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Body Dissatisfaction: The Ideal Body and a Summary of

Theories of Development and Maintenance

Daniel Talbot

The University of Notre Dame, Australia

Western Sydney University

Address correspondence to Daniel Talbot, University of Notre Dame, Australia, email:

daniel.talbot@nd.edu.au.
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Body dissatisfaction can be defined as a negative subjective evaluation of one’s body

as a whole, or relating to specific aspects of one’s body such as body size, shape,

muscularity/muscle tone, and weight (Grogan, 2016). Prior research has found that body

dissatisfaction is associated with elevated emotional distress, preoccupation with appearance,

and unnecessary cosmetic surgery (Hoffman & Brownell, 1997; Presnell, Bearman, & Stice,

2004; Stice & Whitenton, 2002). Body dissatisfaction has also been identified as a risk factor

in developing disordered eating behaviours (Grilo & Masheb, 2005; Hospers & Jansen, 2005;

Mayo & George, 2014; Olivardia, Pope, Borowiecki III, & Cohane, 2004), and depression

(Bearman & Stice, 2008; McCreary & Sasse, 2000; Olivardia et al., 2004; Presnell et al.,

2004). It has also been associated with obesity (Mond, van den Berg, Boutelle, Hannan, &

Neumark-Sztainer, 2011; Wardle & Cooke, 2005), anabolic steroid use (Griffiths, Murray,

Dunn, & Blashill, 2017; Talbot, Smith, Cass, & Griffiths, 2019) and poorer mental and

physical health-related quality of life (Griffiths et al., 2016; Griffiths, Henshaw, McKay, &

Dunn, 2017).

Historically, body dissatisfaction research has primarily focused on female

populations. Recent evidence, however, suggests that incidence of body dissatisfaction in the

male population is both significant and increasing (Adams, Turner, & Bucks, 2005; Frederick

et al., 2007; McCabe & Ricciardelli, 2004; Watkins, Christie, & Chally, 2008). For example,

Frederick et al. (2007) reported that amongst four large samples of U.S. undergraduate males,

51-71% were dissatisfied with their level of body fat and 90% wanted to increase their

muscularity. Furthermore, male body weight and shape concerns, and indeed

psychopathology of male eating disorders and other body and weight related conditions, may

differ to that of females (Darcy et al., 2012; S. C. Stanford & Lemberg, 2012). For males,

muscularity and masculinity are essential considerations in the manifestation of body

dissatisfaction (Pope, Phillips, & Olivardia, 2000). The ideal male body in Western countries
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is that of the ‘mesomorph’ – a body characterized by overt muscularity, broad shoulders, and

V-shaped torso that leads down to a narrow waist (Grogan & Richards, 2002). For many men,

the attainment of this ideal is linked with masculinity, including, for example, superior virility

and physical ability (Grogan & Richards, 2002; Pope et al., 2000). For some men, to fall

short of achieving this muscular ideal may generate feelings of inadequacy, increased drive

for muscularity, and body dissatisfaction (Grogan, 2016; Mills & D'alfonso, 2007). In

extreme cases, this can lead to the development of Muscle Dysmorphia – the pathological

fixation that one's body is not sufficiently lean and muscular (Leone, Sedory, & Gray, 2005).

Generally, body dissatisfaction is caused by fulfilling both of the following two

conditions, (i) over-valuation of one’s body image, and (ii) a discrepancy between one’s

current body image and their perceived ideal body image (Cash & Szymanski, 1995). Body

image can be defined as the perception of one’s (primarily physical) self, and the cognitions

and affect that result from - and relate to - that perception (Cash, 2004; Grogan, 2016). A

failure to reach one’s internalized ideal body may cause self-criticism and damage to self-

esteem to those who over-evaluate body image (Tylka, Bergeron, & Schwartz, 2005). This

manifests as body-related concerns, which in men relates to body fat and muscularity. Indeed,

previous literature indicates that both boys and men consistently identify body fat and

muscularity as their two primary body image concerns (Grogan, 2016; Ridgeway & Tylka,

2005; Tylka et al., 2005). It has been hypothesised that concerns over muscularity and body

fat are at least partially connected, as male drive for leanness is largely motivated to prevent

fat from masking muscle tone (i.e., to increase the definition of muscle tone; (Smolak &

Murnen, 2008), not to achieve a slim appearance (as is the case with many women).

The Ideal Male Body

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As stated above, the ideal male body most commonly refers to what is known as a

mesomorphic build. The mesomorphic build is defined by a low percentage of body fat,

combined with a defined, visible, but not excessive muscle build. Specifically, well-

developed muscles on the chest, shoulders, arms, and slim waist and hips, and a V-shaped

torso (Cafri & Thompson, 2004; Pope et al., 2000). This ideal has been described in Grogan

and Richards (2002) exploratory study utilizing male focus groups. In this study, boys and

men participated in group sessions in which they were prompted to give accounts of their

body shape ideals, exercise routines, body esteem, and diet. They found that men in all focus

groups presented similar ideals for the male body, which was typically characterised by a

toned, muscular, “fit-looking” body of mesomorphic proportions. Additionally, all men

presented a negative discourse toward being overweight and obese. Typically, being

overweight or obese was seen as highly undesirable. These findings were supported by

Ridgeway and Tylka (2005) study, which aimed to assess men’s perceptions of the ideal body

in terms of composition and shape. Participants reported that the areas of greatest importance

to the majority of men are the abdominal region, arms, and chest. Regarding the abdominal

region, participants felt that men primarily focus on muscular definition and leanness and do

not desire fat around this area (Ridgeway & Tylka, 2005). When considering this sample’s

conception of the ideal male body, five categories were identified across all responses:

overall muscular body, overall lean body, tall height, V-shape torso, and the abdominal

region. These categories reflect the mesomorphic physique. In terms of undesirable body

characteristics, the most common categories included fat, short, and small girth (i.e., low

body fat coupled with low muscle tone; (Ridgeway & Tylka, 2005). Similar descriptions of

the perceived ideal male body have been described by sexual minority and heterosexual

males in various other studies (Martins, Tiggemann, & Kirkbride, 2007; Olivardia et al.,

2004; Pope et al., 2000; J. N. Stanford & McCabe, 2005).

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Theories of Male Body Dissatisfaction

Many theories of the cause and maintenance of body dissatisfaction have been

proposed. This summary will consider the four major theories of body dissatisfaction,

including (1) social comparison theory, (2) objectification theory, (3) the tripartite influence

model, and (4) the threatened masculinity theory of body dissatisfaction.

Social Comparison Theory of Body Dissatisfaction. Social comparison theory

posits that humans possess an innate predisposition to compare themselves to others in their

immediate social environment (Festinger, 1954). These comparisons can be either

“downward” (i.e., comparisons against another person who is perceived to have a less

desirable or acceptable body) or “upward” (i.e., comparisons against another person who is

perceived to have a more desirable or acceptable body; Collins, 1996). These comparisons

can be made to tangible others, such as peers or family members, or bodies that appear in

media. In relation to male body dissatisfaction, this theory postulates that constant exposure

to ideal male mesomorph bodies in traditional and social media results in a greater frequency

of upward comparisons to bodies that are largely unrealistic and unobtainable. The frequency

of upward comparisons has been shown to positively correlate with body dissatisfaction

(Myers & Crowther, 2009) and elevated eating disorder symptoms (Corning, Krumm, &

Smitham, 2006; Leahey, Crowther, & Ciesla, 2011).

Objectification Theory of Body Dissatisfaction. Objectification theory posits that in

Western society women are raised to view themselves as objects, and their value is tied solely

to their appearance. This notion is reinforced by the constant subjection of their bodies to

others’ gazes and evaluations (Frederickson & Roberts, 1997; Frederickson Roberts, Noll,

Quinn, & Twenge 1998). These women tend to internalise these gazes and evaluations of

their bodies reducing them to objects. Resultantly, they become increasingly preoccupied
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with the appearance of their body. This process is termed self-objectification. Self-

objectification has been linked to greater eating disorder symptoms and body dissatisfaction

(Jongenelis, Byrne, & Pettigrew, 2014; Noll & Fredrickson, 1998; Szymanski & Mikorski,

2017).

In recent years, objectification theory has been applied to males. Although compared

to women, men may not experience the same extent of evaluation from the opposite sex, they

are exposed to the same Western cultural system that idealises ‘perfect’ unobtainable ideal

bodies. Recent research shows that the presentation of sexualised objectification of men in

media images is prevalent and increasing (Papadopoulos, 2010; Ward, 2016). Due to this

continuous exposure to the male ideal through the media, men are destined to adopt this body

ideal as the only type of body to be valued, as well as feeling sexually objectified.

Resultantly, it is highly likely that men would experience self-objectification as found with

women, and the associated dissatisfaction with their bodies. This relationship has been

examined empirically, with exposure to idealised images of males increasing self-

objectification (Linder & Daniels, 2018), as well as being linked to disordered eating and

body dissatisfaction (Calogero, 2009; Hallsworth, Wade, & Tiggemann, 2005).

Tripartite Influence Model. The tripartite influence model posits that three social

influences, parents, peers, and media, have a direct influence on body dissatisfaction. This

model also considers the indirect influence of internalisation of the ‘ideal’ body type and

appearance comparison (Thompson, Coovert, & Stormer, 1999). The tripartite influence

model was originally developed for females. However, recently Tylka (2011) as adapted this

model to males. This study showed that for men, social pressures are positively associated

with eating disorder symptoms through mesomorphic internalisation, muscularity

dissatisfaction, and body fat dissatisfaction (Tylka, 2011). Since Tylka’s (2011) study,

various studies have confirmed these associations, indicating positive relationships between
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internalisation of appearance ideals and body dissatisfaction, drive for muscularity, and

eating disorder symptoms for adolescent and adult men (Brown, Forney, Pinner, & Keel,

2017; Edwards, Tod, Molnar, & Markland, 2016; Girard, Chabrol, & Rodgers, 2018; Klimek,

Murray, Brown, Gonzales, & Blashill, 2018; Stratton, Donovan, Bramwell, & Loxton, 2015),

as well as support for this model for sexual minority men (Tylka & Andorka, 2012).

The Threatened Masculinity Hypothesis. The threatened masculinity hypothesis

provides an explanation of why images of ‘ideal’ men are associated with body

dissatisfaction, and why both of these factors appear to have been increasing over the past 40

or so years (Mills & D’Alfonso,2007; Mishkind, Rodin, Silberstein, & Striegel-Moore,

1986). This theory postulates recent trends toward gender equality (in domains such as the

workplace and household roles) left men with fewer avenues in which to assert their

masculinity. For some men, this is thought to have resulted in a gender-based ‘identity crisis’.

For these men, this crisis resulted in a compensatory need to publicly display their

masculinity via a highly muscular, low body-fat body. This compensatory behaviour allowed

for a clear differentiation between these men and women, whose bodies are typically not

overtly muscular. Thus, if men are not achieving overly muscular ideal, they become

dissatisfied with their body, and remain in an identity conflict (Mills & D’Alfonso, 2007;

Mishkind et al., 1986; Pope, Phillips, & Olivardia, 2002). The threatened masculinity

hypothesis is supported by studies that show that men in societies with greater gender

equality tend to show greater muscularity dissatisfaction (Frederick, Buchanan, & Sadehgi-

Azar, 2007), as well as studies that show that men with greater muscularity dissatisfaction

tend to have greater levels of masculine gender role conflict (Mussap, 2008; Schwartz,

Grammas, Sutherland, Siffert, & Bush-King, 2010).

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