MEASUREMENT &

INSTRUMENTATION
KJS 3113

CLO 3: Differentiate various type of transducers

Mazian Mohammad
Dept of Engineering,
Fac of Engineering & Life Sciences, Unisel
2 Outcomes

 Definition of Sensor/Transducer & Actuator

 Classification of Transducer
 Application
 Selection criteria
 3
TRANSDUCER ?

A transducer is a device which transforms a

non-electrical physical quantity (i.e.
temperature, sound or light) into an
electrical signal (i.e. voltage, current,
capacity…)
In other word it is a device that is capable
of converting the physical quantity into a
proportional electrical quantity such as
voltage or current.

Pressure Voltage
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF
4 TRANSDUCERS
• Transducer contains two parts that are closely
related to each other i.e. the sensing element and
transduction element.
• The sensing element is called as the sensor. It is
device producing measurable response to change
in physical conditions.
• The transduction element convert the sensor output
to suitable electrical form.
5
Sensors?
 American National Standards Institute
 A device which provides a usable output in response to a
specified measurand
Input Signal Output Signal

Sensor

 A sensor acquires a physical quantity and converts it into

a signal suitable for processing (e.g. optical, electrical,
mechanical)
 Nowadays common sensors convert measurement of
physical phenomena into an electrical signal
6
Transducer or Actuator?
When input is a physical quantity and output electrical → Transducer
When input is electrical and output a physical quantity → Actuator

Sensors e.g. Piezoelectric:

Actuators Force -> voltage
Physical Electrical Voltage-> Force
parameter Input

=> Ultrasound!
Electrical Physical
Output Output
Microphone, Loud Speaker
7 CLASSIFICATION OF
TRANSDUCERS
• Analog and digital transducers.
• Primary and secondary transducer.
• Transducers and inverse transducers.
• On the basis of transduction
principle
used.
• Active and Passive Transducers
 Classification of Transducers
8
Transducers may be classified according
to their application, method of energy
conversion, nature of the output signal,
and so on.

Transducers

On The Basis of Transducers/

Active/Passive Primary/Secondary Analog/Digital
principle Used Inverse
Transducers
Capacitive

Inductive

Resistive
 ANALOG AND DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS
9 Transducers ,on the basis of nature of output signal, may be
classified into analog and digital transducers.

 Analog transducers converts input signal into output

signal, which is a continuous function of time such as
THERMISTOR ,strain gauge, LVDT , thermocouple etc.
 Digital transducers converts input signal into the
output signal in the form of pulses e.g. it gives
discrete output. These transducers are becoming
more popular nowadays because of advantages
associated with digital measuring instruments and
also due to the fact that digital signals can be
transmitted over a long distance without causing
much distortion due to amplitude variation and
phase shift.
10 PRIMARY TRANSDUCERS
transducers on the basis of methods of applications, may be
classified into primary and secondary transducers.

 When the input signal is directly sensed by the

transducers and physical phenomenon is converted
into the electrical form directly then such a
transducer is called the primary transducer.
 For example: A THERMISTOR used for the
measurement of temperature fall I this category. The
THERMISTOR senses the temperature directly and
causes the change in resistor with the change in
temperature.
11 SECONDARY TRANDUCERS
 When the input signal is sensed first by some
detector or sensor and then its output being of
some form other than input signal is given as input
to a transducer for conversion into electrical from,
them such a transducer falls in the category of
secondary transducers.
 For example , in case of pressure measurement ,
bourdon tube is a primary sensor which converts
pressure first into displacement, then the
displacement is converted into an output voltage
by an LVDT. In this case LVDT is a secondary
transducer.
12 Example of Primary and
secondary transducer
Primary
transducer

Displacement

voltage

Secondary transducer
13 TRANSDUCERS

 Transducers as already defined , is a device that converts a

non electrical quantity into an electrical quantity. Normally a
transducer and associated circuit has a non electrical input
and an electrical output.
 For example : a thermocouple , photo conductive cell
pressure gauge , strain gauge.
14 INVERSE TRANSDUCERS
 It is a device that converts an elkectrical quantity into a non
electrical quantity .it is a precision actuator having an
electrical input and a low power non electrical output.
 For example a piezoelectric crystal and translational and
angular moving coil elements can be employed as inverse
transducers. A most useful application of inverse transducers is
in feed back measuring systems.
15 ON THE BASIS OF TRANSDUCTION
PRICIPLE USED
 Resistive Transducers.
 Capacitive Transducers.
 Inductive Transducers.
 Voltage and current Generating Transducers (photovoltaic,
piezoelectric and photoconductive).
 According to Transduction
16
principle used
17
Capacitive Transduction:

 Here, the measurand is converted into a change in

capacitance.

 A change in capacitance occurs either by

changing the distance between the two plates or
by changing the dielectric.

Area=A
18 Electromagnetic transduction:
 In electromagnetic transduction, the measurand is converted to
voltage induced in conductor by change in the magnetic flux,
in absence of excitation.
 The electromagnetic transducer are self generating active
transducers
 The motion between a piece of magnet and an electromagnet
is responsible for the change in flux
19 Inductance Transduction:
In inductive transduction, the measurand is converted
into a change in the self inductance of a single coil. It
is achieved by displacing the core of the coil that is
attached to a mechanical sensing element

Piezoelectric Transduction:
In piezoelectric induction the measurand is converted
into a change in electrostatic charge q or voltage V
generated by crystals when it is mechanically
stressed.
20
Photovoltaic Transduction:

 In photovoltaic transduction the measurand is converted to

voltage generated when the junction between dissimilar
material is illuminated.

Photoconductive Transduction:

 In photoconductive transduction the measurand is converted

to change in resistance of semiconductor material by the
change in light incident on the material.
21
ACTIVE TRANSDUCERS
Transducers on the basis of methods of energy conversion
used, may be classified into active and passive transducers.

 Self generating type transducers i.e the transducers which

develop their output in the form of electrical voltage or
current without any auxiliary source.
 Normally such transducers give very small output, therefore,
use of amplifier becomes essential.
 For example TACHO generators used for measurements of
angular velocity, thermocouples used for measurement of
temperature, piezoelectric crystal used for measurement of
force.
22 CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIVE
TRANSDUCERS
23 PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS
 Transducers in which electrical parameters i.e resistance,
inductance or capacitance changes with the change in
input signal, are called the passive transducers. These
transducers require external power source for energy
conversion. In such transducers electrical parameters i.e
resistance inductance or capacitance causes a change in
voltage ,current or frequency of the external power source.
 For example resistive capacitive inductive transducers.
24 CLASSIFICATION OF PASSIVE
TRANSDUCERS
25 THERMISTOR

Resistance
Temperature

A THERMISTOR is a type of resistor whose resistance varies

significantly with temperature. Semi-conductor thermistors have a
Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC). i.e. as temperature increases,
the resistance decreases.
The word is a contraction of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are
widely used as inrush current limiters, temperature sensors, self-resetting
over current protectors, and self-regulating heating elements.
 26 STRAIN GAUGE
 The Strain Gauge is an
example of a passive
transducer that uses
electrical resistance
variation in wires to sense
the strain produced by a
force on the wire. It is a very
versatile detector and
transducer for measuring
weight, pressure,
mechanical force or
displacement.
Strain gauge: how they look
like
The construction of a bonded strain
gauge shows a fine wire looped back
and forth on a mounting plate, which is
usually cemented to the element that
undergoing stress.
27
FROM THE EQUATION OF RESISTANCE,

 R = resistance  When a strain produced by a

force is applied on the wires, L
 ρ = specific resistance of the
increase and A decrease.
conductor material
 L = the length of the conductor
in meters
 A = the area of the conductor in
square meters
 THERMOCOUPLE
28

As the junction temperature increases a small voltage is created in the

loop. The voltage produced at the junction of the dissimilar metals is due
to a phenomenon called the “Seebeck Effect”.

• The higher the temperature at the junction, the greater the voltage
produced by that junction.

• The relationship between voltage and temperature is constant and

therefore will graph as a linear line.
29 PROS AND CONS
Pros
▫ They are inexpensive.
▫ They are rugged and reliable.
▫ They can be used over a wide
temperature range.
Cons
▫ low output voltage
▫ low sensitivity
▫ non-linearity
▫ electrical connections
 Linear Variable Differential
30 Transformer (LVDT)
• Passive inductive transducers require an
external source of power.
• The Differential transformer is a passive
inductive transformer, well known as Linear
Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT).
It consists basically of a primary winding
and two secondary windings, wound over
a hollow tube and positioned so that the
primary is between two of its secondaries.

• An iron core slides within the tube and therefore

affects the magnetic coupling between the
primary and two secondaries.
• When the core is in the centre , the voltage
induced in the two secondaries is equal.
• When the core is moved in one direction of
centre, the voltage induced in one winding is
increased and that in the other is decreased.
Movement in the opposite direction reverses this
effects.
31 ADVANTAGES

 It has high accuracy and good stability.

 Easy to fabricate and install.
 The transfer characteristics is linear.
 Input is directly proportional to output.
 They can withstand high temperature.
 It consume very less power.
 It has low hysteresis loss and good repeatability.
 Rugged construction.
 Its output is very high.
32 DISADVANTAGES

 LVDT is proof to errors due to temperature.

 For getting the appreciable differential output relatively large
displacement is required .
 LVDT is sensitive to straight magnetic fields.
 The dynamic response is limited for LVDT due to mass of core.
33
Commonly Detectable
Phenomena
•Biological
•Chemical
•Electric
•Electromagnetic
•Heat/Temperature
•Magnetic
•Mechanical motion (displacement, velocity,
acceleration, etc.)
•Optical
•Radioactivity
34
Common Conversion
Methods
•Physical
–thermo-electric, thermo-elastic, thermo-magnetic,
thermo-optic
–photo-electric, photo-elastic, photo-magnetic,
–electro-elastic, electro-magnetic
–magneto-electric
•Chemical
–chemical transport, physical transformation,
electro-chemical
•Biological
–biological transformation, physical transformation
35 Commonly Measured Quantities
Stimulus Quantity

Acoustic Wave (amplitude, phase, polarization), Spectrum, Wave

Velocity

Biological & Chemical Fluid Concentrations (Gas or Liquid)

Electric Charge, Voltage, Current, Electric Field (amplitude, phase,

polarization), Conductivity, Permittivity

Magnetic Magnetic Field (amplitude, phase, polarization), Flux,

Permeability

Optical Refractive Index, Reflectivity, Absorption

Thermal Temperature, Flux, Specific Heat, Thermal Conductivity

Mechanical Position, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Strain, Stress,

Pressure, Torque
36 Physical Principles: Examples
 Amperes’s Law
 A current carrying conductor in a magnetic field
experiences a force (e.g. galvanometer)

 Curie-Weiss Law
 There is a transition temperature at which ferromagnetic
materials exhibit paramagnetic behavior

 Faraday’s Law of Induction

 A coil resist a change in magnetic field by generating an
opposing voltage/current (e.g. transformer)

 Photoconductive Effect
 When light strikes certain semiconductor materials, the
resistance of the material decreases (e.g. photoresistor)
37
3.0 TRANSDUCERS SELECTION
FACTORS
 38

1. Sensitivity: The transducer must be sensitive enough to produce

detectable output.

2. Operating Range: The transducer should maintain the range requirement

and have a good resolution over the entire range.
4. Accuracy: High accuracy is assured.
5. Cross sensitivity: It has to be taken into account when measuring
mechanical quantities. There are situation where the actual quantity is
being measured is in one plane and the transducer is subjected to
variation in another plan.
6. Errors: The transducer should maintain the expected input-output
relationship as described by the transfer function so as to avoid errors.

1. Operating Principle: The transducer are many times selected on the basis
of operating principle used by them. The operating principle used may be
resistive, inductive, capacitive , optoelectronic, piezo electric etc.
39

7. Transient and frequency response : The transducer

should meet the desired time domain specification
like peak overshoot, rise time, setting time and small
dynamic error.
8. Loading Effects: The transducer should have a high
input impedance and low output impedance to
avoid loading effects.
9. Environmental Compatibility: It should be assured that
the transducer selected to work under specified
environmental conditions maintains its input- output
relationship and does not break down.
10. Insensitivity to unwanted signals: The transducer
should be minimally sensitive to unwanted signals and
highly sensitive to desired signals.
40 Other types of
sensor/transducer
 Find one type of sensor or transducers. Explain :
i) characteristics
ii) diagram/schematic/figure
iii) working principle
iv) advantages & disadvantages
v) application
41 Next Lecture

CLO 4: Describe and Explain the Basic Mechanical

Measurement
(displacement, pressure, temperature & flow
measurement)

End of CLO 3
42