Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology

FORENSIC CHEMISTRY
& TOXICOLOGY
Forensic Chemistry Defined
Forensic Chemistry – that branch of chemistry which
deals with the application of chemical principles in the
solution of problems that arise in connection with the
administration of justices. It is chemistry applied in the
elucidation of legal problems.
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Scope of Forensic Chemistry
Forensic chemistry is not limited to purely chemical
questions involved in legal proceedings. It has invaded
other branches of forensic sciences such as but not
limited to the following:
 Legal Medicine
 Ballistics
 Questioned Document Examination
 Dactyloscopy
 Photography
Four Stages in the Practice of Forensic
Chemistry
1. Collection or reception of specimen to be
examined;
a. Sufficiency of samples
b. Standard for comparison
c. Maintenance of individuality
d. Labeling and sealing
2. The actual examination;
3. The communication of results of examination; and
4. Court appearance
Six Golden Rules in the Practice of Forensic
Chemistry
1. Go slowly
2. Be thorough
3. Take notes
4. Consult others
5. Use Imagination
6. Avoid complicated theories
Blood and Blood Stains
1. As circumstantial or corroborative evidence
against or in favor of the perpetrator
2. For disputed parentage
3. Determination of the cause of death the length of
time the victim survived the attack.
4. Determination of the direction of escape of the
victim or the assailant.
5. Determination of the origin of the flow of blood.
6. Determination of the approximate time the crime
was committed.
Some Characteristics of Blood
1. The circulating tissue of the body
2. 1 cc of blood: 5,000,000 red cells.
3. Man of average size: about 6 quarts of blood
4. Made up of FORMED ELEMENTS {a. RBC
(Erythrocytes) b. WBC (Leucocytes) c.
PLATELETS (Thrombocytes)} and PLASMA
(liquid portion of blood; composing about 65% of
the total blood volume)
5. Serum – a straw-yellowish liquid that can be seen
when blood is allowed to clot.
Problems in the Study of Blood
A. Where blood has to be searched for.
B. Collection, preservation and transportation of
specimen suspected to contain blood.
C. Does the stain contain blood or another
substance?
a. Preliminary Test (a.k.a.: Presumptive or Color Test) –
a positive result is not conclusive that the stain is
blood but a negative result is conclusive that the stain
is not blood. REASON: Other substances may yield
the same reaction as blood. This includes: sputum,
nasal secretion, plant juices, formalin, etc.
1. Benzidine Test: Benzidine Solution & Hydrogen Peroxide
(agua oxigenada). A positive reaction is indicated by BLUE
COLOR
2. Guaiacum Test (Van Deen’s, Day’s or Schonbein’s Test) –
Guaiac & Hydrogen Peroxide. A positive reaction is
indicated by BLUE COLOR
3. Phenolphthalein Test (Kastle-Meyer Test) –
Phenolphthalein reagent and Hydrogen Peroxide. A
positive reaction is indicated by RED/PINK COLOR.
4. Leucomalachite Green Test – Leucomalachite Green
Reagent & Hydrogen Peroxide. A positive reaction is
indicated by MALACHITE GREEN WITH A BLUISH-
GREEN OR PEACOCK BLUE COLOR.
5. Hemastix Test – designed as a urine dipstick test for
blood, the strip can be moistened with distilled water and
placed in contact with a suspect bloodstain. A positive
reaction is indicated by GREEN COLOR.
6. Luminol Test – its reaction with blood results in the
production of light rather than color. By spraying luminal
reagent onto a suspect item, large areas can be quickly
screened for the presence of bloodstains.
b. Confirmatory Tests – The actual proof that a stain
is blood consists in establishing the presence of
characteristic blood pigment, hemoglobin or one of
its derivatives. The 3 Confirmatory Tests commonly
employed are Teichmann, Takayama and
Wagenhaar Tests. They are designed to show the
presence of hemoglobin in a suspected bloodstain
by the appearance of specific crystals observed
under a microscope.
1. Teichmann or Haemin Crystal Test –DARK BROWN RHOMBIC
CRYSTALS OF HAEMIN OR HAEMATIN CHLORIDE (arranged
singly or in clusters).
2. Takayama or Haemochromogen Crystal Test – LARGE
RHOMBIC CRYSTALS OF A SALMON-PINK COLOR (arranged
in clusters, sheaves and other forms appear within one to six
minutes).
3. Wagenhaar Test or Acetone-Haematin – Small dark, circular
crystals
4. Spectroscopic Examination – Most delicate and reliable test for
presence of blood in both old and recent stains. Uses
MICROSPECTROSCOPE: a direct vision spectroscope that fits
into the microscope tube in place of the eyepiece. Positive
result: OXYHAEMOGLOBIN for recent blood stain;
METHAEMOGLOBIN (a converted oxyhaemoglobin owing to
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light) in old blood stains.
D. If the stain is that of blood, is it human or animal?
E. - Precipitin Test (human antiserum) – The
formation of gray precipitation ring at the interface
of the two layers within 20 minutes indicates that
the stain is human blood.
F. If the stain is of human blood, did it come from the
victim, the accused or from other persons?
This is determined by blood grouping. A-B-O

system, which was discovered by Karl Landsteiner in
early 1900s, was the first system of blood grouping.
Summary of the Common
Blood Group System
Blood Group Agglutinogen in RBC Agglutinin in Serum

A A Anti-B
B B Anti-A
AB A&B None
O O Anti- A and Anti-B
Other Bodily Fluids
It has been found that some individuals secrete in
their fluids – such as: semen, saliva, urine and vaginal
fluids and substances, corresponding to their blood
groups. Therefore, it is possible to determine the ABO
blood group of suspected stains of body fluids from the
secretors.
SEMEN
Semen refers to the fluid produced by the male sex
organ. It is usually white to yellowish in color,
consisting of 2 parts: the seminal plasma or fluid, and
the spermatozoa or sperm cells. There are usually
70,000,000 to 150,000,000 sperm cells per milliliter of
semen.
The sperm cells, as seen under a microscope,
consist of a head, a neck and a tail approx. 10 X as
long as the head. During deterioration the bacteria
attacks first the tail, making identification difficult.
The seminal fluid contains certain substances
called flavins which help give a yellowish color to
semen and cause it to fluoresce under ultra-violet
lights.
Examination of Semen
A. Wet Specimen
Normally, suspected semen may be found undried

having the alkaline odor characteristics for seminal
fluid. In this condition, examination is relatively simple.
A drop of fluid (of semen) is paced on a glass slide,
and then a drop of distilled water is added. A cover slip
is placed over the preparation. The specimen is
examined under a high power microscope to
determine the presence of sperm cells.
B. Dried Specimen
1. Physical Examination
A general visual examination for grayish-white or
yellowish stain is first made. When dry, semen imparts
a starchy stiffness to cloth. When inspected under UV
light, seminal stain fluoresces. However, this
fluorescence is not specific for semen only but may be
observed from other materials.
2. Chemical Examination
There are 3 chemical tests that can be used for

seminal stains. They are the following:
Florence Test – Dark-brown crystals, rhombic or
needle-shaped.
Barberio’s Test – Slender yellow-tinted rhomboid
needles with obtuse angles.
Acid Phosphate Test – Orange-red pigment.
The first 2 are based on the formation of
characteristic crystals that are observed under the
microscope. Acid phosphatase is an enzyme found in
both animal and plant cells, but in large concentrations
in human semen. REAGENT: Sodium
alphanaphthylphosphate and fast blue B dye.
3. Microscopic Examination
The only specific test for semen is the identification of

a sperm cell under a microscope. There are many
factors which may affect the detection of sperm cells,
making this method difficult. Some of these are nature
of cloth in which the suspected stain is found, age of
stain, condition to which the stain was exposed and
handling of the specimen.
The presence of sperm cells proves that the stain is
of semen. However, with the absence of sperm cells it
cannot be concluded that the stain is not of seminal
origin. These are some conditions which may lead to
non-detection of semen, like ASPERMIA, disorder
produced by male organ which produces semen
without sperm cells and OLIGOSPERMIA, a semen
with a very few sperm cells.
GUNPOWDER & EXPLOSIVES
I. Introduction
In the investigation of crimes involving the use of
firearms, law enforcement officers need to know
whether a suspect has fired a gun or not and the
gunshot range or the approx. distance of the shooter
to victim. When a firearm is discharged unburned
particles of the gunpowder may escape thru the
breech of the gun and deposit on the hands of the
shooter, on the clothing of the victim and some may
remain in the barrel. These gunpowder residues can
be detected by chemical examination.
In connection with suspected bombings the lab is
requested to detect traces of explosives that may be
found in remains of parts of a bomb. Explosives like
improvised and manufactured dynamites used in
illegal fishing, are also examined.
II. Description of Gunpowder and Other Explosives
A. Gunpowder
1. Black powder – first invented; consist of a
mixture of carbon (charcoal) 15%, sulfur 10%, &
potassium or sodium nitrate 75%.; and
2. Smokeless – which can be either single based; consisting
of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine (glycerol nitrate).
Certain inorganic and organic compounds are added as
stabilizers.
B. Types of Explosives
1. Mechanical – such as those caused by
expansion of gas producing high pressure
beyond capacity of the container.
2. Atomic – resulting from atomic transformations.
3. Chemical – produced thru the extremely rapid
transformations of the unstable substances accompanied
by the formation of heat.
C. Classification of Explosives
The speed of the chemical reaction or detonation of the
explosives determines the classification of explosives as low,
initiating or high explosives.
1. LOW explosives are low burning and are used
mainly as propellants, like black powder and
smokeless powder. Atomic – resulting from atomic
transformations.
2. PRIMARY or INITIATING explosives are extremely
sensitive to detonation by heat, shock friction and
impact. They detonate without burning, like lead
oxide and mercury fulminate.
3. HIGH explosives detonate under the influence of
shock of the explosion of a primary explosive.
• Ammonium nitrate – the cheapest and most
readily available salt of nitric acid.
• TNT (trinitrotoluene) – the most widely used
explosive.
• Nitroglycerine – most widely used commercial
explosive.
• RDX – considered as one of the most important
military explosive used today.
• C4 – a plastic explosive which is white and
dough like in texture.
• Chloroacetophenone – CN is the principal
component in the filler used in tear gas solutions.
4. Fire Bombs – Molotov cocktail which is an
incendiary device, acids mixed with gasoline, alcohol
and gasoline, etc.
C. Distance Determination
The process of determining the distance between the
firearm and a target, usually based on the distribution of
powder patterns or the spread of a shot pattern.
Three Zones of Distance:

a. Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held
directly in contact with the body or practically so.
(CONTACT WOUNDS).
b. Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held from about 2
inches to 36 inches away.
c. Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held from 36 inches
or more.
CONTACT WOUNDS – Damage (on cloth)
is due more to the flame and the muzzle
blast than to the penetration of the bullet.
a. Gaping hole where fabric is badly torn,
b. Blackened area surrounding the bullet hole,
c. Singeing of the fibers at the entrance, and
d. Presence of partially burned powder
residues around the entrance hole.
Distance of 2 to 36 Inches:
Smudging and powder tattooing – when the
gun is held from about 2 inches to a
maximum of 8 inches. Smoke & soot is
deposited around the hole of entrance
producing a dirty, grimy appearance.
Individual specks of tattooing around the
hole are visible with the naked eye.
Distance of 36 Inches: partially burned and
unburned powder particles are driven into
the surface around the gunshot hole
producing a black coarsely peppered pattern
called tattooing.
Indication of Suicide or Homicide – The
kick of the gun causes the smudge and
powder tattooing to be deposited more on
one side of the hole than on the other, and
the side of the greatest deposit indicates the
side on which the sights of the gun were
mounted.
Distance of More than 36 Inches – powder
tattooing is seldom seen. Nitrate particles
may be present.
PARAFFIN-DIPHENYLAMINE TEST
To determine whether a person has fired a gun, the
paraffin-diphenylamine test is used. The basis of this
test is the presence of nitrates in the gunpowder
residue. Warm melted-paraffin wax applied on the
hands of the shooter will cause the pores of the skin to
open and exude the particles of the gunpowder
residue. These particles are collected by the paraffin
cast and will appear as BLUE SPECKS, when the
diphenylamine reagent is added on the cast. The
specks are generally located on the area of the thumb
and forefingers.
The blue colors that appear indicate the reaction of
the nitrates with diphenylamine reagent. Thus nitrate
from other sources like fertilizers, will give the same
reaction. Other substances similar to nitrates known as
oxidizers will also react with the reagent in the same
way. Thus, the location, distribution and character of
the specks are considered to eliminate the other
possible sources of oxidizers.
The FBI employed Neutron-Activation Analysis
which is a more specific test. This requires access to a
nuclear reactor and facilities for detecting the radiation.
NOTE: The result of this test is not conclusive
because it does not always show that nitrates or
nitrites were necessary results of discharge of
firearms. Other substances yield the same positive
reaction for nitrates or nitrites, such as explosives,
fireworks, pharmaceuticals, and leguminous plants
such as peas, beans, and alfalfa. (People v.
Baconguis, 417 SCRA 66, December 2, 2003)
HAIR IDENTIFICATION
1. Hair – An appendage of the skin which occurs
everywhere on the human body except on the
palms of the hand and soles of feet. Generally long
& stiff. Consists of ROOT, SHAFT & TIP.
2. Cuticle – the outmost covering and consists of one
layer of non-nucleated polygonal cells which
overlap like the scales of a fish; the free edges of
the cells are directed toward the distal end of the
hair.
3. Cortex – the intermediate and the thickest layer of
the shaft, and is composed of elongated, spindle-
shaped fibrils which cohere; they contain pigment
granules in varying proportions depending on a
type of the hair.
4. Medulla – the central canal of the hair; it may be
empty or may contain various sorts of cells, more
or less pigmented.
5. Continuous Medulla – found in a large number of
animals
6. Interrupted Medulla – very often in humans,
monkeys, and horses.
7. Micrometer – an instrument attached to microscope
and is used to measure the diameter of the hair.
8. Medullary Index - the ratio of the size of the
medulla to the diameter of a shaft.
9. Fuzz – Generally short, fine and at times curly and
wooly.
Human vs Animal Hair
Human Animal
Air network in fine Medulla Air network in form of
grains. large or small sacks.
Cells invisible without Cells easily visible

treatment in water.
Value of medullary index Value of medullary index

is lower than 0.5 is higher than 0.5
Human vs Animal Hair
Human Animal
Fuzz without medulla. Cortex Fuzz with medulla.
Looks like a thick muff Looks like a fairly thin

hollow cylinder
Pigment in the form of Pigments in the form of

very fine grains. irregular grains – larger
than the human
FIBER IDENTIFICATION
Types of Fibers
a. Animal – A number of fibers are derived from
animal product, the most important being wool,
silk, camel’s hair and fur.
b. Vegetable – This class includes most of the
inexpensive clothing fibers, like cotton, linen, jute,
hemp, ramie and sisal.
c. Mineral and Synthetics – First provide useful
fibers like glass wool and asbestos which is used
for safe insulation, while the latter is applied
chemistry which produced a number of fibers like
rayon, nylon, orlon and Dacron.
1. Cotton Fibers – Flattened, twisted fibers with
thickened edges. Irregularly granulated cuticle. No
transverse markings. Fibers show spiral twist.
Fibers swell in a solution of copper sulphate and
sodium carbonate dissolved in ammonia. It is
insoluble in strong sodium hydroxide but soluble in
strong sulfuric acid and partially dissolved in hot
strong hydrochloric acid.
2. Flax Fibers – Apex tapering to fine point.
Transverse sections are polygonal and show a
small cavity. The fibers consist of cellulose and
give blue or bluish-red color when treated with a
weak solution of potassium iodide saturated in
iodine and sulfuric acid. The fibers which show
transverse lines and are usually seen in group
formation, dissolve in a solution composed of
copper sulphate and sodium carbonate in
ammonia.
3. Hemp Fibers – Fibers show transverse lines and
consist of cellulose. Large oval cavities are seen in
transverse sections. The end is usually blunt, and
there is often a tuft of hair at the knots. Stains are
bluish-red with phloroglucin, and yellow with both
aniline sulphate and weak solution of potassium
iodide saturated in iodine with sulfuric acid.
4. Jute Fibers – Are quite smooth without either
longitudinal or transverse markings. The fibers
have typical large cavities which are not uniform
but vary with the degree of contraction of the walls
of the fibers which are lignified. The ends are blunt.
The fibers are stained red with aniline sulphate,
also with iodine and sulfuric acid.
5. Wool Fibers – These fibers can easily be
distinguished from vegetable fibers since the
former show an outer layer of flattened cells and
imbricated margins. The interiors are composed of
fibrous tissues but sometimes the medulla is
present. They do not dissolve in a solution
composed of copper sulphate, sodium carbonate
and ammonia. Stain is yellow with iodine and
sulfuric acid and also with picric acid. Do not
dissolve in sulfuric acid. Smell of singeing on
burning.
6. Silk Fibers – Manufactured silk is almost
structureless, microscopically. Fiber’s stain is
brown with iodine and sulfuric acid and yellow with
picric acid. They dissolve slowly in a mixture of
copper sulphate, sodium carbonate and ammonia.
7. Linen Fibers – Fibers are straight and tapering to a
point. Cortical area shows transverse lines which
frequently intersects, simulating a jointed
appearance. The medullary region shows a thin
dense line. They do not dissolve in concentrated
sulfuric acid. If placed in 1% alcoholic solution of
fuchsin and then in a solution of ammonium
hydroxide, they assume a bright red color.
Vegetable Vs. Animal Fibers
Test Vegetable Animal
Ignition Test Rapid combustion, end Burn and fuse; smell of
charred and break burnt hair, fused and
sharply; smell of burning globular; fume turns red
wood; vapor turns blue litmus to blue.
litmus red.
Chemical Tests
Concentrated Nitric Acid No change in color Turn yellow
Picric Acid Test Cellulose – No change Wool and Silk – Yellow
Million’s Reagent Test Cellulose Fibers – Turn Wool and Silk – Turn
Black Brown
Soaked in Tannic Acid Cellulose Fibers - Black Wool and Silk – No
Change
Heated with 10% NaOH Cellulose – Not Affected Wool and Silk – Dissolve
EXAMINATION OF PAPER
Objectives of Comparison with Paper Standards:
a. To determine whether the standard is similar to the
paper bearing the questioned writing.
b. To determine whether a sheet of paper was taken
from a particular pad or tablet.
c. To show that one document was in contact with
another.
Standards for Comparison
At least five sheets should be submitted for

comparison. Each sheet should be identified by writing
appropriate case information on the back. In addition
there should be included any appropriate information
concerning the circumstances surrounding the
discovery or location of the sheets.
Examination by Lab
a. Physical Test – The following physical
characteristics serve to differentiate paper:
thickness, measurement of length and width;
weight per unit area; color; finish such as bond,
laid, smooth or glossy; opacity, capacity of the
paper for the transmission of light; folding
endurance as determined by instrumentality by the
number of alternate folds the paper will stand
before breaking; bursting strength as determined
by the measurement of the pressure necessary to
burst a hole in a sheet of the paper; accelerated
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aging test performed by means of high
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temperatures or strong artificial light.
b. Chemical Test – Chemical test may be conducted
to determine the fiber composition, loading
materials, and sizing used in the manufacture of
the paper. The use of the chemical test causes a
small change or alteration in the document; hence,
extensive testing may consume a part of the
evidence, and the investigator should indicate to
the expert the degree to which the testing may be
carried.
1. Sizing Test
By the use of the few drops of chemical

reagent, the sizing of two different specimens of
paper can be compared. A small perceptible stain
results from these tests.
2. Loading Materials
The test is performed by burning and ashing

the greater part of an ordinary sheet of paper, then
analyzing the ash. Obviously, where only a limited
sample of evidence is available, this test is not
recommended.
3. Fiber Composition
Chemical reagents are applied to small

sections of the paper in order to determine the
nature of constituents of fibers.
4. Absorption
Strips of the paper are suspended in liquids

to determine either the rate of absorption or the
total absorption of the paper.
c. Watermark – The chief characteristics
indicating the source or origin of paper is
watermark. It is distinctive mark or design
placed in the paper at the time of its
manufacture by passing the paper under a
“DANDY ROLL”. Several designs are present
on the dandy roll, similar to each other, but
bearing individual characteristics, particularly if
the roll has been subjected to wear or damage.
By examining the watermarks, the examiner is
able to identify the paper as to the product of a
particular manufacturer.
THE INKS AND APPROXIMATE
AGE OF DOCUMENTS
Types of Inks
a. Iron Gallotannate Ink – This type of ink has long
been used for entries in record books and for
business purposes in general. Iron gallotannate or
nutgall inks are true solutions and not merely
suspensions of solid coloring matter in liquid form.
Hence, the ink is capable of penetration into the
interstices of the fibers of the paper, thereby
inscribing the writing in the body of the paper and
not on the surface alone, thus rendering its
removal more difficult.
b. Logwood Inks – From the wood of the logwood
tree, a natural coloring material (haemotoxylin) is
obtained by extraction with water. The color of
logwood inks depends upon the inorganic salt
which is added; but, on drying and standing, they
turn black. The addition of chromium salts will yield
the deepest black. At the present time logwood
inks are practically obsolete, although they are
reported to be still in use in Germany.
c. Nigrosin Ink – This is a water solution of a
synthetic black compound prepared from aniline
and nitrobenzene. This synthetic type of ink is
usually referred to as Nigrosin Ink and Black
Aniline Ink. No new compound is formed by
oxidation after this ink applied to the paper, so that
lines are merely deposited organic solids that were
in solution before the ink dried. It should be
expected then, that water would affect this ink by
re-dissolving the Nigrosin.
e. Ball Point Ink – Because of the differences in
construction of ball point pens, a different type of
ink is required. In place of the fluid type ink, a thick
pasty substance is used which will be a suitable
dye to the ball point but which will not flow readily.
The permanency of this ink is not known with any
accuracy. It has been noted that many ball point
inks have a tendency to fade.
Comparison of Inks
To determine whether two documents were

written with the same type of ink, various physical and
chemical methods are available. The inks are
compared visually for color. The naked eye, color
filters, and infra-red photography usually reveal
differences in color. A 5% solution of hydrochloric acid
is the most generally used chemical reagent. The
reagent may be applied with a sharpened wooden
toothpick to a small area of writing.
Comparison of Inks
When hydrochloric acid is placed on iron nutgall ink,

the color disappears and turns to light blue; on
logwood ink a red color develops; on Nigrosin or
carbon ink there is no reaction. To distinguish Nigrosin
from carbon ink, a 10% solution of sodium hypochlorite
is used. It should be noted that these reactions
sometimes take place over a period of hours. The
investigator should test inks only as a screening
procedure where a number of suspected documents
are available.
Age of Inks
It may be said, in general, that under ordinary

circumstances it is practically impossible to determine
the age of inks. A limit can sometimes be placed to the
age by the color matching with standards to determine
the degree of fading and by chemical reactions which
depend on oxidation.
Age of Inks
The chemical methods are not applicable to Nigrosine

and carbon inks, which are not oxidized after being
deposited on the paper. In any case, age
determination will depend on the composition of the
inks, its condition with respect to fluidity and impurities,
the nature of the paper used in the writing, and the
conditions under which the paper was preserved.
GLASS FRACTURES
Definition and Composition of Glass
Glass is best described as a supercooled liquid

which possesses high viscosity and, hence, rigidity.
Glass is usually composed of oxides such as
silica (SiO2), boric oxide (B2O3) and phosphorus
pentoxide (P2O5).
Types of Glass Fractures
a. Radial Fracture – primary fracture resembles

the spokes of a wheel radiating outward from
the point of impact.
b. Concentric Fracture – secondary fracture
having the appearance of circles around the
point of impact connecting one radiating crack
to the other, thus forming triangular pieces of
glass.
From the study of these two types of fractures
(impact) it is possible to derive the following:
1. Point of Impact – The front of the glass can be

determined due to the accumulation of dust and
dirt on the glass.
2. Direction of Impact – a bullet will make a clear cut
hole in the side of the entrance rather than on the
exit side. If a shot is fired perpendicularly it will give
a crater of uniform cratings, or flakings. If the shot
is fired at an angle from the right, the left exit side
of the glass will give more flakings and vice versa.
Depression will be produced on the exit side of the
glass due to the rebound of the glass. Radial
fracture can be felt on the exit side and the
concentric fracture on the entrance side.
3. Cause of Fracture – Fracture due to heat does not
exhibit a definite pattern of radial and concentric
fractures but are characteristically wavy. They
show very little stress lines, whereas fractures due
to mechanical means show a definite pattern of
radial and concentric fractures.
Determination of the First Shot from a Series of Shots
The radial fracture of the first bullet hole will

end/stop the radial fractures of the succeeding bullet
holes.
Origin of Glass
Comparing fracture pattern is one method for

instance in determining if glass fragments found on a
suspect’s clothing came from a window at the scene of
a burglary. In the analysis of fracture patterns the
investigator must consider three dimensional aspects
of the evidence. For example, a headlight has a clearly
pronounced curved inner surface that may match even
if the outer surfaces are broken.
The analysis of ream marks is related to fracture
pattern comparison. Ream marks are present, but not
readily visible in drawn glass samples. These ream
marks resemble tool marks striations.
MOULAGE AND OTHER
CASTING TECHNIQUES
Criteria of a Good Casting Material
1. Must be readily fluid or plastic when applied.

2. Must harden rapidly to a rigid mass
3. Must be deformable nor shrink
4. Must be tough
5. Must be easy to apply
6. Must have no tendency to adhere to the impression
7. Should have a fine even composition and surface
8. Should not injure the impression
9. Should be easily obtainable
10. Should be cheap
The commonly used casting material in the
Philippines is plaster of paris. In the U.S., plaster of
paris is no longer used. Some of the materials used
there are: MikrosilTM , Shoe Print Wax TM, silicon, Bio-
Foam®, etc., depending on the manufacturing
company.
Some Techniques in Connection with the Used of
Plaster of Paris
1. Hastening – add ½ teaspoonful of table salt to

the plaster
2. Retarding – add 1 part of a saturated solution of
borax to 10 parts of water to be used in making
the plaster. One teaspoonful of sugar may also
be used.
3. Hardening – soak in sodium bicarbonate
Cast of Human Body
1. Negocoll – this is a rubbery gelatinous material
made of colloidal and magnesium soaps.
2. Hominit – a flesh colored resinous substance
used for making positives from negocoll
negatives.
3. Celerit – a brown colored substance used for
backing and strengthening the hominit.
CHEMICAL DEVELOPMENT
OF LATENT FINGERPRINTS
Classification of Crime Scene Prints:
1. Visible print – a print that results after a finger,

which has previously touched contaminants as
blood, grease or ink touched a clean surface.
2. Plastic print – a print that results when a finger
touches a plastic material such as wax, soap, or
dust, and creates a negative impression of its ridge
pattern.
3. Invisible print – latent print
Locating visible or plastic prints at the crime scene
normally presents little problem to the investigator,
because these prints are usually distinct and visible to
the eye. Latent prints, on the other hand, are difficult to
locate. They can only be seen after the surface on
which they are imprinted has been treated with
powders or chemicals.
In developing latent prints, the investigator is
influenced by the kind of surface that is being
examined in choosing a developing method. For
example, prints on porous evidence such as paper,
unfinished wood, cardboard, etc. are normally
developed by treatment with a chemical. On the other
hand, prints on nonporous evidence such as plastic,
glass, metal, foil, etc., are either developed by
powdering method or super glue fuming method.
1. Powdering Method – commonly used materials are
black and gray powder.
2. Iodine Fuming – vapors of iodine are brown in color
and differentially absorb into the debris forming the
print, causing the ridge detail to stand out.
3. Silver Nitrate – the process employs a 0.2 %
solution of silver nitrate in distilled water that is used
to spray on or saturate the paper, producing silver
chloride only in the ridge areas. The paper is
exposed to light, and the print turns black.
4. Ninhydrin – develops prints on porous surfaces in
violet color.
5. Super Glue – develops prints on nonporous surfaces
in white color.
METALLURGY AS APPLIED
TO CRIME DETECTION
Definition:
1. Metallurgy – the art of extracting and working in

metals by the application of chemical and physical
knowledge.
2. Metallography – the branch of metallurgy which
involves the study of the microstructures of metals
and alloys.
Application of Metallurgy in Criminal Investigation
1. Robbery (with force upon things) – where entrance

is by breaking doors with the use of metallic tools.
Traces of these tools can be examined under a
metallographic microscope.
2. Hit and run cases
3. Bomb and explosion
4. Nail examination
5. Counterfeit coins
6. Restoration of serial numbers
Restoration of Serial Numbers: Principles Behind
When a number or any mark is stamped on

metal, the crystalline structure of the metal in the
neighborhood of the stamp is disturbed. This
disturbance penetrates to an appreciable distance into
the substance of the metal, but is not visible to the
naked eye once the actual indentations caused by the
punch have been removed.
Restoration of Serial Numbers: Principles Behind
However, when etching fluids are applied to this

surface, the disturbed or strained particles of the metal
differ in the rate of solubility than those of the
undisturbed particles and this difference in solubility
makes it possible, in many cases, to restore the
numbers to such an extent that they can be read and
photographed. In most cases, the criminal restamps
the gun with new numbers after filing off the old
numbers. By the process of etching, it is found
possible to render the original numbers visible.
1. Cast iron and cast steel – a 10% solution of
sulfuric acid and potassium dichromate.
2. Wrought iron and forged irons and steels
a. Solution 1: Hydrochloric acid, 80 cc; water,
60 cc., copper chloride, 12.9 gm, alcohol,
50 cc.
b. Solution 2: 15% nitric acid.
3. METHOD: Apply with a swab a little of the acid
copper chloride solution (solution 1). Dry with
cotton and then apply solution 2. Alternate the
swabbing until the numbers appear.
4. Aluminum – Glycerine, 30 cc., hydrofluoric acid, 20
cc., nitric acid, 10 cc. Due to the dangerous nature
of hydrofluoric acid, only experienced chemists
should use the solution. An alternate and safer
formula is made as follows: Copper chloride, 200
gm., hydrocholoric acid, 5 cc., and water 1000 cc.
This reagent gives good results but almost as soon
as it is applied, a copper deposit is formed. The
copper deposit must be removed as it forms by
means of water.
5. Copper, brass, German silver, and other copper
alloys – Ferric chloride, 19 gm, hydrochloric acid, 6
cc., and water, 100 cc. Since the reagent is slow in
its action, it is recommended that “retaining wall”
method should be employed. The reagent can
remain for 24 hours.
6. Stainless steel – Use dilute sulfuric acid or 10%
hydrochloric acid in alcohol.
7. Lead (Motor car batteries, etc.) – Glacial acetic
acid, 3 parts, hydrogen peroxide, 1 part.
8. Zinc – 10% sodium hydroxide solution. The
“retaining wall” method is recommended.
9. German silver – Ferric chloride syrupy solution,
25% concentrated hydrochloric acid, 25%, and
water 50%.
10. Tin – 10% hydrochloric acid.
11. Silver – Concentrated nitric acid solution.
12. Gold and platinum – Aqua regia.
13. Wood – Erased numbers and figures on wood can
also be treated and excellent results have been
obtained by subjecting the suspected areas to a jet
of steam. Liquid that is SYRUPY is sweet or thick
like syrup; a SYRUPY quality of behavior is
94 sentimental in an irritating way.
www.criminologyreviewer.weebly.com
PETROGRAPHY AS APPLIED
TO CRIME DETECTION
Petrography is that branch of geology which deals
with the systematic classification and identification of
rocks, rock forming minerals, and soils. This definition
has been construed to cover not only the study of soils
and other mineral substances, but also dust and dirt,
safe insulations, ceramics, and other such materials,
both natural and artificial.
Soil
Soil as evidence has been overlooked by most

investigators probably because it is such a
commonplace substance is more or less taken fro
granted. Researchers have shown that soils are
greatly diversified and vary considerably over the
surface of the earth, not only from widely separated
points but also from points quite close together.
1. Alluvial Soil – its particles may be derived from
almost infinite number of sources, and since the
action of water and wind would in a few cases be
identical over long periods of time in different
spots, great variations in composition would be
expected.
2. Colluvial Soil – soil in which some movement and
intermingling of parts has occurred would be
expected to be less variable.
3. Sedentary Soil – least variable
Constituents of Soil
a. Primary Minerals – undecomposed rock fragments

ranging from stones down thru pebbles, sand, and
silt.
b. Clay Minerals – may be found in nearly all soils
and is the major constituent of most heavy soils. It
imparts to a soil cohesiveness and plasticity, and
becomes hard and adherent on heating.
c. Organic Constituents – organic matter is one of the
most variable of all soil constituents and is of
peculiar importance in the identification of soils.
Dust and Dirt
Dust and dirt has been described as “matter in the

wrong place”.
Classification of Dust
1. Dust deposited from the air

2. Road and footpath dusts
3. Industrial Dusts
4. Occupational Dusts
ARSON
The Technical Aspect of Arson Cases
A. Burning or combustion is the rapid oxidation of

substances accompanied by the generations of heat
and light. Burning occurs only when three essential
ingredients are present: FUEL, OXYGEN & HEAT.
Obviously, to create a fire three must be present
combustible materials. It may be solid, liquid or gas.
Strictly speaking, only gases burn. The solids and
liquids must be heated to liberate flammable gases.
The gases in turn must be raised to the proper
temperature of the fuel to the kindling point. Finally,
there must be a supply of oxygen since burning is a
process of oxidation. Oxygen may be supplied from the
air or from oxidizing agents.
B. Without fuel; the elimination or exclusion of
oxygen; or when the heat is sufficiently low enough
is not capable of maintaining the process of
combustion; burning will be extinguished.
The Triangle of Fire
Fuel, heat and oxygen are known as the fire

triangle. All three must be present in order for them to
produce fire. Solids and liquids do not burn, only gases
burn. It is heat that converts solids and liquids to
flammable gases. In the case of gasoline and other
volatile liquids, the surface of the liquid is constantly
liberating flammable gases. It is only these gases that
burn.
NOTE: For burning to continue, there must be the
fourth element, i.e., uninhibited chain reaction.
Other Factors Involved in Burning
a. When a combustible material ignites, combustion

continues only as long as the heat remains above the
ignition temperature. The heat may com from external
source or more commonly from the burning material.
The temperature at which the ignition takes place
depends on the materials and the length of time that it
is exposed to a temperature higher than the normal
temperature of material. While phosphorous ignites
when exposed to air at normal room temperature, most
combustible ignites within a short time when exposed to
temperature of 400oF to 750oF. Wood must be heated
rapidly to 750oF before it ignites; when exposed to
temperature of 350oF to 400oF for a period of 30
minutes, however, wood produces gases that are easily
ignited when sufficient oxygen is present.
b. Many Oxidizing agents are employed in industry
and agriculture. For example, concentrated nitric
acid is used commonly throughout the country and
can cause combustion when it contacts with a
sawdust or wood shavings. Potassium
permanganate, common oxidizer used in the
laboratories and in compounding medicine and
other formulae is harmless, however, when it
comes in contact with glycerin, a reaction occurs
that may cause combustion. Potassium nitrate
(saltpeter), the oxidizer in black powder, is
harmless unless heated; a violent reaction occurs if
heat is present. Ordinary gasoline may be solidified
by the addition of aluminum stanate.
Propagation of Burning
A. CONDUCTION – the transmission of heat thru a

medium. Heat that is conducted is transferred from
molecule to molecule. For example, heat applied to
one end of an iron rod spread throughout the entire
rod iron. In a similar manner, walls and floors may
conduct heat from a burning portion of a building to
other portion and help escalate the fire.
B. CONVECTION – a diffusion of heat through a fluid (gas
or liquid) by means of the flow of the hotter parts of the
fluid to the colder parts. For example, a fire in a corner
of a room will heat the air directly around it. The heated
air being lighter than the cooled air, will rise to the
ceiling; the displaced cooler air will take the place of the
heated air. As this process continues, the heat from the
fire will be facilitated.
C. RADIATION – the process by which heat is transferred
in straight lines from a source to a receiving materials
without heating the intervening medium. For example,
the earth received its heat from the sun by means of
radiation from a burning building to a neighboring
building, which may set a fire or search by the intensity
of the transferred heat. The amount of heat transferred
by radiation depends on the intensity of the transferred
heat, or intensity of the burning, the distance between
the burning and receiving surface, and the angle at
which the radiated heat strikes the receiving surface,
and the presence or absence of any obstruction to the
straight lines of radiation.
Causes of Fire
A fire may originate intentionally or accidentally. One

method of proving arson is to eliminate systematically the
possibility of accident. An accidental fire may arise from the
working of certain forces of nature or from negligence in the
use of equipment and materials. Natural causes of fires
are:
1. Sun rays focused by bubbles in window panes, shaving
mirrors by some other peculiarly shaped glass article
which may serve as convex lens.
2. Lightning. Lightning usually strikes a high point of the
building and may be traced in path to the ground.
Traces of lightning are melting of metal parts of the
building, streaked paint with burned areas, cracks in the
walls, broken bricks and soot driven into rooms from
chimney.
Additional Information to Be Obtained Thru
Observation of the Colors of Smokes/Fumes and
Odor Evolved:
1. White Smoke – indicates burning of humid
materials
2. Black smoke accompanied by large flame –
indicates petroleum products or rubber
3. Reddish Brown Smoke – presence of nitrocellulose
sulfur, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, hydrochloric acid
4. Red Flame – presence of petroleum
5. Blue Flame – presence of alcohol, aldehyde or
ketone
6. Biting Smoke – irritating to nose and caused
coughing indicate presence of chlorine.
Lab Test Performed on Specimen Submitted
a. Preliminary Test – ashes or debris suspected to contain

inflammable substance is placed on a wide mouth test
tube/glass with fitted rubber stopper and heated, fumes
evolved is tested with SUDAN or RHODOKRIT powder.
b. If positive result is obtained from the above-mentioned test,
said sample is subjected to steam distillation. Steam
distillate obtained is injected into the GAS
CHROMATORGRAPH to identify the accelerant used.
Similar instrumental analysis conducted on liquid
samples/substances gathered from the crime scene. GAS
CHROMATOGRAPH is a highly sophisticated laboratory
instrument used in the identification of gases/accelerant.
c. Spectrographic analysis using QUARTZ SPECTROGRAPH
– is conducted in cases wherein foreign metals are
recovered on the scene of the incident.
DRUGS
A. Preliminary Test
Drugs Test Used Reactions Noted
Opium and derivatives Marquis Purple or violet color
Heroin Nitric Acid Yellow or green color
Morphine Nitric Acid Red orange to yellow
color
Cocaine Cobalt Thiocyanate Blue precipitate
Barbiturates Dillie-Koppanyi Violet color
Amphetamines a. Marquis a. Red orange to
b. Mandelin darkbrown
b. Green to reddish brown
color
LSD PABA Purple color
Marijuana Duquenois-Levine Violet color
KN Red bottom layer
B. Confirmatory Tests
There are several methods available to the chemist to
confirm the results of the preliminary tests. A technique
much more specific than the color tests is microcrystalline
examination. A small amount of the drug is dissolved in a
few drops of a solvent on a slide. Then a reagent is added,
forming crystals characteristic of the drug. This is observed
under the microscope.
The UV and IR spectrophotometers and the gas
chromatograph can also be used for positive identification
of the drugs.
Another method employed is thin layer chromatography
(TLC) which is rapid, sensitive, easy to sue and
inexpensive.
SCIENTIFIC NAME OF CERTAIN DRUGS
Cocaine – Benzol Methyl Ecgonine
Coca Plant – Erythroxylon Coca Lamarch
Marijuana – Cannabis Sativa L.
Opium – Papaver Somniferum
Shabu – Methamphetamine Hydrochloride
Ecstasy – Methylenedioxymethamphetamine
TOXICOLOGY
Toxicology - science of poisons: the scientific study of
poisons, especially their effects on the body and their
antidotes (Microsoft® Encarta® Reference Library
2004. © 1993-2003 Microsoft Corporation)
Poison – anything other than physical agencies which

is capable of destroying life, either by chemical action
on the tissues of the living body, or by physiological
action by absorption into the living system.
Site of Action of Poison
1. Local Action – The poison may act on the skin or on the

mucous membrane or on any part of body where it is
applied.
Example: Sulfuric acid
2. Remote Action – The poison may act remotely in any of
the following ways:
a. By production of shock. Ex. Poisoning by strong
acid.
b. By absorption into the blood and being carried to the
organs they effect. Ex. Morphine is absorbed by the
blood and carried to the brain and depresses it.
a. By transmission through the nerves of local parts
affected going to the nerve centers and then
reflected to the organs on which they act.
Site of Remote Actions of the Different Poisons are:
a. On the Brain: Narcotics, alcohols, cerebral stimulants

like caffeine.
b. On the Cord: Strychnine (Poisonous plant product: a
bitter white poisonous alkaloid obtained from nux
vomica and related plants, used as a poison for rodents
and medicinally as a stimulant for the central nervous
system. Formula: C21H22N2O2 )
c. On the Peripheral Nerves: Curare (plant resin causing
paralysis: a dark resin obtained from certain South
American plants, used by indigenous hunters to poison
their arrows and in medicine as a muscle relaxant)
d. On the Alimentary Tract: Corrosives
e. On the Kidneys: Cantharides (INSECTS European
beetle: a green European blister beetle, used as a
source of the stimulant and irritant cantharides. Latin
name: Lytta esicatoriaCantharis vesicatoria Also called
cantharis DRUGS toxic preparation used as
aphrodisiac: a toxic preparation made from the crushed
dried bodies of the Spanish fly, used in the past as an
aphrodisiac and to treat skin blisters)
f. On the Salivary Glands: Mercury
g. On the Liver: Phosphorus
h. On the Mucous Membrane: Arsenic
i. On the Heart: Digitalis
j. On the Blood Vessels: Ergot (fungus attacking
cereals: a disease of cereals caused by a parasitic
fungus that grows in dense black masses (sclerotia) in
the grains of the ear. Latin name: Claviceps purpurea.
Also called black bread mold. Fungal bodies used in
medicine: the dried sclerotia of an ergot fungus that
yield substances used in drugs to treat migraine and to
induce uterine contractions in childbirth), Nitrites
k. On the Blood Cells: Snake venom
l. Both Local and Remote: The poison may act at the site
of application and in some distant place. Ex. Carbolic
acid is an irritant to the alimentary tract and also toxic
119 when absorbed. www.criminologyreviewer.weebly.com
Circumstances Affecting Action of Poison
1. Method of Administration: Poisons may enter the body

in the following ways:
a. Orally – Except irritants and corrosives, poisons

must be digested or absorbed in the gastric or
intestinal mucosa before producing effect.
b. Hypodermically – Poison reaches the blood stream
without passing the digestive organs. This method is
only available for such substances that are soluble
in the lymph and tissue juices.
c. Intramuscularly – Absorption is faster than in the
hypodermic method.
d. Endodermically – The poison may be rubbed into
and absorbed through the skin.
e. By Rectum, Vagina or Bladder – Absorption through
the rectum is about twice as much as absorption
through the mouth.
f. By the Lungs – Poison through this route may be
made of a substance which can be transformed to
gaseous state.
2. Idiosyncrasy: Some persons posses sensitivity to
certain foods or drugs. The most common drugs are
potassium iodide, arsenical preparations, aspirin and
the sulfas. As to foods, the most common are fish,
shrimps, eggs and oysters.
3. Age: There are substances which are considered
poison for babies but wholesome for adults, while the
opposite is true for other substances.
4. Habit: The body may acquire tolerance to some drugs.
Habit diminishes the effect of certain poisons. Tobacco,
alcohol, opium, barbiturates, arsenic are good
examples of this.
5. Dose: The effect of drugs and poisons in the body is
usually proportional to the dose taken. Ex. Alcohol,
when taken in small dose, stimulates body reflexes and
tone, while large amount depressed the whole body.
Fatal Dose: This is the smallest dose known to cause

death: not the smallest amount which will certainly cause
death.
Treatment of Patient Suffering from Acute
Poisoning
1. Evacuation of the Stomach:

a. A long rubber tube is introduced to the mouth and
allowed to reach the stomach. Fluid must first be
introduced into the stomach to prevent the tube to
come in close contact with its wall. Fluid is
withdrawn and introduced until traces of the poison
are removed. The procedure is contra-indicated in
poisoning by corrosives on account of the danger of
tear or laceration of the stomach wall.
b. Administration of Emetics - causing vomiting:
causing a person or animal to vomit
(Microsoft® Encarta® Reference Library
2004. © 1993-2003 Microsoft Corporation.)
2. Neutralization of the Poison that Remains in the
Stomach
3. Application of Physiological Antidotes -
substance that counteracts poison: a substance
that counteracts the effect of a poison or toxin.
(Microsoft® Encarta® Reference Library 2004.
© 1993-2003 Microsoft Corporation)
4. Keep the Patient Alive by General Measures,
While His Organs of Elimination Are Getting Rid
of the Poison. Treat Any Urgent and Dangerous
Symptoms.
5. Eliminating the Poison: The elimination of the
poison is aided by purgatives, sudorifics, and
diuretics. Sweating may be encouraged by hot
bath, warm packing, and injection with
apomorphine.
SUDORIFICS - causing production of sweat:
causing the production of sweat. (Microsoft®
Encarta® Reference Library 2004. © 1993-
2003 Microsoft Corporation)
DIURETICS - causing increased urine output:
causing increased flow of urine. (Microsoft®
Encarta® Reference Library 2004. © 1993-
2003 Microsoft Corporation)
Classification of Poison
Strong Acids Caustic Alkalis Compounds

Sulfuric Acid Potassium Zinc Chloride
Hydroxide
Corrosives
Nitric Acid Sodium Hydroxide Antimony Trichloride
Hydrochloric Acid Ammonia
Carbolic Acid
Oxalic Acid
Irritants
Non- Salts of Metals Vegetable Animal Irritants Food Irritants
metals Irritants
Castor oil Cantharides
Digitalis
Belladonna
Croton oil, etc.
Somniferous Group Diliriant
Narcotics Opium Belladonna

Chloral Hyoscyamus
Synthetic Hypnotics Stamonium
Cocaine
Neutral Cerebral Cardiac

Depressant: Depressants: Depressants
Depressant Paralysis of Inhibiting the
s the spinal brain
cord functions
Aconite Hydrogen Digitalis
Cyanide
Conium Oil of Bitter Strophanthus
Almond
Laurel Water Camphor
Poisons which are Exito-Motor in Action

Strychnine Brucine Thebaine
Poisonous Gases Irrespirable Gases
Poisons and Irrespirable Gases Carbon Dioxide Chlorine

Carbon Monoxide Benzene
Hydrogen Sulfide Hydrogen Cyanide
Arseniureted Hydrogen
Carbon Disulfide
Contact Poisons
Vegetable Irritants Animal Irritants Chemical Irritants
Vulnerants
Nails Broken Glasses Dust
The Forensic Chemistry Division of the NBI made
the following classification based on the Chemical
Standpoint:
Gaseous Poisons (Poisons Present in the Gaseous
State):
1. Carbon dioxide
2. Carbon monoxide
3. Hydrocarbons
4. Hydrogen sulfide
5. Sulfur dioxide
6. Oxides of nitrogen (Nitrous oxide, Nitric acid and
Nitrogen dioxide)
7. War gases
Corrosives (Poisons Metallic Poisons and Salts:
characterized principally by (These chemicals are
an intense and destructive protoplasmic irritants, but
action – a few organic their chief action is the
corrosives are included in deleterious effect produced
this group for the sake of after absorption into the
completeness) system.)
Acid; Mineral and Organic: Heavy Metals: Phosphorus;
Sulfuric acid; Hydrochloric Antimony; Arsenic; Bismuth;
acid; Nitric acid; Oxalic acid; Mercury; Lead; Radioactive
Acetic acid. substances; Thallium; Gold;
Inorganic Osmium; Platinum; Nickel;
Chromium; Tin; Vanadium.
Poisons
Alkaline Corrosives: Inorganic Salts: Alum; Alkaline
Potassium hydroxide; Sodium earths; Magnesium sulfate;
hydroxide; Calcium oxide; Lithium salts; Potassium salts;
Ammonium hydroxide Boric acid and borax;
Tellurium; Sodium silicate.
Halogens: Chlorine; Bromine;
Iodine; Fluorine.
Corrosive Metallic Salts:
Silver; Zinc.
Organic Corrosives: Phenol;
Pyrogallol; Formaldehyde
Organic Poisons:
1. Volatile Poisons (Volatile liquids or easily
sublimated solids many of which are irritants; their
chief action occurs after absorption):
a. Alepathic Compounds: Methyl alcohol; Ehtyl
alcohol; Fuel oil; Amyl alcohol; Tertiary or
Dimethyl carbinol; acetaldehyde; Paraldehyde;
Methyl chloride; Methyl bromide;
Tribromoethanol; Ethyl chloride; Ethyl bromide;
Ether; Chloroform; Bromoform; Chloral hydrate;
Carbon tetrachloride; Tetrachlorethane; Amyl
nitrite; Nitroglycerin; Carbon bisulfide;
Hydrocyanic acid and the cyanides; Paraffin
hydrocarbons.
b. Atomic compounds: Benzene series; Essential
oil
Non-Alkaloidal Poisons (A conglomerate collection of
other organic toxic substances, non-volatile and non-
alkaloidal):
a. Hypnotics: Alepathic series; aromatic series.
b. Aromatic Compounds: Naphthol; Salicylic acid;
Picric acid; Dinitrophenol; Trinitrotoluene;
Acetanilid; Antipyrine; Atophan; and the Cinchopen
group.
c. Glucosides: Digitalis, Strophanthus; Olenader;
Hellebore; Gossypium; Locust; Scilla; Cannabis
indica.
d. Organic Purgatives: Purgative oils; anthracene
group; Jalap; purgatives.
e. Essentials Oils: Aspidium; Abortifacients; Oil of
Chenopodium; Apiol; Affion; Turpentine.
f. Picrotoxin Group: Picrotoxin; Water of hemlock.
g. Miscellaneous Group: Taxus; Sparteine; Abrus;
Laburum; Larkspur; Health family; Sntonin;
Cantharides.
Miscellaneous Poisons: (Associated with botulism;
food poisoning; mushroom poisoning; snake venom
poisoning).
1. Food Poisoning: Toxic substances in the food;

abnormal hypersensitivity to normal constituents of
food.
2. Poisonous Plants.
3. Poisonous Animals and Their Poisons: Arachnids;
Centipedes; Insects; Caterpillars; Vertebrates.
4. Biological Products.
5. Ground Glass.

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Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology

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FORENSIC CHEMISTRY

This is determined by blood grouping. A-B-O

Blood Group Agglutinogen in RBC Agglutinin in Serum

Normally, suspected semen may be found undried

There are 3 chemical tests that can be used for

The only specific test for semen is the identification of

Three Zones of Distance:

Cells invisible without Cells easily visible

Value of medullary index Value of medullary index

Looks like a thick muff Looks like a fairly thin

Pigment in the form of Pigments in the form of

At least five sheets should be submitted for

By the use of the few drops of chemical

The test is performed by burning and ashing

Chemical reagents are applied to small

Strips of the paper are suspended in liquids

To determine whether two documents were

When hydrochloric acid is placed on iron nutgall ink,

It may be said, in general, that under ordinary

The chemical methods are not applicable to Nigrosine

Glass is best described as a supercooled liquid

a. Radial Fracture – primary fracture resembles

1. Point of Impact – The front of the glass can be

Determination of the First Shot from a Series of Shots

The radial fracture of the first bullet hole will

Comparing fracture pattern is one method for

1. Must be readily fluid or plastic when applied.

1. Hastening – add ½ teaspoonful of table salt to

1. Visible print – a print that results after a finger,

1. Metallurgy – the art of extracting and working in

1. Robbery (with force upon things) – where entrance

When a number or any mark is stamped on

However, when etching fluids are applied to this

Soil as evidence has been overlooked by most

a. Primary Minerals – undecomposed rock fragments

Dust and dirt has been described as “matter in the

1. Dust deposited from the air

A. Burning or combustion is the rapid oxidation of

Fuel, heat and oxygen are known as the fire

a. When a combustible material ignites, combustion

A. CONDUCTION – the transmission of heat thru a

A fire may originate intentionally or accidentally. One

a. Preliminary Test – ashes or debris suspected to contain

Poison – anything other than physical agencies which

1. Local Action – The poison may act on the skin or on the

a. On the Brain: Narcotics, alcohols, cerebral stimulants

1. Method of Administration: Poisons may enter the body

a. Orally – Except irritants and corrosives, poisons

Fatal Dose: This is the smallest dose known to cause

1. Evacuation of the Stomach:

Strong Acids Caustic Alkalis Compounds

Hydrochloric Acid Ammonia

Somniferous Group Diliriant

Narcotics Opium Belladonna

Neutral Cerebral Cardiac

Poisons which are Exito-Motor in Action

Poisonous Gases Irrespirable Gases

Poisons and Irrespirable Gases Carbon Dioxide Chlorine

1. Food Poisoning: Toxic substances in the food;

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