions and impact

Gender inequality is not always the consequence of poverty in society. The Global
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) measures three pillars of poverty: health,
education, and living standards (Figure 10.1). Therefore, reducing poverty through
ICT use involves the three main dimensions: food and nutrition through an equal
access to food production and distribution, education through access to Internet-
based or mobile application educational resources, and health through the greater
possibility of obtaining medical advice, and also the ability to report threats to health.
Three dimensions of poverty
HEALTH EDUCATION STANDARD OF LIVING
COOKING FUEL
SANITATION
NUTRITION YEARS OF SCHOOLING DRINKING WATER
CHILD MORTALITY SCHOOL ATTENDANCE ELECTRICITY
HOUSING
ASSETS
Figure 10.1 Poverty dimensions. Source: adapted from Global Multidimensional Poverty
Index. Source: Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative, 2019.
172
10.2.1 ICTs to improve standards of living: a focus on rural women

Women represent 43% of the agricultural labor force in developing countries and
59% in sub-Saharan Africa (Molinier et al., 2019). On the contrary only 20% of
women own land, 22% have a bank account in rural areas in low-income coun-
tries, and 5% of women have access to extension services (Molinier et al., 2019).
Women farmers face limited access to land, to information, finance, infrastruc-
ture, technologies, and markets (Clement et al., 2019), and this leads to food
insecurity in developing countries. Many researchers have raised the issue of a
possible correlation between gender inequality and food insecurity (Palmeira et
al., 2019; Aziz et al., 2020). Enabling women to have the same access to produc-
tive resources as men means an increase in general agricultural productivity and
contributes to household food security (Clement et al., 2019). Nevertheless, rural
women are suffering from the infringements of their rights to equal access to
knowledge and use of ICTs (Novo-Corti et al., 2014).
The Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) (Alkire et al.,
2013; Narayanan et al., 2019; Kabeer, 1999) defines empowerment as the pro-
cess by which people expand their ability to make strategic life choices, particu-
larly in the contexts in which this ability had been denied to them. As evidenced
below, there are many possibilities for digitalization in the food sector that could
empower women.
The use of blockchain technology is a new solution that can develop outcomes
and protect groups of vulnerable farmers such as women. The main benefit of
blockchain-based technology in agriculture is the traceability and transparency
of the supply chain (Chang et al., 2019). The range of digital solutions includes
distributed ledger technologies (DLTs), smart contracts, food sensing, and e-plat-
forms. Distributed ledger technologies and smart contracts directly improve the
agricultural supply chain. Blockchains also provide transparency in tracking
during the processes of production, delivery, and payment and can improve the
flexibility of capital exploitation to obtain greater business value (Chang et al.,
2019). The positive effects concern the origin of the supply, the destination, fair
distribution among all groups of farmers, or among final consumers, including the
potential for increased attention to the most vulnerable groups or less accessible
regions. Thus, the possible role of technology is to trace and encourage distribu-
tion by female farmers, or the provision for and the nutrition of the poorest groups
of the population such as women and children. Moreover, the technology can
trace sanitary and quality requirements and reduce health hazards. Additionally,
traceability reduces the food loss that usually exists in food systems, which is
particularly important in developing countries. To ensure that their potential
benefits are realized, however, blockchain-based solutions require appropriate
infrastructure, such as technology-specific systems, skilled professionals, Internet
network coverage, etc., and also governmental institutions and policies, regula-
tions, and laws (Queiroz & Wamba, 2019). The cloud-based monitoring platform
GeoFarmer (Eitzinger et al., 2019) was set up to handle data and information in
173
the context of agricultural development. Similarly, the interfaces of GeoFarmer,

which include a smartphone application and a web-based dashboard, are exam-
ples of such relevant technologies.
ICTs encompass the digital technologies that give access to markets and facili-
tate the relations between sellers and buyers through e-platforms (digital-enabled
marketplaces). The main merit of such platforms is that they can help reduce
the cost, time, and length of supply chains. E-platforms create possibilities for
smaller and weaker farmers’ groups, including women, to trade and to present
their products to the market (Malapit et al., 2020). The better match between
farmers and consumers created thanks to this allows the removal of the middle-
man and a consequent increase in farmers’ income. Moreover, consumers can
choose their potential supplier and may choose to give preference to female farm-
ers and thereby support women’s position in agriculture. Another way to make
use of digital platforms is to provide e-extension services such as access to infor-
mation and knowledge. For example, in Bangladesh, farmer-to-farmer videos on
rice seed production offered to women, led to a decrease in the production cost
and an increase of 15% in the farmers’ income. Another example is the mobile
application Plantix for farmers to identify plant diseases or pests based on pic-
tures that farmers take with their smartphones. In this regard, the project Digital
Green operated well in sensitive regions, such as South Asia, Latin America, and
sub-Saharan Africa. This service has diffused videos in more than 50 languages.
Through these videos, farmers can share knowledge on different agricultural ques-
tions, which can be particularly important for women farmers who work alone.
The videos are also distributed off-line in regions where access to electricity and
Internet provision is limited. Digital platforms not only create new markets, but
also assist the groups of farmers who cannot afford to buy equipment or machin-
ery, and this provides new opportunities for women farmers. For example, TroTro
Tractor is a Ghanaian platform to connect tractor operators with farmers who
wish to rent equipment. Trringo, in India, and Hello Tractor, in Ghana, Kenya,
and Nigeria, are text-messaging services used by farmers to find tractor owners
(Future of Food, 2019).
Mobile phones are still one of the most used ICTs in developing countries,
especially in the poorest regions, where the Internet network does not cover the
territory, or is too expensive. Farmers access the market through their mobile
phones, often by simple use of the short message service (SMS), for example
in Peru, where highland farmers organize sales by mobile phone. Another ser-
vice that is mostly mobile phone–based concerns the digitalization of financial
resources by farmers, including groups such as women who previously had no
power to access the formal credit system. An example of FinTech is M-PESA
in Kenya, a mobile phone–based payment service that has reduced household
poverty by 2% (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 2019).
Framdrive in Kenya and Harvesting in Uganda are also examples of credit solu-
tions specifically for agriculture. In other regions, there are some examples of
AgTech, like Agrofy in Argentina or Agrostar in India. Chaldal in Bangladesh
174
and Big Basket in India are examples of online agriculture marketplaces or solu-
tions for the broader problems of the food sector. Another project was developed
in Kenya, a blockchain mobile wallet to give financial means to crisis-affected
women (Molinier et al., 2019). Similarly, Kiva.org connects women in poor
regions with the global community to give them the opportunity to finance their
projects through crowdfunding.
The implementation of the above services and solutions requires the develop-
ment of infrastructure for ICT. Data from sensitive regions such as South Asia or
sub-Saharan Africa point to the limited abilities of women to access resources and
information. Also, unequal access to technologies in the agricultural sector causes
poverty and hunger and contributes to an unsustainable use of natural resources
(particularly land and water). Unfortunately, digital resources can also enlarge
the disparity, if their use is too complicated and requires a high level of skill.
Digitalization could therefore lead to “elitism” (Atzori, 2015). Increased use of
ICT can actually increase gender segregation, because of men’s strong sociocul-
tural position in the sector in general and thus their being the first objective of
investments in digitalization. Governmental policies should offer targeted support
to poor farmers, especially women. This support directs the investment into the
development of knowledge and skills needed to eliminate digital illiteracy and
thus reduce the gap in gender-related adoption. Moreover, only a limited number
of women in poorer countries have a mobile phone or use the Internet. This high
level of technological illiteracy enhances the gender gap in ICT usage. Therefore,
the main task of governments and international organizations is to support vulner-
able groups of farmers, such as rural women, because they are at risk of being
excluded from digitalization and from the agricultural sector.
10.2.2 ICT in healthcare services

Gender discrimination in healthcare access is often based on gender norms (Maas,
2020; Weber et al., 2019). Poverty, low educational levels, sexual and domestic
violence, have a huge impact on female health (Maas, 2020). However, gender
discrimination in healthcare concerns a gender-related differentiation in levels of
investment in boys’ health and education compared to that of girls when parents
have limited resources (Weber et al., 2019). Poor access to healthcare by girls and
women in low-income countries induces the more rapid spread of infections, a
high level of infant mortality, and therefore a greater poverty.
As far as ICT is concerned, mobile phones can support healthcare in several
ways. In developing countries, access to healthcare through mobile phones is
often the only possibility of accessing the physician. Telemedicine, telehealth,
and mHealth are concrete examples of such support. Telemedicine and telehealth
refer to remote consultations using mobile phones and smartphones, between
medical staff and patients, or between healthcare professionals and their peers.
Telemedicine reduces the problems of access associated with restrictive cultural
norms, intimate violence, treatment expenses, and the gender division in society.
175
MHealth refers to the sharing of health information using mobile phone technol-
ogy or the provision of patient care through smartphone applications (Ben Ali &
Selmi, 2020). In developing countries, telemedicine and mHealth tools enhance
access for women to high-quality healthcare. They also improve the management
of the healthcare system – as they can be used to maintain statistics on gender-
related diseases and implement treatment appropriate for women; they enhance
collaboration among medical professionals and optimize the medical infrastruc-
ture (Top et al., 2020; Kamsu-Foguem & Foguem, 2014).
Mobile phones can also be useful in recording medical data, reminding patients
about medical appointments or treatments, giving access to communities of
women, and raising awareness in the case of outbreaks of a virus or other infec-
tions. An example of increasing access to communities of women is a mobile
birth-notification system called Mobile for Health in Bangladesh, which has
increased the number of births taking place in hospitals and thus reduced maternal
mortality (Dutta et al., 2019).
The role of ICTs in healthcare is not limited to consulting but they can help
reduce costs for both patients and practitioners, lower the waiting time for medical
appointments, or enable access to healthcare services for women living in regions
lacking medical facilities and suffering from cultural and gender discrimination
(Lentz, 2018; Bennett et al., 2019).
One serious danger to their health that women face is sexual violence. Mobile
technology helps to collect information on the most sensitive questions about sex-
ual violence and criminal activities. The use of ICT can not only collect such data
but also allows for the analysis of the findings for the purpose of the prevention
of crimes and working toward changing the situation. One of the promising pro-
jects was proposed by Physicians for Human Rights (PHR), supported by the UN
Trust Fund to End Violence against Women. PHR has developed an application,
MediCapt, which connects police, medical, and legal professionals. The applica-
tion makes it easier to capture, preserve, and transmit evidence of sexual vio-
lence. PHR launched the application for use in Kenya in 2018 and in 2019 in the
Democratic Republic of Congo. Professionals in these countries could encounter
huge numbers of cases of sexual violence, and thanks to the application, the pro-
cedure of documentation is reportedly much easier (Molinier et al., 2019).
10.2.3 Digital technologies enable access to education

E-learning and mobile learning can provide access to knowledge and educa-
tion. In countries with a prevalent sociocultural exclusion of women from the
education system, ICTs provide the possibility for self-education thanks to the
Internet. In poor countries with a low infrastructure level, the geographic location
of schools is an important reason for the limited involvement of girls and women
in education. In this case, ICTs can facilitate female access to learning by provid-
ing distant courses. Technology itself becomes a tool for empowerment of women
and digital skills-building.
176
Very often the problem of lack of education rests on low awareness among
women of existing legislation, and of national and international organizations that
can support their education or professional training. In rural areas in Africa or
South Asia, for example, girls may stop their schooling because the family has
no resources, or because of an early pregnancy. Moreover, women usually do not
have information about governmental programs, loans, and bursaries (Suwana &
Lily, 2017). Therefore, in the modern information society, digital literacy is a skill
for women that can enhance their professional development, and increase social
inclusion, including the promotion of freedom of expression and opinion.
ICT can help women in developing countries to obtain education remotely
and strengthen their position in the labor market. Nevertheless, there are gender
differences in ICT experiences. Women restrict the forms of ICT they use based
on gender norms and culture and have lower levels of confidence in using the
ICTs. This “digital divide” means that women often have no access to digital
devices or fewer opportunities to join ICT communities (Suwana & Lily, 2017).
Moreover, gender stereotyping and negative attitudes toward ICT among women
induce a limited use of ICT (Kuo et al., 2013). Therefore, a major concern for
governments, particularly in developing countries, is to reduce digital illiteracy
(Kuo et al., 2013). In this regard, the Taiwan Women Up project (TWU) is one
successful example of empowering women through ICT education. The major
objective of the project was to reduce digital illiteracy to the point where women
could afterwards also provide training (Kuo et al., 2013). In the same context, the
organization Indonesian Women Information Technology Awareness (IWITA)
helps women to get training to use ICTs. Moreover, the FemaleDev application
in Indonesia creates an environment to develop higher education (colleges and
universities) where women may advance on the academic level (Suwana & Lily,
2017). In Malaysia e-participation of women is promoted at the national level in
the project 1Nita (Hashim et al., 2011). The objective of the project is to train
Malaysian rural women in the use of ICT (Hashim et al., 2011). The African Girls
Can Code Initiative (AGCCI), supported by UN Women and partnering with ITU
and the African Union Commission (AUC), has also been developed in Africa.
This program aims to eradicate girls’ digital literacy and improve coding skills,
and thus increase their technological confidence and empower them for leader-
ship. Providing technical skills to women and girls contributes to the development
of innovation and industrialization in Africa. The program includes coding camps
for girls and national media campaigns highlighting new role models of women.
Examples of such projects in most countries have shown that education enables
women to play an important role in society, politics, and the national economy
(Dlodlo, 2009; Eger et al., 2018).
10.3 Conclusions and policy implications

Since the first Beijing Platform for Action (UN Women) in 1995 the gender
divide in social, economic, and political life has been diminishing, but there are
177
still many issues to address, since in many countries poverty among women is still
there. The ICTs cover some sensitive areas necessary to improving life for women,
such as access to healthcare, education, and a better standard of living. The most
important result of common work on female empowerment worldwide is the elim-
ination of legal barriers to gender equality. Right now, the different practices and
policies should change behaviors in society by new laws, programs, initiatives and
role models, and projects through which women and girls can have more access to
ICTs. Obviously, women can be affected by digitalization. The changes concern
firstly information and resources access. The ICTs improve women’s abilities to
participate equally with men in the production and sale of goods, provide them
with financial solutions, and empower them in entrepreneurship. In addition, ICTs
are able to secure women’s health and even lives. Telemedicine solutions guar-
antee the provision of consultations in remote regions, where there is a lack of
medical staff, or widespread discrimination practices. Moreover, the use of ICTs
can help women and girls in fighting against sexual violence. Relevant application
of ICTs in the education of girls can change the situation in the future.
Increasing digital involvement of women and girls provides for their social,
economic, and political participation, their security and protection, their employ-
ment and access to resources. Such actions alleviate poverty in a sustainable way.
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Galina Kondrateva and Mohamed Sami Ben Ali

female male female male

2015 2015–2020 2018 2010–2018 2010–2018 2018 2018

Source: Human Development Report, 2019.

10.2 ICT for poverty alleviation: dimensions and impact

Three dimensions of poverty

HEALTH EDUCATION STANDARD OF LIVING

10.2.1 ICTs to improve standards of living: a focus on rural women

the context of agricultural development. Similarly, the interfaces of GeoFarmer,

10.2.2 ICT in healthcare services

10.2.3 Digital technologies enable access to education

10.3 Conclusions and policy implications

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