POST ASSESSMENT (Your answers must be submitted to the instructor concerned)

a. Enumerate the methods of contraception and discuss how these methods work. How each
method in different from the others?
 long-acting reversible contraception - The intrauterine device or implant
(IUD)Lengthy-acting reversible contraception (LARC) also has a long duration. LARCs
are the most effective contraceptive methods. They are 99.9% efficient in preventing
conception. Once you've had a LARC implanted, you won't have to remember to take
contraception every day or month.
There are two types of LARC.
1. The intra uterine device, which lasts for three, five or ten years
2. The implant, which lasts for five years.
 hormonal contraception - The pill or the Depo Provera injection, and hormones are
used in these contraceptives to prevent pregnancy. The Pill and the Depo Provera
injectable are examples of hormonal contraception. Every day, you take one medication.
If used correctly, the pill is more than 99% effective at preventing pregnancy. The Depo
Provera injection is administered every three months. Depo Provera is more than 99%
successful if you get your shots on schedule.
There are two types of pill:
1. Combined oral contraceptive pill
2. Progestogen-only contraceptive pill
 barrier methods – Sperm cannot enter the vagina thanks to barrier techniques. Condoms
provide protection against sexually transmitted diseases (STIs) and unplanned pregnancy.
Internal condoms are available for purchase on our website and at select pharmacies.
Condoms can be obtained through Family Planning or your doctor, or they can be
purchased through our website, pharmacies, supermarkets, and other retailers.
The two barrier methods are:
1. Condoms
2. Internal condoms
 emergency contraception- ECP can be used up to three days after having unprotected
intercourse. The ECP is 98% effective for people of average weight. If you weigh more
over 70 kg, the ECP is less successful, and a copper IUD is advised. If you weigh more
than 70kg and decide to use ECP, you should see your doctor to see if taking a double
dose is the best option for you. The copper IUD is more than 99% efficient in preventing
conception and can be implanted up to five days after unprotected sex.
There are two options for emergency contraception:
1. emergency contraceptive pill (ECP)
2.  copper IUD
Emergency contraception can be used to prevent pregnancy if:
 You haven’t used protection
 Your normal contraception fails e.g. condom splits
 You have missed more than one contraceptive pill
 You have been vomiting or had diarrhoea while on the pill
 You have missed your injection
 You have been forced to have sex without contraception.
 It is not a good idea to use ECP as your regular method of contraception – it is less
effective than if you were using a LARC or hormonal method.
 fertility awareness-Fertility awareness is the study of fertility signals in your menstrual
cycle in order to plan or avoid conception.
 permanent contraception – Permanent contraception, often known as sterilisation,
prevents future pregnancies. It is extremely difficult or impossible to undo. A vasectomy
or a tubal ligation are both methods of permanent contraception.
Two types of permanent contraception:
1. vasectomy
2. tubal ligation
b. What are the different concepts in prolonging life and dying? Discuss and claborate cach
concept by giving examples.
c. Explain the difference between the three (3) sources of principles of ethics in research.
These concepts are thought to be universal, meaning they apply anywhere on the planet. These
values are not limited by national, cultural, legal, or economic borders. These principles should
be understood and followed by everyone participating in human research investigations.
Although these principles are universal, the resources required to sustain them throughout the
research process are not uniform or fairly distributed. For example, an ethics committee or a
community advisory board may have limited financial means. Regardless of limits, these
principles should drive the thought and behavior of all those involved in designing, conducting,
and sponsoring research involving human subjects.
Research ethics rests on the following 3 fundamental principles:
 Respect for persons
-Respect for people is one of the fundamental principles in research: It is the recognition
of a person as an autonomous, unique, and free individual. It also means that we
recognize that each person has the right and capacity to make her or his own decisions.
Respecting a person ensures that dignity is valued. Individuals should be empowered to
make free decisions and be given all the information needed to make good decisions.
Conducting a research project when some of the potential participants do not have the
right or the capacity to make a decision is a violation of research ethics and basic human
rights. Community representatives can help recognize the unique decision-making
processes of individuals and communities and suggest the best ways to empower
participants to make voluntary decisions.

Some groups are traditionally considered vulnerable research participants. They

include:
 Minors
 Pregnant women
 Prisoners
 Persons with mental disabilities

 Persons with limited education or illiterate persons who may find it difficult to
understand informed consent information.
 Persons with few economic resources who may have limited access to health services
and may see their participation in a research study as the only opportunity to obtain
needed health care.
 Sex workers or homosexuals.
 Women in some settings. For example, some women must ask their husbands before
consenting to participate in a study.
 theory users or others who engage in illegal activities.

Vulnerable persons can still participate in a research study; however, they need special
protections. The informed consent process, conducted with special care for vulnerable
persons, promotes respect for persons. Researchers and community representatives
should understand that even small gifts or tokens to research participants can influence
decisions, making persons vulnerable.

 Beneficence
-Beneficence is derived from Latin and means “doing good for the persons concerned.”
This principle’s bare minimum is to cause no damage. Beneficence is frequently used as
a synonym for regard for humans or justice. Only this concept, however, concerns acts of
compassion or generosity that go above and beyond the call of duty. The beneficence
principle holds the researcher accountable for the physical, mental, and social well-being
of the study participant. Community members can contribute feedback to ensure that the
advantages to study participants are maximized while the hazards are kept to a minimum.
Non-maleficence is the commitment to avoid or eliminate risks as much as possible,
derived from the classic medical profession’s duty to “first do no harm.” The dangers to a
person participating in a research project must be assessed against the advantages and
information to be obtained. Aside from the advantages and hazards to individuals,
 considerable attention has been focused on the potential benefits and risks to the
communities in which the study will be done.
 Justice
- Justice requires the fair and equal distribution of benefits and risks of participation
in a research study. Recruitment and selection of participants must be done in a
fair and equal manner. Justice forbids exposing one group of people to the risks of
research solely for the benefit of another group. Community representatives have
the responsibility to ensure that community participation in a research study is
justified. Community representatives need to be aware of the need for appropriate
protections for research participants. They must pay special attention to the
benefits that the participants or their communities will receive as a result of their
participation in the research and advise the research team so that incentives
offered by the research will not influence the decision to participate. The principle
of justice establishes special protections for vulnerable people. Justice does not
permit using vulnerable groups—such as low-resource people—as research
participants for the exclusive benefit of more privileged groups.