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Principles of General Chemistry, 2nd ed. By M. Silberberg Chemistry, 8th ed. by W. Whitten, R. Davis, R., M. L. Peck, and G. Stanley.

The Foundations of Chemistry

Lecture Outline
Fundamental DefinitionsStates of Matter Chemical and Physical Properties Chemical and Physical Changes Measurements in Chemistry: Units and Conversion, Dimensional Analysis Daltons Atomic Theory Laws (of Mass Conservation, of Definite Composition, and of Multiple Proportions) Components of Matter: Elements, Compounds and Mixtures

Chemistry
is the study of matter its properties, the changes it undergoes, and the energy changes that accompany those processes is the central and fundamental science

Matter
anything that has mass and occupies space.

States of Matter

Classical: Solids Liquids Gases

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States of Matter
Non-classical: Plasma Bose-Einstein Condensate Liquid Crystals Superfluids

Properties of Matter
Physical Properties those which the substance shows by itself without interacting with another substance e.g. density, color, length Chemical Properties those which the substance shows as it interacts with, or transforms into, other substance e.g. reactivity, flammability
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Properties of Matter
Extensive Properties amount dependent properties e.g. mass, volume, energy Intensive Properties amount independent properties e.g. temperature, density can be used to differentiate substances
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Changes in Matter
Physical Changes occurs when a substance alters its physical form, not its composition

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Changes in Matter
Physical Changes e.g. frost forms as the temperature drops on a humid winter night, perspiration evaporates when you relax after jogging

Changes in Matter
Chemical Changes = Chemical Reaction occurs when a substance is converted into a different substance

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Changes in Matter
Chemical Changes e.g. a match ignites to form ash and a mixture of gases, a silver fork tarnishes slowly in air, a cornstalk grows from a seed that is watered and fertilized

Use of Numbers
Significant figures
digits believed to be correct by the person making the measurement Exact numbers have an infinite number of

significant figures
12.000000000000000 = 1 dozen

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Density The Unit Factor Method

Also known as DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS Simple but important method to get correct answers in word problems. Method to change from one set of units to another.
Problem: Lithium (Li) is a soft, gray solid that has the lowest density of any metal. If a slab of Li weighs 1.49 x 103 mg and has sides that measure 20.9 mm by 11.1 mm by 11.9 mm, what is the density of Li in g/cm3 ?
-3 1.49 x 103 mg x 10 g = 1.49 g 1 mg 1 cm 20.9 mm x = 2.09 cm 10 mm Similarly the other sides will be 1.11 cm and 1.19 cm, respectively.

2.09 x 1.11 x 1.20 = 2.76 cm3 Density of Li = 1.49 g = 0.540 g/cm3 2.76 cm3

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Measurements in Chemistry
Quantity length mass time current temperature amt. substance Unit meter kilogram second ampere Kelvin mole Symbol m kg s A K mol
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Measurements in Chemistry Metric Prefixes

Name mega kilo deka deci centi milli micro nano pico femto Symbol M k da d c m n p f Multiplier 106 103 10 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 10-15
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Measurements in Chemistry
Common Conversion Factors: Length
1 m = 39.37 inches 2.54 cm = 1 inch

Measurements in Chemistry Temperature

is a measure of the intensity of heat in a body 3 common temperature scales all use water as a reference
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Volume
1 liter = 1.06 qt 1 qt = 0.946 liter

Measurements in Chemistry
Accuracy how closely measured values agree with the correct value Precision how closely individual measurements agree with each other

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Principles of General Chemistry, 2nd ed. By M. Silberberg Chemistry, 8th ed. by W. Whitten, R. Davis, R., M. L. Peck, and G. Stanley.

The Components of Matter

A Molecular View: Daltons Atomic Theory

1) An element is composed of extremely small indivisible particles called atoms.

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A Molecular View: Daltons Atomic Theory

2) Atoms cannot be converted or transformed into atoms of another element. 3) All atoms of a given element have identical properties, which differ from those of other elements.

A Molecular View: Daltons Atomic Theory

4) Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine with each other in small whole-number ratios.

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Components of Matter
Element - the simplest type of substance with
unique physical and chemical properties - consists of only one type of atom - cannot be broken down into any simpler substances by physical or chemical means

Components of Matter
Molecule - a structure that consists of two or
more atoms that are chemically bound together and thus behaves as an independent unit.

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Components of Matter
Compound - a substance composed of two or more elements which are chemically combined. Mixture - a group of two or more elements and/or compounds that are physically intermingled.
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Components of Matter

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Mass Laws
Law of Conservation of Mass
there is no detectable change in the mass during a chemical change total mass of substances do not change after the reaction
total mass CaO 56.08 g + + CO2 44.01 g = total mass CaCO3 100.09 g

Mass Laws
Law of Definite Composition
no matter the source, a particular compound is composed of the same elements in the same parts (fractions) by mass
e.g. Calcium carbonate Analysis by Mass (grams/20.0 g) 8.0 g calcium 2.4 g carbon 9.6 g oxygen 20.0 g
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Mass Fraction (parts/1.00 part) 0.40 calcium 0.12 carbon 0.48 oxygen 1.00 part by mass

Percent by Mass (parts/100 parts) 40% calcium 12% carbon 48% oxygen 100% by mass
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Mass Laws
Law of Multiple Proportions
if elements A and B react to form two compounds, the different masses of B that combine with a fixed mass of A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole numbers e.g. given nitrogen and oxygen (N and O) compounds that may be formed: NO, N2O, NO2

Fundamental Particles
P a rtic le E le c tro n (e ) P ro to n (p ,p ) N e u tro n (n ,n )
0 + -

M a s s (a m u ) C h a rg e 0 .0 0 0 5 4 8 5 8 1 .0 0 7 3 1 .0 0 8 7 -1 +1 0

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The Discovery of Electrons

Humphrey Davy in the early
1800s passed electricity through compounds and noted:
that the compounds decomposed into elements. concluded that compounds are held together by electrical forces.

The Discovery of Electrons

Cathode Ray Tubes experiments performed in the late 1800s & early 1900s.
Consist of two electrodes sealed in a glass tube containing a gas at very low pressure. When a voltage is applied to the cathodes a glow discharge is emitted.

Michael Faraday in 1832-1833

realized that the amount of reaction that occurs during electrolysis is proportional to the electrical current passed through the compounds.

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The Discovery of Electrons

These rays are emitted from cathode (- end) and travel to anode (+ end).
Cathode Rays must be negatively charged!

The Discovery of Electrons

J.J. Thomson modified the cathode ray tube experiments in 1897 by adding two adjustable voltage electrodes.
Studied the amount that the cathode ray beam was deflected by additional electric field.

The Discovery of Electrons

Thomson used his modification to measure the charge to mass ratio of electrons. Charge to mass ratio e/m = -1.75881 x 108 coulomb/g of e Thomson named the cathode rays as electrons. Thomson is considered to be the discoverer of electrons. TV sets and computer screens are cathode ray tubes.

The Discovery of Electrons

Robert A. Millikan won the 1st American Nobel Prize in 1923 for his famous oil-drop experiment. In 1909 Millikan determined the charge and mass of the electron.

The Discovery of Electrons

Millikan determined that the charge on a single electron = -1.60218 x 10-19 coulomb. Using Thomsons charge to mass ratio we get that the mass of one electron is 9.11 x 10-28 g.
e/m = -1.75881 x 108 coulomb e = -1.60218 x 10-19 coulomb Thus m = 9.10940 x 10-28 g

Rutherford and the Nuclear Atom

Ernest Rutherford directed Hans Geiger and Ernst Marsdens experiment in 1910. - particle scattering from thin Au foils = the basic picture of the atoms structure.

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Rutherford and the Nuclear Atom

Rutherford and the Nuclear Atom

Rutherfords major conclusions from the particle scattering experiment
1. The atom is mostly empty space. 2. It contains a very small, dense center called the nucleus. 3. Nearly all of the atoms mass is in the nucleus. 4. The nuclear diameter is 1/10,000 to 1/100,000 times less than atoms radius.

Rutherford and the Nuclear Atom

Neutrons
James Chadwick in 1932 analyzed the results of -particle scattering on thin Be films. Chadwick recognized existence of massive neutral particles which he called neutrons.
Chadwick discovered the neutron.

General Features of the atom today

Atomic Symbols
A Z

The Symbol of the Atom or Isotope

X = atomic symbol of the element A = mass number; A = Z + N Z = atomic number

(the number of protons in the nucleus)

N = number of neutrons in the nucleus Isotopes = atoms of an element with the same number of protons, but a different number of neutrons

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Atomic Number
is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus. Sometimes given the symbol Z. In 1913 H.G.J. Moseley realized that the atomic number determines the element . The number of electrons in a neutral atom is also equal to the atomic number.

Mass Number and Isotopes

Mass number is given the symbol A.
is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons.

Isotopes are atoms of the same element but with

different neutron numbers. example of an isotopic series is the hydrogen isotopes: 1H, 2H and 3H

Calculating the Atomic Mass of an Element

PROBLEM: Silver (Ag: Z = 47) has 46 known isotopes, but only two occur naturally, 107Ag and 109Ag. Given the following mass spectrometric data, calculate the atomic mass of Ag: Isotope
107Ag 109Ag

Mass (amu) 106.90509 108.90476

Abundance (%) 51.84 48.16

Philippians 4:13 I can do all things, in God who give me strength

SOLUTION: mass portion from 107Ag = 106.90509 amu x 0.5184 = 55.42 amu mass portion from 109Ag = 108.90476 amu x 0.4816 = 52.45 amu atomic mass of Ag = 55.42 amu + 52.45 amu = 107.87 amu

questions?

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