CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

Covalent Bonding

Section 8.1 The Covalent Bond 8. Describe how the octet rule applies to covalent
pages 240–247 bonds.
Atoms share valence electrons; the shared
Practice Problems electrons complete the octet of each atom.
page 244
9. Illustrate the formation of single, double, and
Draw the Lewis structure for each molecule. triple covalent bonds using Lewis structures.
1. PH3 Student Lewis structures should show the
H sharing of a single pair of electrons, two pairs
of electrons, and three pairs of electrons,
— —

H H H P H— P respectively, for single, double, and triple

covalent bonds.
H
10. Compare and contrast ionic bonds and cova-
2. H2S lent bonds.
H H S H —S Valence electrons are involved in both types of
—

bonds. In covalent bonds, atoms share electrons,

H
whereas is ionic bonds, electrons are transferred
between atoms.
3. HCl
H Cl H — Cl 11. Contrast sigma bonds and pi bonds.
A sigma bond is a single covalent bond formed
4. CCl4
from the direct overlap of orbitals. A pi bond is
Cl the parallel overlap of p orbitals.
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

— —

Cl Cl Cl Cl C Cl — C — Cl 12. Apply Create a graph using the bond-

dissociation energy data in Table 8.2 and the
Cl
bond-length data in Table 8.1. Describe the
5. SiH4 relationship between bond length and bond-
dissociation energy.
H
—

Student graphs should show that as bond length

H H H H Si H — Si — H decreases the bond dissociation energy increases.
—

H
Covalent Bond Length vs.
6. Challenge Draw a generic Lewis structure for Bond Dissociation Energy
a molecule formed between atoms of group 1
1000
and group 16 elements.
Bond Dissociation

Using 1 and 16 to represent atoms of groups 1 800

Energy (kJ/mol)

and 16, respectively, the generic structure is:

600

Section 8.1 Assessment 400

page 247
200
7. Identify the type of atom that generally forms
covalent bonds. 0
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
The majority of covalent bonds form between Covalent Bond Length (10 –10m)
nonmetallic elements.

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 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

13. Predict the relative bond energies needed to 22. H2SO4

break the bonds in the structures below.
sulfuric acid
a. H — C — —C —H
23. H2S
C—H: less energy than C⬅C
hydrosulfuric acid
b. H H
— —

— —

24. Challenge What is the formula for periodic

C—C
acid?
H H
HIO4
C—H: less energy than CC
Give the formula for each compound.
25. silver chloride
Section 8.2 Naming Molecules AgCl
pages 248–252
26. dihydrogen oxide
Practice Problems
H2O
pages 249–251

Name each of the binary covalent compounds 27. chlorine trifluoride

listed below. ClF3
14. CO2
28. diphosphorus trioxide
carbon dioxide
P2O3
15. SO2
29. disulfur decafluoride
sulfur dioxide
S2F10

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

16. NF3
30. Challenge What is the formula for carbonic
nitrogen trifluoride acid?
17. CCl4 H2CO3

carbon tetrachloride Section 8.2 Assessment

page 252
18. Challenge What is the formula for diarsenic
trioxide? 31. Summarize the rules for naming binary
Ar 2O 3 molecular compounds.
Name the first element in the formula first. Name
Name the following acids. Assume each the second element using its root plus the
compound is dissolved in water. suffix –ide. Add prefixes to indicate the number
19. HI of atoms of each element present.

hydroiodic acid 32. Define a binary molecular compound.

20. HClO3 a molecule composed of only two nonmetal

elements
chloric acid
33. Describe the difference between a binary acid
21. HClO2 and an oxyacid.
chlorous acid A binary acid contains hydrogen and one other
element. An oxyacid contains hydrogen, another
element, and oxygen.
122 Chemistry: Matter and Change • Chapter 8 Solutions Manual
 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

34. Apply Using the system of rules for naming 38. Challenge A nitrogen trifluoride molecule
binary molecular compounds, describe how you contains numerous lone pairs. Draw its Lewis
would name the molecule N2O4. structure.
There are two atoms of nitrogen; use the prefix F

—
di– with the name nitrogen. There are four atoms
of oxygen, so use the prefix tetra–  the root of F—N

—
oxygen  the ending –ide. The name is dinitrogen
F
tetroxide.

35. Apply Write the molecular formula for each of
these compounds:, iodic acid, disulfur trioxide,
dinitrogen monoxide, hydrofluoric acid.
HIO3, S2O3, N2O, HF
36. State the molecular formula for each
compound listed below.
a. dinitrogen trioxide
N2O3
39. Draw the Lewis structure for ethylene, C2H4.
H H
C C
H H
40. Challenge A molecule of carbon disulfide
contains both lone pairs and multiple-covalent
bonds. Draw its Lewis structure.
S—C—S

b. nitrogen monoxide 41. Draw the Lewis structure for ethylene,

NH4+ ion.
NO
1+
c. hydrochloric acid H

HCl H N H
H
d. chloric acid
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

HClO3 42. Challenge The ClO4– ion contains numerous

lone pairs. Draw its Lewis structure.
e. sulfuric acid
1
H2SO4 O
—

O — Cl — O
f. sulfurous acid
—

H2SO3 O

Draw the Lewis resonance structures for the

Section 8.3 Molecular Structures following molecules.
pages 253–260 43. NO2
1− 1−
Practice Problems N N
pages 255–260 O O O O
37. Draw the Lewis structure for BH3.
H 44. SO2
—

B— S S
H— H O O O O

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 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

45. O3 51. State the steps used to draw Lewis structures.

1) determine central atom and terminal
O O
O O O O atoms, 2) determine number of bonding
electrons, 3) determine bonding pairs, 4) connect
terminal atoms to the central atom with single
46. Challenge Draw the Lewis resonance bonds, 5) determine remaining number of
structure for the ion SO32. bonding pairs, 6) apply octet rule and form
double or triple bonds if needed
O S O
2–
52. Summarize exceptions to the octet rule by
O correctly pairing these molecules and phrases:
odd number of valence electrons, PCl5, ClO2,
O S O 2– BH3, expanded octet, less than an octet.
expanded octet, PCl5; odd number of valence
O electrons, ClO2; less than an octet, BH3

O S O
2–
53. Evaluate A classmate states that a binary
O
compound having only sigma bonds displays
resonance. Could the classmate’s statement
Draw the expanded octet Lewis structure of each be true?
molecule. No, a molecule or polyatomic ion must have
47. ClF3 both a single bond and a double bond in order
to display resonance. Only single bonds can be
F sigma bonds.
F Cl
F 54. Draw the resonance structures for the
dinitrogen oxide (N2O) molecule.

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

48. PCl5   or 





NNO N⬅N—O
Cl
Cl
Cl P 55. Draw the Lewis structure for CN, SiF4,
Cl HCO3, and AsF6.
Cl
CN : [C N ]−
49. Challenge Draw the Lewis structure for the
molecule formed when six fluorine atoms and F
one sulfur atom bond covalently.
SiF4 : F Si F
F F
F F
S
F F
F O −

HCO3 : H C O
Section 8.3 Assessment
page 260 O

50. Describe the information contained in a

structural formula. −
F
types of atoms, number of atoms, and a rough F F
approximation of the molecular shape AsF6 : As
F F
F

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 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

Section 8.4 Molecular Shapes 63. Describe how the presence of a lone pair
affects the spacing of shared bonding orbitals.
Practice Problems A lone pair occupies more space than a shared
page 264 electron pair, thus, the presence of a lone pair
pushes the bonding pairs closer together.
Determine the molecular shape, bond angle, and
hybrid orbitals for each molecule. 64. Compare the size of an orbital that has a
56. BF3 trigonal planar, 120°, sp2 shared electron pair with one that has a lone
pair.
F The orbital containing a lone electron pair
B occupies more space than a shared electron pair.
F F
65. Identify the type of hybrid orbitals present and
57. OCl2 bent, 104.5°, sp3 bond angles for a molecule with a tetrahedral
shape.
O
Cl Cl sp3 and 109°

58. BeF2 linear, 180°, sp 66. Compare the molecular shapes and hybrid
orbitals of PF3 and PF5 molecules. Explain why
F Be F their shapes differ.
PF3 is trigonal pyramidal with sp3 hybrid orbitals.
59. CF4 tetrahedral, 109°, sp3
PF5 is trigonal bipyramidal with sp3d hybrid
F orbitals. Shape is determined by the type of
hybrid orbital.
F C F
F 67. List in a table, the Lewis structure, molecular
shape, bond angle, and hybrid orbitals for
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.


60. Challenge For the NH4 ion, identify its molecules of CS2, CH2O, H2Se, CCl2F2,
molecular shape, bond angle, and hybrid and NCl3.
orbitals. CS2: S=C =S linear, 180°, sp
tetrahedral, 109°, sp3
H
trigonal planar,
1 CH2O: C =O
H H 120°, sp2

H—N—H
H Se bent, 104.5°, sp3
H H2Se:
H

Cl
Section 8.4 Assessment tetrahedryl,
page 264 CCI2F2: Cl C F
109°, sp3
61. Summarize the VSEPR bonding theory. F
VSEPR theory determines molecular geometry
based on the repulsive nature of electron pairs Cl trigonal pyramidal,
NCL3:
around a central atom. Cl N Cl 107°, sp3

62. Define the term bond angle.

The bond angle is the angle formed by any two
terminal atoms and the central atom.

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 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL
Section 8.5 Electronegativity
and Polarity
pages 265–270
Section 8.5 Assessment
page 270
68. Summarize how electronegativity difference
is related to bond character.
The greater the electronegativity difference, the
greater the ionic nature of the bond.
69. Describe a polar covalent bond.
A polar covalent bond has unequal sharing of
electrons. The electrons are pulled toward one
of the atoms, generating partial charges on the
ends.
70. Describe a polar molecule.
A polar molecule is one that has a greater
electron density on one side of the molecule.
71. List three properties of a covalent compound in
the solid phase.
The solid state of a molecule is crystalline. A
molecular solid is soft, a nonconductor, and has a
low melting point.
72. Categorize bond types using electronegativity
difference.
If the difference is zero, the bond is considered
nonpolar covalent; if between zero and 0.4,
mostly covalent; if between 0.4 and 1.7, polar
covalent; if greater than 1.7, mostly ionic.
73. Generalize Describe the general
characteristics of covalent network solids.
brittle, nonconductors of heat and electricity,
extremely hard
74. Predict the type of bond that will form
between the following pair of atoms:
a. H and S
electronegativity of S  2.58
electronegativity of H  2.20
EN difference  0.38; mostly covalent
126 Chemistry: Matter and Change • Chapter 8
b. C and H
electronegativity of C  2.55;
electronegativity of H  2.20;
EN difference  0.35; mostly covalent
c. Na and S.
electronegativity of S  2.58;
electronegativity of Na  0.93;
EN difference  1.65; polar covalent
75. Identify each molecule as polar or nonpolar:
SCl2, CS2, and CF4.
SCl2, polar; CS2, nonpolar; CF4, nonpolar
76. Determine whether a compound made of
hydrogen and sulfur atoms is polar or nonpolar.
hydrogen and sulfur form H2S, a molecule with
a bent shape; the molecule is polar because it is
asymmetric
77. Draw the Lewis structures for the molecules
SF4 and SF6. Analyze each structure to deter-
mine whether the molecule is polar or nonpolar.
F
F F F F
S S
F F F F
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
F
SF4: polar SF6: nonpolar
Chapter 8 Assessment
pages 274–277
Section 8.1
Mastering Concepts
78. What is the octet rule, and how is it used in
covalent bonding?
Atoms lose, gain, or share electrons to end with
a full outer energy level of eight electrons.
Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share
electrons to achieve an octet.
79. Describe the formation of a covalent bond.
The nucleus of one atom attracts the electrons of
the other atom, and they share one or more pairs
of electrons.
Solutions Manual
 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

80. Describe the bonding in molecules. 86. Consider the carbon-nitrogen bonds shown
Molecules bond covalently.
below:

81. Describe the forces, both attractive and C ≡ N- and H H

—
—
repulsive, that occur as two atoms come H —C —N

—
—
closer together.
H H
Attractive forces occur between the nucleus of
one atom and the electrons of the other atom. Which bond is shorter? Which is stronger?
Repulsive forces occur between the nuclei of
the two atoms and between the electrons of The triple bond in C≡N is shorter and stronger.
the two atoms. As the atoms approach, the net
87. Rank each of the molecules below in order of
force of attraction increases. At a certain optimal
distance between atoms, the net attractive force
the shortest to the longest sulfur-oxygen bond
is maximized. If the atoms move closer than length.
the optimal distance, repulsive force exceeds a. SO2
attractive force. See Figure 8.2 on page 241.
b. SO32
82. How could you predict the presence of a sigma
or pi bond in a molecule? c. SO42

A single covalent bond is always a sigma bond; a, c, b

a double bond consists of a sigma bond and a
pi bond; a triple bond consists of one sigma and Section 8.2
two pi bonds.
Mastering Concepts
Mastering Problems 88. Explain how molecular compounds are named.
83. Give the number of valence electrons in N,
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Naming follows a specific set of rules depending

As, Br, and Se. Predict the number of covalent on whether the compound forms an acidic
bonds needed for each of these elements to aqueous solution. Answers should agree with
satisfy the octet rule. Figure 8.12 on page 252.
N: 5, 3; As: 5, 3; Br: 7, 1; Se: 6, 2
89. When is a molecular compound named as
84. Locate the sigma and pi bonds in each of the an acid?
molecules shown below. when it releases H in water solution

a. O 90. Explain the difference between sulfur

—

hexafluoride and disulfur tetrafluoride.

H—C—H
Sulfur hexafluoride is SF6, which has one atom of
single bonds: sigma bonds; double bond: one
sulfur bonded with six atoms of fluorine. Disulfur
sigma bond and one pi bond
tetrafluoride is S2F4, which has two atoms of
sulfur bonded with four atoms of fluorine.
b. H — C —
—C —H
single bonds: sigma bonds; triple bond: one sigma 91. Watches The quartz crystals used in watches
and two pi bonds are made of silicon dioxide. Explain how you
use the name to determine the formula for
85. In the molecules CO, CO2, and CH2O, which silicon dioxide
C—O bond is the shortest? Which C—O bond
The name silicon indicates one atom of Si. The
is the strongest?
prefix di- means two and oxide indicates oxygen.
The triple bond in CO is the shortest and the The correct formula is SiO2.
strongest.

Solutions Manual Chemistry: Matter and Change • Chapter 8 127

 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

Mastering Problems c. carbon tetrafluoride

92. Complete Table 8.8. CF4

Acid Names d. sulfurous acid

Formula Name H2SO3
HClO2 chlorous acid
96. Write the formula for each molecule.
H3PO4 phosphoric acid
a. silicon dioxide
H2Se hydroselenic acid
HClO3 chloric acid SiO2

93. Name each molecule. b. bromous acid

a. NF3 HBrO2

nitrogen trifluoride c. chlorine trifluoride

b. NO ClF3

nitrogen monoxide d. hydrobromic acid

c. SO3 HBr

sulfur trioxide
Section 8.3
d. SiF4
silicon tetrafluoride
Mastering Concepts
97. What must you know in order to draw the
94. Name each molecule. Lewis structure for a molecule?

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

a. SeO2 the number of valence electrons for each atom
selenium dioxide
98. Doping Agent Material scientists are
b. SeO3 studying the properties of polymer plastics
selenium trioxide
doped with AsF5. Explain why the compound
AsF5 is an exception to the octet rule.
c. N2F4 Arsenic has five bonding positions with a total
dinitrogen tetrafluoride of 10 shared electrons. This is greater that the
eight electrons that occupy an octet.
d. S4N4
99. Reducing Agent Boron trihydride (BH3) is
tetrasulfur tetranitride
used as reducing agent in organic chemistry.
95. Write the formula for each molecule. Explain why BH3 often forms coordinate
covalent bonds with other molecules.
a. sulfur difluoride
BH3 only has 6 electrons and does not have
SF2 an electron arrangement with a low amount
of potential energy. It will share a lone pair
b. silicon tetrachloride
with another molecule to form this electron
SiCl4 arrangement.

128 Chemistry: Matter and Change • Chapter 8 Solutions Manual

 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

100. Antimony and chlorine can form antimony 103. Draw two resonance structures for the
trichloride and antimony pentachloride. polyatomic ion HCO2.
Explain how these elements are able to form
two different compounds. H CO 
Antimony has five valence electrons, one lone
O
pair, and three positions where it can share one
electron with a chlorine atom. This will form
SbCl3. Antimony can also expand its octet and H C O 


bond with all five valence electrons, forming
O
SbCl5.

104. Draw the Lewis structure for a molecule of

Mastering Problems each of these compounds and ions.
101. Draw three resonance structures for the a. H2S
polyatomic ion CO32.
H S
O=C O 2−
H
O
b. BF4
F 
O C=O 2−

F B F
O
F
O C O 2−
=

O c. SO2
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

O S
102. Draw the Lewis structure for these molecules,
each of which has a central atom that does not O
obey the octet rule.
a. PCl5 d. SeCl2

Cl Cl Se
Cl
P Cl
Cl Cl
Cl
105. Which elements in the list below are capable
b. BF3 of forming molecules in which one of its
F atoms has an expanded octet? Explain your
answer.
B
F F a. B
b. C
c. ClF5 c. P
d. O
F F
Cl e. Se
F F
F P and Se because they are from period 3 or
higher and have a d sublevel available
d. BeH2
H—Be—H

Solutions Manual Chemistry: Matter and Change • Chapter 8 129

 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

Section 8.4 Mastering Problems

110. Complete Table 8.9 by identifying the
Mastering Concepts expected hybrid on the central atom. You
106. What is the basis of the VSEPR model? might find drawing the molecule’s Lewis
the repulsive nature of electron pairs around a
structure helpful.
central atom
Structures
107. What is the maximum number of hybrid Formula Hybrid Orbital Lewis Structure
orbitals a carbon atom can form? XeF4 sp3d2 F F
four Xe
F F
108. What is the molecular shape of each molecule?
Estimate the bond angle for each molecule, TeF4 sp3d F Te F
assuming that there is not a lone pair.
F F
a. A—B
KrF2 sp3d
linear, 180° F Kr F
OF2 sp3
b. A—B—A F O F
linear, 180°
111. Predict the molecular shape of each molecule.
c. A—B—A a. COS
—

A linear
trigonal planar, 120°
b. CF2Cl2
d. A

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

tetrahedral
— —

A—B—A
112. For each molecule listed below, predict its
A molecular shape and bond angle, and identify
tetrahedral, 109° the hybrid orbitals. Drawing the Lewis
structure might help you.
109. Parent Compound PCl5 is used as a parent a. SCl2
compound to form many other compounds.
Explain the theory of hybridization and bent, 104.5°, sp3
determine the number of hybrid orbitals
b. NH2Cl
present in a molecule of PCl5.
trigonal pyramidal, 107°, sp3
The theory of hybridization explains the shapes
of molecules by the formation of identical hybrid c. HOF
orbitals from the atomic orbitals of the atoms in
the molecule; five identical sp3d orbitals bent, 104.5°, sp3

d. BF3
trigonal planar, 120°, sp2

130 Chemistry: Matter and Change • Chapter 8 Solutions Manual

 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL
Section 8.5
Mastering Concepts
113. Describe electronegativity trends in the
periodic table.
It increases left to right in a period and
decreases top to bottom in a group.
114. Explain the difference between nonpolar
molecules and polar molecules.
A nonpolar molecule has a symmetric
distribution of charge, while a polar molecule
has a concentration of electrons on one side of
the molecule.
115. Compare the location of bonding electrons in
a polar covalent bond with those in a nonpolar
covalent bond. Explain your answer.
Electrons in a polar bond are closer to the
118. For each of the bonds listed, tell which atom is
more electronegative atom because of unequal
sharing. Those in a nonpolar bond are shared
equally.
116. What is the difference between a covalent
molecular solid and a covalent network solid?
Do their physical properties differ? Explain
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
your answer.
A covalent molecular solid is soft and has a low
melting point because of weak intermolecular
forces. A covalent network solid has a high
melting point and is very hard because of the
strength of the network of covalent bonds.
Mastering Problems
117. For each pair, indicate the more polar bond by
circling the negative end of its dipole.
119. Predict which bond is the most polar.
a. C—S, C—O
O is circled because it has the greatest
electronegativity. C—O is the more polar
bond. There is a greater electronegativity
difference between C and O.
Electronegativity S  2.58; electronegativity
C  2.55; EN difference  0.03;
electronegativity O  3.44; electronegativity
C  2.55; EN difference  0.89
Solutions Manual
b. C—F, C—N
F is circled because it has the greatest
electronegativity. C—F is the more polar
bond. There is a greater electronegativity
difference between C and F. Electronegativity
F  3.98; electronegativity C  2.55;
EN difference  1.43. Electronegativity
N  3.04; electronegativity C  2.55; EN
difference  0.49
c. P—H, P—Cl
Cl is circled because it has the greatest
electronegativity. P—Cl is the more polar
bond. There is a greater electronegativity
difference between Cl and P. Electronegativity
H  2.20; electronegativity
P  2.19; EN difference  0.01.
Electronegativity Cl  3.16; electronegativity
P  2.19; EN difference  0.97
more negatively charged.
The most negatively charged atom has the
greatest electronegativity. Use Figure 8.20.
a. C—H
C
b. C—N
N
c. C—S
S
d. C—O
O
a. C—O
electronegativity O  3.44, electronegativity
C  2.55, EN difference  0.89
b. Si—O
electronegativity O  3.44, electronegativity
Si  1.90, EN difference  1.54
Chemistry: Matter and Change • Chapter 8 131
 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

c. C—Cl c. H2S
electronegativity Cl  3.16, electronegativity polar, asymmetrical
C  2.55, EN difference  0.61
d. CF4
d. C—Br
nonpolar, symmetrical
electronegativity Br  2.96, electronegativity
C  2.55, EN difference  0.41 123. Use Lewis structures to predict the molecular
polarities for sulfur difluoride, sulfur
Si—O is the most polar because it has the
greatest electronegativity difference.
tetrafluoride, and sulfur hexafluoride.
SF2 and SF4 are polar. SF6 is nonpolar.
120. Rank the bonds according to increasing
polarity.
Mixed Review
a. C—H
124. Write the formula for each molecule.
electronegativity C  2.55, electronegativity
a. chlorine monoxide
H  2.20, EN difference  0.35
ClO
b. N—H
b. arsenic acid
electronegativity N  3.04, electronegativity
H  2.20, EN difference  0.84 H3AsO4

c. Si—H c. phosphorus pentachloride

electronegativity H  2.20, electronegativity PCl5
Si  1.90, EN difference  0.30
d. hydrosulfuric acid
d. O—H
H2S

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

electronegativity O  3.44, electronegativity
H  2.20, EN difference  1.24 125. Name each molecule.
a. PCl3
e. Cl—H
phosphorus trichloride
electronegativity Cl  3.16, electronegativity
H  2.20, EN difference  0.96 b. Cl2O7
in order of increasing polarity: c, a, b, e, d dichlorine heptoxide

121. Refrigerant The refrigerant known as freon- c. P4O6

14 is an ozone-damaging compound with
tetraphosphorus hexoxide
the formula CF4. Why is the CF4 molecule
nonpolar even though it contains polar bonds? d. NO
equal distribution of charge in a symmetrical nitrogen monoxide
molecule
126. Draw the Lewis structure for each molecule
122. Determine if these molecules and ion are or ion.
polar. Explain your answers.
a. SeF2
a. H3O
polar, asymmetrical F Se

F
b. PCl5
nonpolar, symmetrical

132 Chemistry: Matter and Change • Chapter 8 Solutions Manual

 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

b. ClO2 c. Ge—O
electronegativity O  3.44, electronegativity
O − Cl − Ge  2.01, difference  1.43
O
d. C—Cl
electronegativity Cl  3.16, electronegativity
c. PO33
CP  2.55, difference  0.61

O P O 3−
e. C—Br

O electronegativity Br  2.96, electronegativity

C  2.55, difference  0.41

d. POCl3 in order of least to greatest polar bond

character is the same as the order of
Cl increasing electronegativity differences
(refer to Figure 8.21): e, d, a, c, b
Cl P O
129. Rocket Fuel In the 1950s, the reaction of
Cl
hydrazine with chlorine trifluoride (ClF3) was
used as a rocket fuel. Draw the Lewis structure
e. GeF4
for ClF3 and identify the hybrid orbitals.
F F
F Cl
F Ge F F

F sp3d

127. Determine which of the molecules are polar. 130. Complete Table 8.10, which shows the
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Explain your answer. number of electrons shared in a single cova-

a. CH3Cl lent bond, a double covalent bond, and a triple
b. ClF covalent bond. Identify the group of atoms that
c. NCl3 will form each of these bonds.
d. BF3
e. CS2 Shared Pairs

The polar molecules are CH3Cl, ClF, and NCl3 Number of Shared Atoms that Form
Bond Type Electrons the Bond
because each molecule is asymmetric and the
charge is not distributed evenly. Single 2 shared electrons any halogen, group
covalent 17
128. Arrange the bonds in order of least to Double 4 shared electrons A group 16
greatest polar character. covalent element
a. C—O Triple 6 shared electrons A group 15
covalent element
electronegativity O  3.44, electronegativity
C  2.55, difference  0.89

b. Si—O
electronegativity O  3.44, electronegativity
Si  1.90, difference  1.54

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 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

Think Critically O
H H

—
131. Organize Design a concept map that explains
N C N
how VSEPR model theory, hybridization
theory, and molecular shape are related. H H
Sigma bonds are the N—H bonds and the C—N
Concept maps will vary.
bonds as well as one of the C—O bonds. The
132. Compare and contrast the two compounds other C—O bond is a pi bond. The lone pairs are
identified by the names arsenic(III) oxide and located on both N atoms and on the O atom.
diarsenic trioxide.
135. Analyze For each of the characteristics listed
The name arsenic(III) oxide states that arsenic below, identify the polarity of a molecule with
has an oxidation number of 3 and oxide is 2. that characteristic.
The correct formula is As2O3. The name diarsenic
trioxide states that there are two atoms of arsenic
a. a solid at room temperature
and three atoms of oxygen. The correct formula polar
is As2O3. Even though they are named differently,
they both represent the same formula. b. a gas at room temperature
nonpolar
133. Make and Use Tables Complete Table 8.11
using Chapters 7 and 8. c. attracted to an electric current
Bond Characteristic polar
Solid Description of Solid Example
the elec- hard, rigid, brit- NaCl
136. Apply The structural formula for acetonitrile,
Ionic
trostatic tle, crystalline, CH3CN, is shown below.
attraction of high melting
a positive ion point, noncon-
H
for a nega- ductor in the H C C—
—N

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

tive ion solid state H
Covalent the sharing soft, low melt- CO2
molecular of electrons ing point, Examine the structure of acetonitrile molecule.
between two non-conductor Determine the number of carbon atoms in the
atoms in the solid state molecule, identify the hybrid present in each
Metallic the attraction a crystal that Ag carbon atom, and explain your reasoning.
of a posi- conducts heat
tive ion for and electric- The first carbon (bonded to three H atoms and
delocalized ity, malleable, one C atom) atom is a sp3 hybrid because it
electrons ductile, high has 4 bonding positions. The 2nd carbon atom
melting point (bonded to one C atom and one N atom) is an sp
Covalent atoms cova- crystal is hard, diamond hybrid because it has two bonding positions.
network lently bonded rigid, brittle,
to many nonconductor
other atoms
Challenge Problem
137. Examine the bond-dissociation energies for the
134. Apply Urea, whose structure is shown in the various bonds listed in Table 8.12.
next column, is a compound used in manufac-
turing plastics and fertilizers. Identify the sigma
bond, pi bonds, and lone pairs present in a
molecule of urea.

134 Chemistry: Matter and Change • Chapter 8 Solutions Manual

 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

Bond-Dissociation Energies O—C—O

Bond- Bond- H

—
Dissociation Dissociation
Bond Energy (kJ/mol) Bond Energy (kJ/mol) Cl — C — Cl

—
CC 348 OH 467 Cl
CC 614 CN 305
F — Be — F
C⬅C 839 OO 498
NN 163 CH 416
slope  _
y __

23.40 g  14.04 g
 2.34 g/mL
NN 418 CO 358 x 10.0 mL  6.0 mL
N⬅N 945 CO 745 The unit of the slope is g/mL, which is the unit
of density. The slope gives you the density of
a. Draw the correct Lewis structures for C2H2 the liquid.
and HCOOH.
139. Write the correct chemical formula for each
H C C H compound. (Chapter 7)
a. calcium carbonate
O CaCO3
H C
b. potassium chlorate
O H
KClO3
b. Determine the amount of energy needed to
c. silver acetate
break apart each of these molecules.
AgC2H3O2
C2H2: (416  2)  839 kJ/mol  1671 kJ/mol

HCOOH: 416  745  358  467 kJ/mol  d. copper(II) sulfate

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

1986 kJ/mol CuSO4

Cumulative Review e. ammonium phosphate

138. Table 8.13 lists a liquid’s mass and volume (NH4)3PO4

data. Create a line graph of this data with the
140. Write the correct chemical name for each
volume on the x-axis and the mass on the
compound.
y-axis. Calculate the slope of the line. What
information does the slope give you? a. NaI
(Chapter 2) sodium iodide

Mass v. Volume b. Fe(NO3)3

Volume Mass iron(III) nitrate
4.1 mL 9.36 g
c. Sr(OH)2
6.0 mL 14.04 g
strontium hydroxide
8.0 mL 18.72 g
10.0 mL 23.40 g d. CoCl2
cobalt(II) chloride

e. Mg(BrO3)2
magnesium bromate

Solutions Manual Chemistry: Matter and Change • Chapter 8 135

 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

Additional Assessment
Writing in Chemistry
a
141. Antifreeze Research ethylene glycol, an
antifreeze-coolant, to learn its chemical
formula. Explain how its structure makes it a b
useful antifreeze and coolant.
H H
H O C C O H

H H
c
Answers will vary. Students might note that the
presence of –OH groups make ethylene glycol
miscible in water and contribute to its relatively 143. Determine the molecular formula for luminol
high boiling point and relatively low freezing and draw its Lewis structure.
point.
C8H7O2N3
142. Detergents Choose a laundry detergent to
144. Indicate the hybrid present on the atoms
research and write an essay about its chemical
composition. Explain how it removes oil and labeled A, B, and C in Figure 8.26.
grease from of fabrics. a, sp2; b, sp3; c, sp2

Answers should include a discussion of the 145. When luminol comes in contact with the
nonpolar end of a detergent molecule and the iron ion in hemoglobin, it reacts to produce
polar end of the same molecule allowing it to Na2APA, water, nitrogen, and light energy.
attract both water and oil.

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Given the structural formula of the APA ion
in Figure 8.27, write the chemical formula for
Document-Based Questions the polyatomic APA ion.

Luminol Crime-scene investigators often use the NH2 O

covalent compound luminol to find blood evidence. C C
H -
The reaction between luminol, certain chemicals, C C O
and hemoglobin, a protein in blood, produces -
C C O
light. Figure 8.26 shows a ball-and-stick model of H C C
luminol.
H O
Data obtained from: Fleming, Declan., 2002. The
Chemiluminescence of Luminol, Exemplarchem, Royal Society APA ion
of Chemistry.
C8H5NO42

136 Chemistry: Matter and Change • Chapter 8 Solutions Manual

 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

Standardized Test Practice 5. Which is the Lewis structure for silicon

pages 278–279 disulfide?
1. The common name of SiI4 is tetraiodosilane. a. S Si S
What is its molecular compound name?
b. S Si S
a. silane tetraiodide
b. silane tetraiodine c. S Si S
c. silicon iodide
d. S Si S
d. silicon tetraiodide
b
d
6. The central selenium atom in selenium hexa-
2. Which compound contains at least one pi bond?
fluoride forms an expanded octet. How many
a. CO2 electron pairs surround the central Se atom?
b. CHCl3
a. 4
c. AsI3
b. 5
d. BeF2
c. 6
a d. 7
Use the graph below to answer Questions c
3 and 4.
Use the table below to answer Questions
5
7 and 8.
4
Electronegativity

Bond Dissociation Energies at 298 K

3
Bond kJ/mol Bond kJ/mol
2 Cl—Cl 242 N≡N 945
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

C—C 345 O—H 467

1
C—H 416 C—O 358
0 C—N 305 C=O 745
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
H—I 299 O=O 498
Atomic number
H—N 391
3. What is the electronegativity of the element
with atomic number 14? 7. Which diatomic gas has the shortest bond
a. 1.5 between its two atoms?
b. 1.9 a. HI
c. 2.0 b. O2
d. 2.2 c. Cl2
c d. N2
d
4. An ionic bond would form between which pairs
of elements?
a. atomic number 3 and atomic number 4
b. atomic number 7 and atomic number 8
c. atomic number 4 and atomic number 18
d. atomic number 8 and atomic number 12
d

Solutions Manual Chemistry: Matter and Change • Chapter 8 137

 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

8. Approximately how much energy will it take Use the atomic emissions spectrum below to
to break all the bonds present in the molecule answer Questions 12 and 13.
below?
H H
N
— 400 500 600 700
Nanometers
H C O
—

12. Estimate the wavelength of the photons being

H— C H C H
emitted by this element.
—

H O 580 nm
a. 3024 kJ/mol 13. Find the frequency of the photons being emitted
b. 4318 kJ/mol by this element.
c. 4621 kJ/mol
d. 5011 kJ/mol 5.2  1014 Hz

d Solution: c  
 c/
Etotal  (2  EHN )  ECN  (4  ECH )  (2  ECC)  __
3  108 m/s
 EC  O  ECO  EOH Etotal  (2  391)  305 580  109 m
 (4  416)  (2  345)  745  358  467 kJ/mol
 5.2 1014 s1 or Hz
Etotal  5011 kJ/mol
Use the table below to answer Question 14.
9. Which compound does NOT have a bent
molecular shape? Percent Abundance of Silicon Isotopes
a. BeH2
Percent
b. H2S
Isotope Mass Abundance
c. H2O

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

28Si 27.98 amu 92.21%
d. SeH2
29Si 28.98 amu 4.70%
a
30Si 29.97 amu 3.09%
10. Which compound is nonpolar?
a. H2S 14. Your lab partner calculates the average atomic
b. CCl4 mass of these three silicon isotopes. His average
c. SiH3Cl atomic mass value is 28.98 amu. Explain why
d. AsH3 your lab partner is incorrect, and show how to
calculate the correct average atomic mass.
b
The correct calculation uses a weighted average
11. Oxyacids contain hydrogen and an oxyanion. to account for the proportions of each isotope in
There are two different oxyacids that contain the sample:
hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. Identify these Mavg  0.9221  M28  0.0470  M29  0.0309
Si Si
two oxyacids. How can they be distinguished
 M30 amu
on the basis of their names and formulas? Si
Mavg  0.9221  27.98  0.0470  28.98  0.0309
Nitric acid (HNO3) and nitrous acid (NHO2)
 29.97 amu
The –ic suffix indicates the larger number of
Mavg  28.09 amu
oxygen atoms; the –ous suffix indicates the lower
number of oxygen atoms.

138 Chemistry: Matter and Change • Chapter 8 Solutions Manual

 CHAPTER 8 SOLUTIONS MANUAL

SAT Subject Test: Chemistry Use the table below to answer Questions
18 and 19.
Use the list of separation techniques below to
answer Questions 15 through 17. Electron·Dot Structures
a. filtration Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
b. distillation
Diagram Li Be B C N O F Ne
c. crystallization
d. chromatography
e. sublimation 18. Based on the Lewis structures shown, which
elements will combine in a 2:3 ratio?
15. Which technique separates components of a a. lithium and carbon
mixture with different boiling points? b. beryllium and fluorine
b c. beryllium and nitrogen
d. boron and oxygen
16. Which technique separates components of a e. boron and carbon
mixture based on the size of its particles?
d
a
19. How many electrons will beryllium have in
17. Which technique is based on the stronger attrac- its outer energy level after it forms an ion to
tion some components have for the stationary become chemically stable?
phase compared to the mobile phase? a. 0
d b. 2
c. 4
d. 6
e. 8
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Solutions Manual Chemistry: Matter and Change • Chapter 8 139