CONJUCTIONS 2.

Both the music and the lyrics were written by the same
- used to link words, phrases, and clauses. composer
- conjunction is like glue. It helps things to stick together. 3. We celebrated after we won the game.
- join two or more words. 4. Because our train was delayed, we arrived late
- provide coherence to your writing by connecting 5. Watson listened quietly while Holmes explained his
elements between or within sentences theory
Types of Conjunctions 3. Correlative conjunctions - pairs of words that
1. Coordinating conjunctions - join words, phrases or connects other parts of sentence.
sentences (independent clauses) together. Join sentences Both… and
by equal rank. FANBOYS neither…nor
For - show a relationship between things. When it is used either…or
to combine two sentences, you must put a comma before it. whether...or
Ex. I ordered a pizza, for I was hungry. Not only…but also
And - connects things that are alike or joined together. Ex. I saw both the Statue of Liberty and the Empire State
Ex. I want popcorn and pizza. Building.
The instructor was interesting and extremely I don’t want neither pickles nor tomato on my
knowledgeable about the subject. hamburger.
Nor - used to offer a negative choice. I don’t know whether to play baseball or to play
Ex. I do not want popcorn nor pizza. basketball this year.
But - used to connect things that are different or separated. Either the student or the teacher can answer the
Ex. I want popcorn but not pizza. question.
The play was entertaining but disappointing. Not only do i play the flute, but also play the clarinet.
An elephant is large but it is a gentle animal. He has to decide whether to go to college or get a job.
Or - used to offer a choice. INTERJECTIONS
Ex. Do I want popcorn or pizza? • Something that interrupts a sentence
Yet - used to show a change. When it is used to combine • Expresses your emotions like happiness, fear, anger, or
two sentences, you must put a comma before it. pain. (ouch, wow, uh oh, oh no, gosh, shhhh)
Ex. I want popcorn, yet I also want pizza. Ex. Shhh, the baby is sleeping.
She is poor, yet she is happy Oh my, I dropped my pencil.
So - show a relationship between things. When it is used Ouch!, I just cut my finger.
to combine two sentences, you must put a comma beforeit. He scored the winning touchdown. WOW!
Ex. I want popcorn, so I made some. Alas! I missed by one mark.
Bravo, I got a promotion
Punctuating Interjections
2. Subordinating conjunctions - dependent clauses to an - if an interjection is spoken calmly, simply put a comma
independent clauses. Join sentences of unequal rankor after it and continue the sentence.
order Ex. Shhh, the baby is sleeping.
as even if after Oh my, I dropped my pencil.
if since whereas - If an interjection is spoken with more emotion, it is
as long as so whenever followed by an exclamation point. The next word is then
although that whether capitalized.
because unless until Ex. Ouch! I just cut my finger.
as to when while He scored the winning touchdown. Wow!
Ex.
1. Either Miranda or Julia will fill the recently vacated
position.
 COHESION AND COHERANCE Example: Myths narrate sacred histories and explain
Coherance and Cohesion- used in discourse analysis to sacred origins. These traditional narratives are, inshort,
clarify the reability of written discourse asetofbeliefs that are a very real force in the lives of the
Cohesion people who tell them.
- grammatical and lexical links that connect one part of Pronouns - (this, that, these, those, he, she, it, they, and
discourse to another we are) useful pronouns for referring back to something
- mechanical links language level previously mentioned. (be sure, however) that what you
Synonyms are referring to is clear.
Lexical sets Example: When scientific experiments do not work out as
Pronouns expected, they are often considered failures until
Verb tenses someother scientist tries them again. Those that work out
Time references better the second time around are the ones that promise the
Grammatical references most rewards.
It, neither, this First of all, then, However, in Transitional Words - many words in English that cue our
after that addition, for listeners/readers to relationships between sentences,
instance joiningsentences together. Words such as however,
Refer to an idea Help to sequence Link between and therefore, in addition, also, but, moreover, etc.
prevously a discourse arguments in a Example: I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad time of
mentiones discourse the year, too. The leaves turn bright shades of red and the
Coherance weather is mild, but I can't help thinking ahead to the
- how meanings and sequences of ideas relate to each winter and the ice storms that will surely blow through
other here. In addition, that will be the season of chapped faces,
- discourse making sense as a whole at an ideas level too many layers of clothes to put on, and days whenI'll
General - Specific have to shovel heaps of snow from my car's windshield.
Statement - Example Sentence Patterns - sometimes, repeated or parallel
Problem - Solution sentence patterns can help the listener/reader follow along
Question - Answer and keep ideas tied together.
Claim - Counterclain Example: (from a speech by President John F. Kennedy)
Cohesive Devices And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your
- transition words and phrases countrycan do for you-ask what you can do for your
- repetition of key words country
- use of reference words
EXAMPLE: “PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT”
1. When cats are hungry, they rub on your leg and demand Example:
immediate attention. However, when they are satisfied, Michael said
they find a quiet place and sleep. Answer: COHESION Michael lost
2. When cats are hangry, they rub on your leg and demand Michael’s watch
immediate attention. They find a queit place and sleep Therefore; Michael said he lost his watch
when they are satisfied. Answer: COHERANCE Pronoun - words that takes the place of a noun
Subject pronoun - I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
“METHODS USED IN WRITING” Object pronoun - me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them
Synonyms - words that have essentially the same meaning, Possessive adjective - my, yours, his, hers, its, our,
and they provide some variety in your word choices, your, their
helping the listener/ reader to stay focused on the idea Possessive pronoun - mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours,
being discussed. yours, theirs
 Antecedent
- word, phrase, or clause that pronoun can replace; comes
before the pronoun is used
Rule#1 - pronoun must agree with its antecedent in both
number and gender.
Ex. The Taylors landscaped their yard in an unusual way.
Kim regained her confidence after the test.
The doctor makes his or her rounds every day.
Rule#2 Collective Nouns - the antecedent of a pronoun is
a collective noun, the number of the pronoun depends
upon whether the collective noun is used as singular or
plural.
Ex. The class had its first meeting yesterday. (Class is
used as a single unit; therefore, the singular pronounis
used.)
Rule#3 Agreement in person
Incorrect: Henry lives in Tampa where you can sun bathe
all year long.
Correct: Henry lives in Tampa where he can sun bathe all
year long.
Incorrect: They like camping because you can be close to
nature.
Correct: They like camping because they can be close to
nature.
Rule#4 Agreement with Indefinite Pronouns
Antecedents - when a pronoun’s antecedent is an
indefinite pronoun, the pronoun must agree in number
with it.
Ex. Neither of the girls spent her entire allowance.
Several members missed their chance to speak with the
president.
Rule#5 Agreement with Indefinite Pronoun
Antecedents - when no gender is specified use both a
masculine andf eminine pronoun.
Ex. Each of the students should prepare his or her own
homework.
Rule#6 - use a singular pronoun to refer to (each, either,
neither, one, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody,
anyone, anybody, someone, or somebody.)
Ex. Each of the teams had its mascot at the game.
One of the boys left his pen behind.
Rules#7 - the following indefinite pronouns are plural:
(both, few, many, and several)
Ex. Many of the actors already know their lines.
Both of the candidates clearly stated their positions on the
issue.
Rule#8 - the indefinite pronouns (all, any, more, most,
none) and some may be singular or plural depending on
how they are used in a sentence.
Ex. Most of these coins are rare, but I don’t know what
they are worth.
Rule#9 - use a singular pronoun to refer to two or more
singular antecedents joined by (or /nor.)
Ex. Neither Heidi nor Beth took her umbrella with her.
• Use a plural pronoun to refer to two or more antecedents
joined by and.
Ex. The guide and the ranger wrapped their rain ponchos
in their saddle rolls.
CONTEXT CLUES
1. Definition/Explanation Clues
- sometimes a word's or phrase's meaning is explained
immediately after its use.
- unknown word is defined immediately following its use.
- brief definition, synonym, or restatement using
punctuation- commas, parentheses or dashes.
Ex.
• What is a Phobia? - Many people have phobias, such as
fear of heights, a fear of water, or a fear of confined
spaces.
• Haberdashery, which is a store that sells men’s clothing,
is becoming more common today.
2. Restatament/Synonym Clues
- sometimes a hard word or phrase is said in a simple way
- close to synonym, restatement differs in that a difficult
word is usually restated in a simpler form- usually set by a
commas
Ex.
• The poetry was sublime, lofty and moving, and brought
tears to my eyes.
• Lou was sent to the haberdashery, to find a new suit. He
needed to wear one for his uncle’s wedding.
• The village was depopulated, most of the residents dead
or moved, but the livestock remained untouched.
Synonym
- a writer often choose more familiar word or words with
the same meaning to make the difficult word
understandable.
- clarified by the presentation of the opposite meaning
somewhere close to its use.
Ex.
• Ballet students appear so lithe; they are so limber and
flexible.
• Lou wanted to go to the haberdashery, but Ann wanted
to shop at the boutique.
• The cataract was spectacular; the steep waterfall dropped
abruptly eighty feet.
3. Contrast/Antonym Clues
- word or phrase is clarified by the presentation of the
opposite meaning somewhere close to its use.
- Look for signal words when applying context clues
Contrast (but, however, in contrast to, on the other hand)
Antonym is a word of opposite meaning
Ex.
• The gentleman was portly, but his wife was thin.
• The mayoral candidate praised the town council, but the
mayor deprecated it.
4. Inference/ General Context Clues - sometimes a
word or phrase is not immediately clarified within the
same sentence. Relationships which are not directly
apparent are inferred or implied. The reader must look for
a clues within, before, and after the sentence in which the
word is used.
Ex.
• Since Reginald was nervous, he brought his rabbit foot
talisman with him to the exam.
• His alibi was upheld when John’s friends offered
personal testimony, letter of documentation, and three
videotapes showing that he was present at the party.
5. Punctuation - readers can also use clues of
punctuation and type style to infer meaning, such as
quotation marks, dashes, parentheses or brackets, and
italics.
Ex.
• Tom’s father was a haberdasher, or men’s shop keeper,
in the story.
• In the story. Tom’s father was a haberdasher-or men’s
shop keeper.
ADJECTIVE & ADVERBS
Adjective
- a word or set of words that modifies a noun or pronoun.
- may come before the word they modify
Ex. That is a cute puppy.
She likes a high school senior
- may also after the word they modify
Ex. That puppy looks cute.
The technology is state-of-the-art.
Adverb
- a word or set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, or
other adverbs.
- answer how, when, where, why, or to what extent—how
often or how much (e.g; daily, completely).
Ex.
• He speaks very slowly. (the adverb very tells how
slowly)
• They will arrive in an hour. (this adverb phrase tells
when)
• Let's go outside. (tells where)
• We looked in the basement. (this adverb phrase tells
where)
• Bernie left to avoid trouble. (this adverb phrase tells
why)
Rule 1- Adverbs end in -ly, but many do not; if a word
can have -ly added to its adjective form, place it there to
form an adverb.
Ex.
• She thinks quickly.
• She is a quick thinker. (an adjective describing thinker,
so no -ly is attached)
• She thinks fast. (answers the question how, so it is an
adverb; never has -ly attached to it)
• We performed badly. (describes how we performed, so
-ly is added)
Rule 2
- adverbs answer the question how sometimes cause
grammatical problems:
- can be a challenge to determine if -ly should be attached
- avoid the trap of -ly with linking verbs such as taste,
smell, look, feel, which pertain to the senses
Ex.
• Pat's roses smell sweet.
• The painter looked angry to us. - describing appearance
(the painter appeared angry), so no -ly.
• The painter looked angrily at the paint splotches. - here
the painter actively looked (using eyes), so the -ly is
added.
AVOID THIS COMMON MISTAKE:
Incorrect: Ingrid feels badly about the news.
Correct: Ingrid feels bad about the news.
Rule 3 - the word good is an adjective, whose adverb
equivalent is well.
Ex. Kinds of Prepositions:
• You did a good job. (adjective) - describes the job 1. Simple prepositions: consists only one word. (in, on,
• You did the job well. (adverb) - answers how at, with, against etc.)
• You smell good today. (adjective) - describes your 2. Compound prepositions: consists of two or more
fragrance words. (instead of, in the middle of, by the side of etc.)
• You smell well for someone with a cold. (adverb) - You Some prepositions
are actively smelling with your nose • on, through, behind, for, beneath, against, beside,
Rule 4 - the word well can be an adjective, too; when over, during, without, abroad, across, among, against,
referring to health, we often use well rather than good around ,at the end, at the bottom, between, behind, below,
Ex. • You do not look well today. by , inside , corner, into, via, after , to , about , in, on,
• I don't feel well, either at, since ,while, under, over, right, left
Rule 5 - adjectives come in 3 forms, also called degrees; Types of Perpositions
Positive Comparative Superlative 1. Place of Prepositions - prepositions show where
sweet sweeter sweetest something happens
bad worse worst Ex. • Sanny was sitting under a tree.
good better best • There’s a wooden floor underneath the carpet.
little less least • Some geese flew over their house.
few fewer fewest AT, IN, ON
difficult more difficult most difficult at - for a POINT (at the corner, at the bus stop, at the door)
Ex. Positive in - for an ENCLOSED SPACE (in the garden, in London,
• She is a clever woman. in my wallet)
• Jisoo is beautiful. on - for a SURFACE (on the wall, on the ceiling, on a
Ex. Comparative page)
• She is the cleverer of the two women. 2. Time of prepositions - show when something happens
• Yomi is cleverer than Yuri. Ex. • School starts at nine o’clock.
• Lisa is more beautiful than Jisoo • We’re going to the zoo on Saturday.
Ex. Superlative • No, you can’t watch a video. It’s past your bedtime
• She is the cleverest of them all. already.
• Shane is the most beautiful of them all. I visited my grandparents during the summer
Rule 6- adverbs also come in three degrees; do not drop AT, IN, ON
the -ly from an adverb when using the comparative form at - for a PRECISE TIME (at 3 o’clock, at noon, at
Ex. dinnertime)
x Abby spoke quicker than Gelo did. in - for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG
/ Abby spoke more quickly than Gelo did. PERIODS (in May, in summer, in 1990)
x Talk quieter. on - for DAYS and DATES (on Sunday, on 6 March, on
/ Talk more quietly. Christmas Day)
Rule 7 - when this, that, these, and those are followed by a 3. Direction of Prepositions - show where something is
noun, they are adjectives; without a noun, they are going
pronouns. Ex. • The boys chased after each other.
Ex. • This house is for sale. (adjective) • The football rolled down the hill.
• This is for sale. (pronoun) • A man was walking his dog along the riverbank
• The freeway goes right through the city.
PREPOSITIONS • We were travelling towards Miami.
- used before a noun, a noun phrase or a pronoun , 4. Preposition with special uses
connecting it to another word. • Of, for, with, except, instead of, like us, and than
5. Prepositions with Adjective
Ex. • Dad was angry with us. • generally don’t worry as much about formality in
• We were afraid of the big dog. speaking, it is extremely important in writing because of
• She’s not very interested in sports. the knowledge you are recording through the written
Prepositions with Verbs word.
Ex. • Can you think of another word for ‘pleased’? • does not use contractions
• Does this book belong to you? • avoids personal pronouns such as: (you, I, us, me, and
• I agree with you we)
• Includes more polysyllabic words—BIGGER words
FORMAL VS. INFORMAL • Complex, complete sentences
Tone - defined as the writer’s attitude toward the subject • Avoidance of colloquial or slang vocabulary
matter and his or her readers.
Audience - is your reader or listener– the recipient of your FUNCTIONS OF VERBS, CONTENT WORDS,
verbal or written communication. FUNCTION WORDS
Diction - is word choice. Word choice is important in Finite verbs (act as verbs) - agrees with the subject, with
establishing tone. the number, and indicate tenses
Three levels of diction: Nonfinite verbs (act as nouns, adjectives and adverbs)
1. high or formal diction - participles, gerunds, and infinitives
2. neutral diction Lexical - mainverb
3. informal or low diction Auxiliary - helping verb
Formal Informal Auxiliaries - use with lexical verbs (main verbs)
serious light • They had never learned their lesson.
objective humorous • We are enjoying the party
impersonal personal • have little meaning; they also express tense and aspect
reasoned casual • be verbs (am, are, is, was, were, be, being, been) do,
controlled offhanded does did, has, have, had
reserved loose • modals can be auxiliaries but auxiliaries can not be
plainspoken modals
simple Modals - do not have agreement or tense endings
• occur first in a sequence of auxiliaries
Formal Situations Informal Situations • do not require an affix on the verb that follows them
• can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would, must
Job interview Text mesage
Types of modals
Principals office visit Friendlt letter
1. Certainity – will
Business letter “locker” conversation
2. Probability – must, should
Class essay Journal-style writing
3. Possibility – may, might
Informal language
4. Doubt – could, couldn’t
• Simple grammatical structure
5. Impossibility – can’t, won’t
• Personal evaluation
6. Desire – will, must, should
– Using first person
7. Obligation – must, have to
– Using forms of “you”
8. Determination – shall
• Colloquial or slang vocabulary
9. Ability– can, could
– Contractions are considered slang
10. Advise– should
Formal language
Semi-modals - as modals and as main verbs
• even when spoken, is often associated with the
Dare
conventions expected of written standard English.
• I dare not press issue any further.
• He doesn’t dare to argue with the principal.
Need
• You need not worry about my grades.
• He needs that report by tomorrow.
Used to
• I used to get up early when I lived in Manila.
• I am used to getting up at 7am every morning.
Participles – (ed or ing) form of verbs that
function as an adjectives in a sentence
Present participles (ing)
Ex. I have just met an interesting person.
That movie was such a boring one.
Past pariciples (d, ed for regular verbs )
Ex. He is a changed man.
Moviegoers were bored watching it.
Infinitive – the to (or w/o) + verb that function as nouns
in a sentence
Ex. To enter the Malacañang Palace has been one of my
dreams
Obey first before you complain to achieve goals in life.
I like to cook delicious meals for my family.
To travel in Europe is one of my bucket list.
She promised to return borrowed books.

CONTENT WORDS vs FUNCTIONS WORDS

Content words
Nouns (paper, coffee, Mrs. Bobz)
Verbs (talk, watched, need)
Adjectives (tall, blue, enchanting)
Adverbs (slowly, nervously)
?-words (why, what, how)
(-) words (no, isn’t, don’t)
Possessive pronouns (hers, yours, theirs)
Demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those)
Function words
Determiners
• Articles (a/an, the)
• Quantifiers (most, few, many, little)
• Possessive Pronouns (our, his, her)
• Demonstrative Adjectives (this, that, these, those)
Auxiliaries (can, will, be, must)
Conjunctions (for, and, but, yet)
Prepositions (up, on, to, with)
Most pronouns (she, it, they, them, him, etc.)