Language interpretation

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This article is about interpreting natural languages. For interpreting programming
languages, see Interpreter (computing).
"Interpreter" redirects here. For other uses, see Interpreter (disambiguation).

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Related topics

• Transcription
• Transliteration
• Video relay service (VRS)
• Telephone interpreting
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Interpreting is a translational activity in which one produces a first and final target-
language output on the basis of a one-time exposure to an expression in a source language.
The most common two modes of interpreting are simultaneous interpreting, which is done
at the time of the exposure to the source language, and consecutive interpreting, which is
done at breaks to this exposure.
Interpreting is an ancient human activity which predates the invention of
writing.[1] However, the origins of the profession of interpreting date back to less than a
century ago.[when?][2]

Contents

• 1History
o 1.1Historiography
• 2Etymology
• 3Modes
o 3.1Consecutive
o 3.2Simultaneous
o 3.3The progressive shift from consecutive to
simultaneous
o 3.4Whispered
• 4Types
o 4.1Conference
o 4.2Judicial
o 4.3Escort interpreter
o 4.4Public sector
o 4.5Medical
o 4.6Military interpreting
o 4.7Sign language
o 4.8Media
• 5Modalities
o 5.1On-site
o 5.2Telephone
o 5.3Video
 • 6Venues
• 7Associations
• 8Certifications
o 8.1China
o 8.2Germany
• 9See also
• 10Notes
• 11References
o 11.1Sources
• 12Further reading
• 13External links

History[edit]
Historiography[edit]

A painting showing a doctorexplaining the outcome of an operationto his servant, who acts as an interpreter.

Research into the various aspects of the history of interpreting is quite new.[3] For as long as
most scholarly interest was given to professional conference interpreting, very little
academic work was done on the practice of interpreting in history, and until the 1990s, only
a few dozen publications were done on it.[4]
Considering the amount of interpreting activities that is assumed to have occurred for
thousands of years, historical records are limited.[5] Moreover, interpreters and their work
have usually not found their way into the history books.[6] One of the reasons for that is the
dominance of the written textover the spoken word (in the sense that those who have left
written texts are more likely to be recorded by historians).[3][4] Another problem is the
tendency to view it as an ordinary support activity which does not require any special
attention,[4] and the social status of interpreters, who were sometimes treated unfairly
by scribes, chroniclers and historians.[note 1][3]
Our knowledge of the past of interpreting tends to come from letters,
chronicles, biographies, diaries and memoirs, along with a variety of
other documents and literary works, many of which (and with few exceptions) were only
incidentally or marginally related to interpreting. [6][4]

Etymology[edit]
Many Indo-European languages have words for interpreting and interpreter.[1] Expressions
in Germanic, Scandinavian and Slaviclanguages denoting an interpreter can be traced back
to Akkadian, around 1900 BCE.[1] The Akkadian root targumânu/turgumânu also gave rise
to the term dragoman via an etymological sideline from Arabic.[7]
The English word interpreter, however, is derived from Latin interpres (meaning
'expounder', 'person explaining what is obscure'), whose semantic roots are not
clear.[8] Some scholars take the second part of the word to be derived
from partes or pretium (meaning 'price', which fits the meaning of a 'middleman',
'intermediary' or 'commercial go-between'), but others have suggested a Sanskrit root.[8]

Modes[edit]
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Consecutive[edit]

Stéphane Brizé (second from the right) speaking in French in Buenos Aires in 2019. Seated to his left, the
interpreter (on the extreme right) waits to translate into Spanish.

In consecutive interpreting (CI), the interpreter starts to interpret after the speaker pauses;
thus much more time (perhaps double) is needed. Customarily, such an interpreter will sit
or stand near the speaker.[9]
Consecutive interpretation can be conducted in a pattern of short or long segments
according to the interpreter's preference. In short CI, the interpreter relies mostly on
memory whereas, in long CI, most interpreters will rely on note-taking. The notes must be
clear and legible in order to not waste time on reading them.[10] Consecutive interpreting of
whole thoughts, rather than in small pieces, is desirable so that the interpreter has the whole
meaning before rendering it in the target language. This affords a truer, more accurate, and
more accessible interpretation than where short CI or simultaneous interpretation is used.
An attempt at consensus about lengths of segments may be reached prior to
commencement, depending upon complexity of the subject matter and purpose of the
interpretation, though speakers generally face difficulty adjusting to unnatural speech
patterns.[citation needed]
On occasion, document sight translation is required of the interpreter during consecutive
interpretation work. Sight translation combines interpretation and translation; the interpreter
must render the source-language document to the target-language as if it were written in the
target language. Sight translation occurs usually, but not exclusively, in judicial and
medical work.
Consecutive interpretation may be the chosen mode when bilingual listeners are present
who wish to hear both the original and interpreted speech or where, as in a court setting, a
record must be kept of both. [citation needed]
When no interpreter is available to interpret directly from source to target, an intermediate
interpreter will be inserted in a relay mode, e.g. a Greek source language could be
interpreted into English and then from English to another language. This is also commonly
known as double-interpretation. Triple-interpretation may even be needed, particularly
where rare languages or dialects are involved. Such interpretation can only be effectively
conducted using consecutive interpretation.
Simultaneous[edit]
Main article: Simultaneous interpretation

Nuremberg defendants at dock listening to simultaneous interpretation

Simultaneous interpretation (SI) has the disadvantage that if a person is performing the
service the interpreter must do the best they can within the time permitted by the pace of
source speech. However they also have the advantages of saving time and not disturbing
the natural flow of the speaker. SI can also be accomplished by software where the program
can simultaneously listen to incoming speech and speak the associated interpretation. The
most common form is extempore SI, where the interpreter does not know the message until
they hear it.
Simultaneous interpretation using electronic equipment where the interpreter can hear the
speaker's voice as well as the interpreter's own voice was introduced at the Nuremberg
trials in 1945.[11] The equipment facilitated large numbers of listeners, and interpretation was
offered in French, Russian, German and English.[12] The technology arose in the 1920s and
1930s when American businessman Edward Filene and British engineer Alan Gordon
Finlay developed simultaneous interpretation equipment with IBM.[13] Yvonne Kapp
attended a conference with simultaneous interpretation in 1935 in the Soviet Union. [14] As it
proved successful, IBM was able to sell the equipment to the United Nations, where it is
now widely used in the United Nations Interpretation Service.
In the ideal setting for oral language, the interpreter sits in a sound-proof booth and speaks
into a microphone, while clearly seeing and hearing the source-language speaker via
earphones. The simultaneous interpretation is rendered to the target-language listeners via
their earphones.
The progressive shift from consecutive to simultaneous[edit]

Simultaneous interpreter's station (Televic Conference) at the European Court of Justice

Pavel Palazchenko's My Years with Gorbachev and Shevardnadze: The Memoir of a Soviet
Interpreter gives a short history of modern interpretation and of the transition from its
consecutive to simultaneous forms. He explains that during the nineteenth century
interpreters were rarely needed during European diplomatic discussions; these were
routinely conducted in French, and all government diplomats were required to be fluent in
this language. Most European government leaders and heads of state could also speak
French.[15] Historian Harold Nicolson attributes the growing need for interpretation after
World War I to the fact that U.S. President Woodrow Wilsonand British Prime
Minister David Lloyd George "were no linguists".[16] At the time, the concept and special
equipment needed for simultaneous interpretation, later patented by Alan Gordon Finlay,
had not been developed, so consecutive interpretation was used.[15]
Consecutive interpreters, in order be accurate, used a specialized system of note-taking
which included symbols abbreviations and acronyms. Because they waited until the speaker
was finished to provide interpretation, the interpreters then had the difficult task of creating
from these notes as much as half an hour of free-flowing sentences closely matching the
speaker's meaning. Palazchenko cites Anton Velleman [de], Jean Herbert and the Kaminker
brothers as skilled interpreters, and notes one unusual case in which André Kaminker
interpreted a speech by a French diplomat who spoke for two and a half hours without
stopping.[15]
After World War II, simultaneous interpretation came into use at the Nuremberg trial, and
began to be more accepted. Experienced consecutive interpreters asserted that the
difficulties of listening and speaking at the same time, adjusting for differences in sentence
structure between languages, and interpreting the beginning of a sentence before hearing its
end, would produce an inferior result. As well, these interpreters, who to that point had
been prominent speakers, would now be speaking invisibly from booths.[15]
In 1951, when the United Nations expanded its number of working languages to five
(English, French, Russian, Chinese and Spanish), consecutive interpretation became
impractical in most cases, and simultaneous interpretation became the most common
process for the organization's large meetings.[17] Consecutive interpretation, which provides
a more fluent result without the need for specialized equipment, continued to be used for
smaller discussions.[15]
Whispered[edit]

Interpreter (left) next to Swedish filmmaker Johannes Nyholm at Buenos Aires International Festival of
Independent Cinema 2019.

Since time immemorial, whispered interpretation has been used, known in the trade by the
French term chuchotage. To avoid disturbing the original speaker and those present
listening to the original speaker, the interpreter's voice is kept at a low volume. To do this,
the interpreter and the person requiring interpretation must sit or stand in close proximity to
one another. No actual whispering is involved as this is difficult to decipher as well as
being too much of a strain on the voice: the interpreter uses normal 'voiced' speech at a low
volume. Only one or at the most two people in need of interpretation can be
accommodated, unless portable electronic equipment is used.
This form of interpretation puts a strain on the interpreter who has to sit for long periods
leaning towards the person in need of interpretation.

Types[edit]
Conference[edit]
Interpreting booths at a conference by the World Trade Organization 2017

Conference interpreting refers to interpretation at a conference or large meeting, either

simultaneously or consecutively. The advent of multi-lingual meetings has reduced the
amount of consecutive interpretation in the last 20 years.
Conference interpretation is divided between two markets: institutional and private.
International institutions (EU, UN, EPO, et cetera), which hold multilingual meetings, often
favor interpreting several foreign languages into the interpreters' mother tongues. Local
private markets tend to have bilingual meetings (the local language plus another), and the
interpreters work both into and out of their mother tongues. These markets are not mutually
exclusive. The International Association of Conference Interpreters (AIIC) is the only
worldwide association of conference interpreters. Founded in 1953, its membership
includes more than 2,800 professional conference interpreters, in more than 90 countries.
Judicial[edit]
See also: Legal translation
Judicial, legal, or court interpreting occurs in courts of justice, administrative tribunals, and
wherever a legal proceeding is held (i.e., a police station for an interrogation, a conference
room for a deposition, or the locale for taking a sworn statement). Legal interpreting can be
the consecutive interpretation of witnesses' testimony, for example, or the simultaneous
interpretation of entire proceedings, by electronic means, for one person, or all of the
people attending. In a legal context, where ramifications of misinterpretation may be dire,
accuracy is paramount. Teams of two or more interpreters, with one actively interpreting
and the second monitoring for greater accuracy, may be deployed.
The right to a competent interpreter for anyone who does not understand the language of
the court (especially for the accused in a criminal trial) is usually considered a fundamental
rule of justice. Therefore, this right is often guaranteed in national constitutions,
declarations of rights, fundamental laws establishing the justice system or by precedents set
by the highest courts. However, it is not a constitutionally required procedure (in the United
States) that a certified interpreter be present at police interrogation.[18] This has been
especially controversial in cases where illegal immigrants with no English skills are
accused of crimes.
In the US, depending upon the regulations and standards adhered to per state and venue,
court interpreters usually work alone when interpreting consecutively, or as a team, when
interpreting simultaneously. In addition to practical mastery of the source and target
languages, thorough knowledge of law and legal and court procedures is required of court
interpreters. They are often required to have formal authorization from the state to work in
the courts – and then are called certified court interpreters.[note 2] In many jurisdictions, the
interpretation is considered an essential part of the evidence. Incompetent interpretation, or
simply failure to swear in the interpreter, can lead to a mistrial.
Escort interpreter[edit]
In escort interpreting, an interpreter accompanies a person or a delegation on a tour, on a
visit, or to a business meeting or interview. An interpreter in this role is called an escort
interpreter or an escorting interpreter. An escort interpreter's work session may run for
days, weeks, or even months, depending on the period of the client's visit. This type of
interpreting is often needed in business contexts, during presentations, investor meetings,
and business negotiations. As such, an escort interpreter needs to be equipped with some
business and financial knowledge in order to best understand and convey messages back
and forth.
Public sector[edit]
Also known as community interpreting, is the type of interpreting occurring in fields such
as legal, health, and federal and local government, social, housing, environmental health,
education, and welfare services. In community interpreting, factors exist which determine
and affect language and communication production, such as speech's emotional content,
hostile or polarized social surroundings, its created stress, the power relationships among
participants, and the interpreter's degree of responsibility – in many cases more than
extreme; in some cases, even the life of the other person depends upon the interpreter's
work.
Medical[edit]
Medical interpreting is a subset of public service interpreting, consisting of communication
among healthcare personnel and the patient and their family or among Healthcare personnel
speaking different languages, facilitated by an interpreter, usually formally educated and
qualified to provide such interpretation services. In some situations, medical employees
who are multilingual may participate part-time as members of internal language
banks.[19] Depending on country/state-specific requirements, the interpreter is often required
to have some knowledge of medical terminology, common procedures, the patient
interview and exam process. Medical interpreters are often culturalliaisons for people
(regardless of language) who are unfamiliar with or uncomfortable in hospital, clinical, or
medical settings.
For example, in China, there is no mandatory certificate for medical interpreters as of 2012.
Most interpretation in hospitals in China is done by doctors, who are proficient in both
Chinese and English (mostly) in his/her specialty. They interpret more in academic settings
than for communications between doctors and patients. When a patient needs English
language service in a Chinese hospital, more often than not the patient will be directed to a
staff member in the hospital, who is recognized by his/her colleagues as proficient in
English. The actual quality of such service for patients or medical interpretation for
communications between doctors speaking different languages is unknown by the
interpreting community as interpreters who lack Healthcare background rarely receive
accreditation for medical interpretation in the medical community. Interpreters working in
the Healthcare setting may be considered Allied Health Professionals.
In the United States, language access is a socioeconomic disparity, and language access to
federally-funded health services is required by law. Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of
1964 prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, or national origin in any program
or activity that receives Federal funds or other Federal financial assistance. [20] Hospital
systems and clinics that are funded by federal programs, such as Medicare, are required by
this law to take reasonable steps towards ensuring equitable access to health services for
limited English proficient patients.
Military interpreting[edit]

A US military interpreter sits with Afgan army soldiers, Ghazni province

Interpreters are often used in a military context, carrying out interpretation usually either
during active military combat or during noncombat operations. Interpretation is one the of
the main factors in multi-national and multi-lingual cooperation and military cohesion of
the military and civilianpopulations.
During inactive military operations, the most common goal of military interpreters is to
increase overall cohesion in the military unit, and with the civilian population. One of the
primary forces behind the feeling of an occupation is a lack of mutual intelligibility. During
the War in Afghanistan, the use of American soldiers that did not speak the languages of
Afghanistan, and the primary recruitment from northern Afghanistan, primarily Tajiks, led
to a feeling of the United States and Tajik forces as an occupying force.[21] This feeling was
most common in majority Pashtun areas of the country, which in turn was one of the main
causes of the Taliban's resurgence. If interpreters are not present inside war zones, it
becomes extremely common for misunderstandings from the civilian population and a
military force to spiral into an open conflict, or to produce animosity and distrust, forming
the basis of a conflict or an insurgency.[22]
A Peshmerga American interpreter, with a refugee, Duhok

Military interpreters are commonly found in Iraq and have been largely effective,
particularly in the Kurdish held regions (Kurdistan Regional Government), during the
fighting against ISIS. Military interpreters were the primary drivers in cooperation between
the coalition and the Iraqi populationand military. Likewise managing to
produce stability in areas held by the coalition, Kurdish interpreters were known for being a
primary aid in this endeavour.[23]
The fundamental act of interpreting during active combat is an extremely stressful and
dangerous. It is, however, necessary when different-language battalions are fighting
together with no common intermediate language. Misunderstandings in this context are
most often fatal, the most common misinterpretations are positioning and attempted break
outs. In the chaos of combat, however, it can be very easy to make a mistake in
interpreting, particularly with the immense noise and changing locations.[24]
Military interpreters are also used within single armies instead of multi-lingual cooperation.
In this context, a military interpreter is usually a given job in each unit. Common examples
include Bosnia, Pakistan, Switzerland, and South Africa. This use of assigning soldiers
with different languages to a single battalion helps reinforce a feeling of unity in the
military force.[25][26]
For an historical example, see also Linguistics and translations in the Austro-Hungarian
Army.
Sign language[edit]
See also: ASL interpreting
The hostess (in red) and a sign language interpreter at a press conference in Taipei, 2007.

Two sign language interpreters working for a school, 2007

A sign language interpreter must accurately convey messages between two different
languages.[27][28] An interpreter is there for both deaf and hearing individuals.[29][30] The act of
interpreting occurs when a hearing person speaks, and an interpreter renders the speaker's
meaning into sign language, or other forms used by the deaf party(ies). The interpreting
also happens in reverse: when a deaf person signs, an interpreter renders the meaning
expressed in the signs into the oral language for the hearing party, which is sometimes
referred to as voice interpreting or voicing. This may be performed either as simultaneous
or consecutive interpreting. Skilled sign language interpreters will position themselves in a
room or space that allows them to be seen by the deaf participants and heard clearly by
hearing participants, as well as be in a position to hear and/or see the speaker or speakers
clearly. In some circumstances, an interpreter may interpret from one language to another
whether that is English to British Sign Language, English to American Sign Language,
Spanish to English to American Sign Language and so on.
Deaf individuals also have the opportunity to work as interpreters. If they are certified they
are referred to as a CDI (Certified Deaf Interpreter), if not they would be called a DI (Deaf
Interpreter). The Deaf individual will team with a hearing counterpart to provide
interpretation for deaf individuals who may not know the same sign language used in that
country, who have minimal language skills, are developmentally delayed, have other
mental and/or physical disabilities which make communication a unique challenge, or
request one. In other cases the hearing interpreter may interpret in the sign language,
whichever kind of sign language the team knows and the deaf team will then interpret into
the language in which the individual can understand. They also interpret information from
one medium of language into another – for example, when a person is signing visually, the
deaf interpreter could be hired to copy those signs into a deaf-blind person's hand and add
visual information.
Some interpreters have been formally trained in an Interpreter Training Program (ITP),
though this is not always required. ITP lengths vary, and are usually two or four years to
obtain a degree or certificate. Graduate programs are also available.[31]
In the United States, Sign Language interpreters have National and some states have a State
level certifications. The Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf (RID), a non-profit
organization, is known for its national recognition and certification process. In addition to
training requirements and stringent certification testing, RID members must abide by a
Code of Professional Conduct, Grievance Process and Continuing Education Requirement.
There are many interpreter-training programs in the U.S. The Collegiate Commission on
Interpreter Education is the body that accredits Interpreter Preparation Programs. A list of
accredited programs can be found on the CCIE web site.[32]
European countries and countries elsewhere have their own national associations of Sign
Language Interpreters.[33] Some countries have more than one national association due to
regional or language differences. The European Forum of Sign Language Interpreters (efsli)
is the umbrella organization of sign language interpreters in Europe.[34] In Canada, the
professional association that recognizes and nationally certifies sign language interpreters is
the Association of Visual Language Interpreters of Canada (AVLIC). Under AVLIC holds
several affiliate chapters representing a specified region of Canada.[35]
Sign language interpreters encounter a number of linguistic, environmental, interpersonal
and intrapersonal factors that can have an effect on their ability to provide accurate
interpretation. Studies have found that most interpreter training programs do not
sufficiently prepare students for the highly variable day-to-day stresses that an interpreter
must manage, and there is an ongoing conversation in the interpreting field as to how to
appropriately prepare students for the challenges of the job. Proposed changes include
having a more robust definition of what a qualified interpreter should know, as well as a
post-graduate internship structure that would allow new interpreters to work with the
benefit of supervision from more experienced interpreters, much like the programs in place
in medicine, law enforcement, etc. [36]
In Israel, Naama Weiss, a board member of Malach, the Organization of the Israeli Sign
Language Interpreters,[37] advertised a video which she produced. It was her paraphrase of
the video So-Low,[38] and showed her viewpoint upon the Israeli Sign Language interpreters'
jobs.[39] A study which was made in Finland found that, in comparison to the foreign
language teachers and non-linguistic experts, a high cooperativeness was found to be more
characteristic to simultaneous and consecutive interpreters,[40] and Weiss showed it in her
video, although she claimed to be comic. [41]
One cost-effective method of providing sign-language interpretation services are computer-
animated sign language avatars, such as SiMAX. The World Federation of the
Deaf supports the use of avatars "for pre-recorded static customer information, for example,
in hotels or train stations",[42] and not to replace human interpreters.[43][44]
Media[edit]
By its very nature, media interpreting has to be conducted in the simultaneous mode. It is
provided particularly for live television coverages such as press conferences, live or taped
interviews with political figures, musicians, artists, sportsmen or people from the business
circle. In this type of interpreting, the interpreter has to sit in a sound-proof booth where
ideally he/she can see the speakers on a monitor and the set. All equipment should be
checked before recording begins. In particular, satellite connections have to be double-
checked to ensure that the interpreter's voice is not sent back and the interpreter gets to hear
only one channel at a time. In the case of interviews recorded outside the studio and some
current affairs program, the interpreter interprets what they hear on a TV monitor.
Background noise can be a serious problem. The interpreter working for the media has to
sound as slick and confident as a television presenter.
Media interpreting has gained more visibility and presence especially after the Gulf War.
Television channels have begun to hire staff simultaneous interpreters. The interpreter
renders the press conferences, telephone beepers, interviews and similar live coverage for
the viewers. It is more stressful than other types of interpreting as the interpreter has to deal
with a wide range of technical problems coupled with the control room's hassle and
wrangling during live coverage.

Modalities[edit]
Interpreting services can be delivered in multiple modalities. The most common modality
through which interpreting services are provided is on-site interpreting.
On-site[edit]
Also called "in-person interpreting" or sometimes colloquialized as "face-to-face", this
delivery method requires the interpreter to be physically present in order for the
interpretation to take place. In on-site interpreting settings, all of the parties who wish to
speak to one another are usually located in the same place. This is by far the most common
modality used for most public and social service settings.[citation needed]
Telephone[edit]
Main article: Telephone interpreting
Also referred to as "over-the-phone interpreting," "telephonic interpreting," and "tele-
interpreting," telephone interpreting enables interpretation via telephone. Telephone
interpreting can be used in community settings as well as conference settings. Telephone
interpreting may be used in place of on-site interpreting when no on-site interpreter is
readily available at the location where services are needed. However, it is more commonly
used for situations in which all parties who wish to communicate are already speaking to
one another via telephone (e.g. telephone applications for insurance or credit cards, or
telephone inquiries from consumers to businesses).
Video[edit]
Main articles: Video Relay Service and Video Remote Interpreting
Interpretation services via Video Remote Interpreting (VRI) or a Video Relay
Service (VRS) are useful for spoken language barriers where visual-cultural recognition is
relevant, and even more applicable where one of the parties is deaf, hard-of-
hearing or speech-impaired (mute). In such cases the direction of interpretation is normally
within the same principal language, such as French Sign Language (FSL) to spoken French
and Spanish Sign Language (SSL) to spoken Spanish. Multilingual sign language
interpreters, who can also interpret as well across principal languages (such as to and from
SSL, to and from spoken English), are also available, albeit less frequently. Such activities
involve considerable effort on the part of the interpreter, since sign languages are
distinct natural languages with their own construction and syntax, different from the aural
version of the same principal language.
With video interpreting, sign language interpreters work remotely with live video and audio
feeds, so that the interpreter can see the deaf or mute party, converse with the hearing party
and vice versa. Much like telephone interpreting, video interpreting can be used for
situations in which no on-site interpreters are available. However, video interpreting cannot
be used for situations in which all parties are speaking via telephone alone. VRI and VRS
interpretation requires all parties to have the necessary equipment. Some advanced
equipment enables interpreters to control the video camera, in order to zoom in and out, and
to point the camera toward the party that is signing.

Venues[edit]

Interpreting booths in the European Parliament where interpreters simultaneously interpret debates between the 24
official languages of the European Union.

The majority of professional full-time conference interpreters work for phone interpreting
agencies, health care institutions, courts, school systems and international organizations
like the United Nations, (for the United Nations Interpretation Service), the European
Union, or the African Union.
The world's largest employer of interpreters is currently the European
Commission,[45] which employs hundreds of staff and freelance interpreters working into the
official languages of the European Union and some others in DG Interpretation. In
2016, Florika Fink-Hooijer was appointed as Director General and the first ever Knowledge
Centre on Interpretation was created. [46] She had spoken about the need to "futureproof"
services by strengthening the skills of colleagues to work with new technologies.' as well as
how Artificial Intelligence may be an (un)desired revolution in linguistic
services.[47][48] Subsequently, she drove forward the digitalization of the service by
introducing features like automatic speech recognition and other support services to
interpreters.[49]During the COVID-19 pandemic, she scaled up multilingual interpretation in
hybrid meetings via new digital platforms and technologies, which was a "watershed
moment" for the interpretation profession.[50]
The European Union's other institutions (the European Parliament and the European Court
of Justice) have smaller interpreting services.
The United Nations employs interpreters at almost all its sites throughout the world.
Because it has only six official languages, however, it is a smaller employer than the
European Union.
Interpreters may also work as freelance operators in their local, regional and national
communities, or may take on contract work under an interpreting business or service. They
would typically take on work as described above.
Militaries often use interpreters to better communicate with the local population. One
notable example is the US military during the war in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Associations[edit]
There are a number of interpreting and translation associations around the world, including
NAATI (National Accreditation Authority for Translators and Interpreters), AIIC (The
International Association of Conference Interpreters), CATTI (China Accreditation Test for
Translators and Interpreters), CTTIC (Canadian Translators, Terminologists and
Interpreters Council), the Institute of Translation & Interpreting, and TAALS (The
American Association of Language Specialists).
No worldwide testing or certification agency exists for all types of interpreters. For
conference interpretation, there is the International Association of Conference Interpreters,
or AIIC.
Specific regions, countries, or even cities will have their own certification standards. In
many cases, graduates of a certain caliber university program acts as a de facto certification
for conference interpretation.
China[edit]
The most recognized interpretation & translation certificate in P.R.C. is China
Accreditation Test for Translation and Interpretation, or CATTI. It is entrusted by the
Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security of P.R.C. It is a translation and
interpretation professional qualification accreditation test which is implemented throughout
the country according to uniform standards, in order to assess examinees' bilingual
translation or interpretation capability. CATTI was introduced in 2003. In later 2013,
translation and interpreting tests of different levels in English, French, Japanese, Russian,
German, Spanish and Arabic were held across the nation.
Those examinees who pass CATTI and obtain translation and interpretation certificates
acquire corresponding translation and interpretation professional titles.
 • Senior translator or interpreter – professor of
translation or interpretation
• Level 1 translator or interpreter – associate professor
of translation or interpretation
• Level 2 translator or interpreter – translator or
interpreter
• Level 3 translator or interpreter – assistant translator
or interpreter
Relevant institutions from Australia, France, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Singapore and
other countries as well as Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and the region of
Taiwan have established work ties with CATTI.
Germany[edit]
In Germany, anyone can become and call themselves an interpreter; access to this
profession is not regulated, but court interpreters must be sworn in and prove their
qualifications, e.g. through a recognized certificate or professional experience of several
years.[51]
In order to learn and practice the necessary skills, colleges and universities offer studies in
Translation and/or Interpretation Studies, primarily to/from English, but there are also Sign
Language Interpretation studies.[51] Admission to higher education, however, is
highly restricted.
Some states offer a State Examination title Staatlich geprüfter Dolmetscher. Unlike a
bachelor's or master's degree, this certificate merely certifies professional skills. Access to
the exam is far easier, but requires proof of the necessary skills. For that, there are private
schools that offer preparatory courses. Attending these schools is usually sufficient to prove
someone's aptitude.[51] Of course, a university or college degree is accepted, too.
Furthermore, the State Examination is offered in many more languages, including German
Sign Language, yet primarily to/from German.

See also[edit]
• Interpreting notes
• List of translators and interpreters associations

Notes[edit]
1. ^ Interpreters were often ethnic and cultural mixtures,
women, slaves or members of a "subcaste" (such as the
Armenians and Jews in British India), as well as victims of
kidnappings, conflict and political upheaval.[3]
2. ^ The majority of state court systems utilize a certification
exam developed and administered by the National Center for
State Courts. Most non-native speakers of English use the
term "sworn interpreter," which is calqued from a civil-law
position title common throughout the world. However, there
is no common law country[clarification needed] that uses this term.
References[edit]
1. ^ Jump up to: a b c Pöchhacker 2016, p. 9.
2. ^ Gaiba (1998), p. 27.
3. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Woodsworth & Delisle 2012, p. 248.
4. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Pöchhacker 2016, p. 152.
5. ^ Pöchhacker 2016, p. 154.
6. ^ Jump up to: a b Woodsworth & Delisle 2012, p. 247.
7. ^ Pöchhacker 2016, pp. 9–10.
8. ^ Jump up to: a b Pöchhacker 2016, p. 10.
9. ^ "Consecutive and Simultaneous
Interpretering". www.conference-interpreters.ca. Archived
from the original on 2016-10-22. Retrieved 2017-09-29.
10. ^ http://www.imiaweb.org/uploads/pages/228_4.pdf[bare URL PDF]
11. ^ Gaiba (1998), p. [page needed].
12. ^ "The History of Simultaneous Interpretation". 29 April
2014.
13. ^ "The Origins of Simultaneous Interpretation
Equipment". Infinity Translation Services. Archived from the
original on 2017-02-27. Retrieved 2017-09-29.
14. ^ 'I would switch about, listening to the speeches in French,
in German, in Italian and marvel at this, to me, novel device.'
Kapp, Time Will Tell, Verso, 2003, p. 170.
15. ^ Jump up to: a b c d e Pavel Palazchenko, My Years with
Gorbachev and Shevardnadze: The Memoir of a Soviet
Interpreter (Pennsylvania University Press, 1997), pp. 32–33.
16. ^ Nicolson, Harold (2009) [1933]. Peacemaking, 1919.
London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-25604-4.
17. ^ Jesús Baigorri Jalón. Interpreters at the United Nations. A
history. Universidad de Salamanca; 2004. ISBN 978-84-
7800-643-4. p. 29–30.
18. ^ Einesman, Floralynn (1999). "Confessions and Culture:
The Interaction of Miranda and Diversity". Journal of
Criminal Law and Criminology. p. 26. Archived from the
original on 2017-09-22. Retrieved 2017-09-29.
19. ^ Kilgannon, Corey (2005-04-15). "Queens Hospitals Learn
Many Ways to Say 'Ah'". The New York Times. Archived
from the original on 2015-05-29. Retrieved 2017-09-29.
20. ^ Rights (OCR), Office for Civil (15 January 2009). "Civil
Rights Requirements Title VI of the Civil Rights
Act". HHS.gov.
21. ^ Brasher, Ryan (2011). "Ethnic Brother or Artificial
Namesake? The Construction of Tajik Identity in Afghanistan
and Tajikistan". Berkeley Journal of Sociology. 55: 97–
120. JSTOR 23345249 – via JSTOR.
22. ^ Baker, Mona (2010). "Interpreters and Translators in the
War Zone: Narrated and Narrators". Translation and Violent
Conflict. 16 (2) – via www.academia.edu.
23. ^ Inghilleri, Moira (14 April 2009). Bielsa, Esperanza;
Hughes, Christopher W. (eds.). Globalization, Political
Violence and Translation. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 207–
221. doi:10.1057/9780230235410_11 – via Springer Link.
24. ^ Musallam Al-Ma'ani (2015). "The Contextual over the
Referential in Military Translation" (PDF). English
 Language Teaching. Canadian Center of Science and
Education. 8 (8). ISSN 1916-4742.
25. ^ Capelli, Paolo (2014), "Wartime Interpreting: Exploring
the Experiences of Interpreters and Translators" (PDF), in
Valero-Garcés, Carmen (ed.), (Re)visiting Ethics and
Ideology in Situations of Conflict, University of Alcalá,
retrieved 23 April 2022
26. ^ Pym, Anthony (2009). "On the ethics of translators'
interventions" (PDF). Retrieved 23 April 2022.
27. ^ "Interpreting American Sign Language". National
Association of the Deaf. Archived from the original on 2017-
07-08. Retrieved 2017-09-29.
28. ^ Ingram, Robert M. (1978). "Sign Language Interpretation
and General Theories of Language, Interpretation and
Communication," in Gerver, D. & H. W. Sinaiko
(Eds.), Language Interpretation and
Communication. London: Plenum Press, 109-117.
29. ^ "deaf studies". sign.let.ru.nl. Archived from the original on
2013-01-29.
30. ^ Ingram, Robert M. (1974). "A Communication Model of
the Interpreting Process." Journal of Rehabilitation of the
Deaf 7:3(Jan.), 3-9.
31. ^ "About Interpreting Education Programs". Registry of
Interpreters for the Deaf, Inc. Archived from the original on
2014-12-24.
32. ^ "Accredited Programs". Commission On Collegiate
Interpreter Education. Archived from the original on 2017-
06-29. Retrieved 2017-09-29.
33. ^ "Types of Sign Language and Their
Development". www.accreditedlanguage.com. Archived
from the original on 2017-05-25. Retrieved 2017-09-29.
34. ^ "About efsli..." efsli.org. Archived from the original on
2012-09-02. Retrieved 2012-08-31.
35. ^ "Welcome to AVLIC". www.avlic.ca. Archived from the
original on 2017-09-24. Retrieved 2017-09-29.
36. ^ Dean, Robyn, Robert Q Pollard (January
2001). "Application of Demand-Control Theory to Sign
Language Interpreting: Implications for Stress and
Interpreter Training". The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf
Education. 6 (1): 1–
14. doi:10.1093/deafed/6.1.1. PMID 15451859.
37. ^ Malach. "About the organization". Malach (in Hebrew).
Retrieved 2018-12-21.
38. ^ Itay Zvolon-Marzipan (2018-10-23). "So-Low Haifa
2018". YouTube (in Hebrew). Length 3:25
minutes. Archived from the original on 2021-11-17.
Retrieved 2018-12-21.
39. ^ Naama Weiss (2018-12-18). "So-Low Sign Language
Interpreters". Facebook (in Hebrew). Length 3:38 minutes.
Retrieved 2018-12-21. Do not touch my shoulder; I
know Yonit Levi; I do not have friends in the community, just
customers; I erased my phone book, to make room for new
customers; I will not be spoken to at the end of the
interpretations; Let us say I do not have forms; I am
madness; I can not stand the interpretation of meetings.
40. ^ Hiltunen S, Mäntyranta H, Määttänen I (2018-08-
06). "Cooperativeness – A necessary trait for
 interpreters?". International Journal of Bilingualism:
136700691879080. doi:10.1177/1367006918790808. hdl:101
38/311610. S2CID 149880289.
41. ^ Weiss reaction on December 22, 2018, was that her video
was comic.
42. ^ World Federation of the Deaf; World Association of Sign
Language Interpreters (14 March 2018). WFD AND WASLI
STATEMENT ON USE OF SIGNING AVATARS (Report).
p. 2. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
43. ^ "SiMAX". Sowartis. 2018. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
44. ^ Kipp, Michael; Nguyen, Quan; Heloir, Alexis; Matthes,
Silke (October 2011). "Assessing the deaf user perspective on
sign language avatars". Proceedings of the 13th
International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers
and Accessibility (ASSETS-11). 13th ACM SIGACCESS
Conference on Computers and Accessibility. Dundee,
Scotland: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 107–
114. doi:10.1145/2049536.2049557.
45. ^ "What we do". ec.europa.eu. Archived from the original on
2017-02-05. Retrieved 2017-09-29.
46. ^ European Commission (2018-04-20). "Summary of SCIC-
Universities Conference 2018" (PDF). European
Commission.
47. ^ Fink-Hooijer, Florika (2017-01-11). "Artificial Intelligence
– the (un)desired revolution?". Lebende Sprachen. 62 (2):
269–274. doi:10.1515/les-2017-0020. ISSN 1868-
0267. S2CID 67104547.
48. ^ Interpreters, E. U. (2019-05-27). ".@FlorikaFink 'We need
to "futureproof" our services by strengthening the skills of
colleagues to work with new technologies.'
#IAMLADP2019EU @EUinterpreters |@EP_Interpreters
|@EUCourtPress |@EUCouncil
|@UNDGACM_EN|@translatorespic.twitter.com/XMCotLR
grE". @EUInterpreters. Retrieved 2019-07-29.
49. ^ Sarno, Ivano (2019). "IAMLADP: Directors General of
Interpretation and Translation discuss
multilingualism". Knowledge Centre on Interpretation -
European Commission. Retrieved 2021-05-26.
50. ^ Kilian G. Seeber, ed. (2021). 100 Years of Conference
Interpreting : A Legacy. Newcastle upon Tyne. pp. 284–
288. ISBN 978-1-5275-6878-5. OCLC 1247835775.
51. ^ Jump up to: a b c "Wege zum Beruf" (in German).
Bundesverband der Dolmetscher/innen und
Übersetzer/innen. Retrieved 2021-04-29.

Sources[edit]
• Farwick, Judith (2018). Between the Signs. How to
take notes without words.
Duesseldorf. ISBN 9783752802696
• Gaiba, Francesca (1998). The Origins of
Simultaneous Interpretation: The Nuremberg Trial.
University of Ottawa Press. ISBN 978-0776604572.
• Pöchhacker, Franz (2016). Introducing Interpreting
Studies (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-
0415742726.
• Woodsworth, Judith; Delisle, Jean
(2012). Translators through History (Revised ed.).
John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-
9027224514.
• Baigorri-Jalón, Jesús (2004). De Paris à
Nuremberg: Naissance de l'interprétation de
conférence. Ottawa, Canada: University of Ottawa
Press. ISBN 978-2760305762.
• Baigorri Jalon, Jesus (2004). Interpreters at the
United Nations: A History. Salamanca, Spain:
Ediciones Universidad Salamanca. ISBN