FACULTY OF EDUCATION

COURSE NAME: HUMAN LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION

COURSE CODE: EDB
COURSE DESCRIPTION. This Course describes how learning takes place citing
several learning theories, human memory, effective classroom management and
discipline in schools, exceptional learners, learning disabilities and learning transfer.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of the course, students should be able to:-
 Understand the nature of classroom learning
 Measure learning outcomes
 Cater for individual differences among learners
 Get acquitted with knowledge of motivating learners and problem solving.
 Effectively manage classrooms
DETAILED COURSE OUTLINE
Week Topic Sub-Topic Contact
Hours
1 Nature Of Learning  Definition 3
 Elements Of Learning
2-6 Theories Of Leaning  Behavioral 3
,,  Cognitive 3
,,  Humanistic 3
 Social Learning Theories
7&8 Disability  Gifted learners 12
 Characteristic
 Helping gifted learners
 Slow learners
 Characteristics
 Helping slow learners
 Physical disabilities among learners
9&10 Human Memory  Definition 3

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  Forms/Types
 Levels

11 Forgetting  Theories 3
 Improving Memory
 Implications To Teachers
12 Transfer Of Learning  Definition 3
 Forms/Levels
 Cases/Types
 Theories
 Implications To Teachers
Course Work Two
13 Attention, Emotions  Theories Of Attention, 3
and Learning  Factors Affecting Attention Of
Learners
 Implications To Teacher Attention Of
Learners
 Emotions of Learners and How This
Affects Learning

14 Motivation  Definition of Motivation, 3

 Theories of motivation
 Implications to teachers
15 Effective, emotions  Discipline in schools 3
and management  Approaches to maintaining Discipline
 Implications for teachers
16 Examination 3

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MODE OF DELIVERY: Lecture, Tutorials, Demonstrations, Case Studies, Projects,
Discussions, brainstorming.
COURSE EVALUATION.
Students will be required to do at least one course works and one invigilated test, which
will contribute 40% of their total mark. They will also be required to write an
examination, which will contribute 60% but for one to pass, he/she must score at least
50%.
KEY REFERENCES
Aggarwal J.C (2010). Essentials of Educational Psychology. 5th Ed,
Aggarwal, J.C (2017). Psychology of Learning and Development. Vikas Publishing
House: New Delhi India.
Kuppuswamy, B. (2013). Advanced Educational Psychology. Sterling Publishers Private
Limited: New Delhi.
Sharma R.N. (2010) Educational Psychology. Surjeet Publications: Delhi.
Wood, S. E; Wood, G, E and Boyd, D (2011). The World of Psychology. 7th Ed. Allyn
&Bacon Publishers: Boston, USA.
Woolfolk, A.E. (2011). Educational Psychology. Derling Kinderslay Publsihers, India.

MEANING AND NATURE OF LEARNING

Learning is the process by which an individual acquires knowledge, attitudes and skills
that are necessary to meet the demands of life. While touching a burning candle, a child
gets burnt and he withdraws the fingers. When he faces a similar situation again he
withdraws his fingers faster. Gradually he learns to avoid not only the burning candle but
also other burning things. The behaviour of an individual is thus changed through
experiences. This change in behaviour brought about by experiences is commonly known
as learning.

Thus, Learning means change in behaviour or behaviour potential that occurs as a result

of experience. Learning can result from both indirect and direct experiences.
Vicarious/indirect means observing someone and learning from that observation and not

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being directly involved in the experience. For example, a child learns how to clap hands
by seeing someone else do it. Learning also takes place through direct experiences. For
example, a child learns to write by practicing writing. A child normally learns from his
parents, teachers and the environment.

Definitions of Learning:
 Gardener Murphy: “The term learning covers every modification in behaviour
to meet environmental requirements.”
 Henry P. Smith: “Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the
strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience.”
  Crow & crow: “Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge & attitudes. It
involves new ways of doing things and it operates in individuals attempts to
overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It represents progressive
changes in behaviour. It enables him to satisfy interests to attain goals.

 Aggarwal, (2017) articulation that human beings are dominant by learning as

their life activities. Here, he means that there is learning everywhere. Everything
we do, there is an element of learning. However, learning cannot be defined in a
single way/ manner.
 Woolfolk, (2011) defines learning as “an enduring change in behaviour”
something that lasts/ takes time. If we accept to learn we must create change. To
teach is to create change in people.
 Wood, Wood and Boyd (2011) on the other hand, believes that learning is “a
modification in behaviour”. The learner must not remain the same.
 Dennis, (2008) believes that learning is “a change in behavior as a result of an
experience” Being used to it.

From the above definitions, learning seems to imply 3 basic ideas;

1. There is a change in behavior “you behave as if you have gone to school”. The
village has not come out of you. Learning must differentiate us from others.

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 Learning is not seem only in school, young people but also in other types e.g.
driving, social behavioral change etc.
2. There is acquisition of information, knowledge, skills and attitudes.
3. There is capability of doing something (Actions).

NATURE OF LEARNING
1. Learning is Universal. Every creature that lives learns. Man learns most. The human
nervous system is very complex, so are human reactions and so are human acquisition.
Positive learning vital for children’s growth and development.
2. Learning is through Experience. Learning always involves some kind of experience,
direct or indirect (vicarious).
3. Learning is from all Sides: Today learning is from all sides. Children learn from
parents, teachers, environment, nature, media etc.
4. Learning is Continuous. It denotes the lifelong nature of learning. Every day new
situations are faced and the individual has to bring essential changes in his style of
behaviour adopted to tackle them. Learning is birth to death.
5. It results in Change in Behaviour. It is a change of behaviour influenced by previous
behaviour. It is any activity that leaves a more or less permanent effect on later activity.
6. Learning is an Adjustment. Learning helps the individual to adjust himself
adequately to the new situations. Most learning in children consists in modifying,
adapting, and developing their original nature. In later life the individuals acquire new
forms of behaviour.
7. It comes about as a result of practice. It is the basis of drill and practice. It has been
proven that students learn best and retain information longer when they have meaningful
practice and repetition. Every time practice occurs, learning continues.
8. Learning is a relatively Permanent Change. After a rat wake up from his nap he still
remembers the path to the food. Even if you have been on a bicycle for years, in just a
few minutes practice you can be quite proficient again.

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9. Learning as Growth and Development. It is never ending growth and development.
At reach stage the learner acquires new visions of his future growth and news ideals of
achievement in the direction of his effort. According to Woodworth, “All activity can be
called learning so far as it develops the individual.”
10. Learning is not directly observable. The only way to study learning is through some
observable behaviour. Actually, we cannot observe learning; we see only what precedes
performance, the performance itself, and the consequences of performance.

ELEMENTS OF LEARNING
The definition of learning implies that learning is invisible. It can be made visible by
translating it from human activities or performance e.g. answering questions in class,
dividing on the road, passing exams/ exercise (Evaluation)

3 major interact to bring about learning stimulus.

Stimulus (s)

1. The source of learning where is learning coming from? Teacher or facilitation or

organizer, must be a model.
2. Organism (O) Receive of learning or recipient (student/learner/listener)
3. Response (R) the product/ outcome of learning, performance etc.

The 3 work hand in hand to bring out on effective learning. Therefore learning can be
defined as an S .O. R relationship.

There are three other elements which are important;

1. Content –subject matter; information, message, knowledge, skills etc. Correct content
leads to successful learning and Vice versa. They MUST pass on the correct content.

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2. Process- How the content is organized by the (S) method –From known to the
unknown. Strategies, techniques, field work, Discussion, must be interesting and keeps in
memory.
3. Milieu- environment

THEORIES OF LEARNING
Behavioral Theories of Learning.
Behaviorism, is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviors are
acquired through conditioning (a behavioral process whereby a response becomes more
frequent or more predictable in a given environment as a result of reinforcement, with
reinforcement typically being a stimulus or reward for a desired response). Conditioning
occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe
that learning occurs when new behaviors or changes in behaviors are acquired through
associations between stimuli and responses.

Example of behavioral theory of learning include;

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY (IVAN PAVLOV)

Pavlov (1849- 1936) was a Russian psychologist who extensively studied about digestion
in animals. In 1904 in his laboratory, he noticed that dogs tend to salivate at the site of an
attendant or on hearing the footsteps of the attendant. In 1927 he continued with more
experiments. He placed a dog in a room for several hours until it became Hungry.

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 In the first step of the experiment, a dog was placed in a box and harnessed. The
dog was left in the box along for a while, and the process was repeated certain
number of times on different days. In the second phase, a bell was ranged and
food was served to the dog immediately after that. The dog was allowed to eat the
food without any hassle. The routine was continued for a few days. A bell was
ranged and the dog was immediately served with food (meat powder).

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 During the first few trials, the dog salivated at the sight of meat. The dog did not
show any response towards the sound of the bell, but continued to salivate after
the food was present.
 After a number of such trials were conducted, a test trial was introduced with
everything same as the previous trials, except that no food was presented
following the sound of the bell. It was then seen that the dog still continued to
salivate at the sound of the bell, expecting the presentation of food. This happened
because the dog had connected the sound of the bell with the presentation of food.
This salivation between the bell and food resulted in acquisition of a new
response by the dog, i.e. salivation to the sound of the bell. This has been termed
as conditioning.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Classical conditioning is be affected by different factors which include;

(a) For conditioning to occur the US must be distinctive (strong). - Food, meat
(b) The order of pairing the 2 stimuli is important. It is best when the neutral stimulus
is presented.
(c) The time lapse between NS and US also matters. It is best when the time lapse is
small.
(d) Repeated pairing brings about a stronger conditioning.

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 (e) Conditioning involves excitatory and inhibitory processes. Excitatory processes
tend to increase the intensity of conditioning (C.R). While the inhibitory
processes tend to reduce the intensity. Inhibitory processes may involve external
inhibition. External inhibition occurs when an outside agent factor interferes with
the conditioned stimulus (C.S) e.g. noise when food is being presented. Internal
inhibition may occur as a result of the non-pairing.

PRINCIPLES /LAWS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

From Pavlov’s paradigm several principles can be generated and these include;
(a) Contiguity Principle. Two stimuli that are paired together repeatedly will tend /
become conditioned or associated such that the onetime original neutral stimulus
begins to elicit US. Contiguity can be in very many forms which include;
 Simultaneous conditioning - The conditioned stimulus and the US are
presented together.
 Trace conditioning - CS is presented and ends before the US is presented
(time factor)
 Delay conditioning – CS is presented and continues as the US is also
presented. (prolonged CS)
(b) Stimulus generalization. After conditioning has occurred similarity is created
between 2 or 3 stimuli. Therefore there is a tendency to respond in the same way
to both stimuli e.g. hatred of Math and Physics.
(c) Stimulus discrimination. Once conditioning has occurred, similarity has been
created therefore those stimuli which are not similar are different. Therefore there
is a tendency to respond in different way to those other stimuli.
(d) Extinction. It suggests that when the CS is repeatedly presented a lone without
US there is a tendency for the response from the stimulus to gradually reduce until
it completely stops. (Neurosis) Eventually salivation stops.

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 (e) Reinforcement. By pairing the CS with the US the CS is capable of generating a
lot of response therefore the pairing acts as a reinforcement which increases
responses.
(f) Spontaneous Recovery. After response has stopped because of neurosis the
response may again rise if the pairing is again done between US and CS.
(g) Higher order conditioning. Once conditioning has occurred due to pairing, the US
becomes a conditioning agent to other stimuli.
(h) Counter – conditioning. Two stimuli can become conditioned even if they were
initially eliciting different strong responses on their own.

IMPLICATIONS TO EDUCATION
 Repeating of lessons is very necessary ( Revision)
 The teacher is a conditioning agent who can influence the learning.
 The learning situation is full of conflicting and competing stimuli through which
conditioning can occur
 Future complex behaviors can from simple conditioning.
 There is need for reinforcement in the learning process.
 The learning process should begin with the familiar and move to the unfamiliar
(known –unknown).

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 COGNITIVE THEORIES OF LEARNING
The dictionary defines cognition as the ability to know/ understand. Therefore
cognitive theories of learning emphasize the role of knowledge thinking and
understanding. The theories therefore believe that learning can’t be merely explained on
observable behavior because other outcomes are latent. They emphasize;

(a) The active role of the organism or learner in the learning process.
(b) Factors within the organism –the quality of the learner e.g. I.Q, interest,
maturation, Health status etc.
(c) The learner has the capacity to - control learning. – asking questions,
practical’s, demonstrations, discussions etc.
(d) How learning occurs rather than where and what learning takes place. (Process)
e.g. use of humor, illustrations examples.
 The theories also recognize that there is a tendency for a person to know something
better than others. Inter and Intra differences. (Canalization) e.g. doing History
better than Math, in a topic etc.
 The cognitivist’s stress that meaningful learning involves an understanding of facts,
principles as well as the relationship between tem (Our learning should help
people describe and explain).
 Cognitivists believe that the organism is adaptive and can organize subsequent
responses in light of previous experiences. (Response hierarchy) Your past
learning influences your future learning e.g. being burnt by a stove at one, you
will always fear it. Therefore what one learns in the present circumstance depends
on what one already knows. Learning is an interaction.
 Cognitivists say that a stimulus does not occur in a single Isolation but in
competition with others which can either improve or hamper learning e.g. music
in another room, teacher’s dressing, (deter/ change or attract the attention of
students from studying)

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THE GESTALT THEORY OF LEARNING (INSIGHT)
The gestalt theory derives its meaning from a German word Gestalten which means re-
organization or restructuring, configuration or patterns. The Gestalt theory originated in
German developed by 3 German Psychologists in 1912, led by Max Wertheimer 1880-
1943, Kurt Koffka 1886-1941, Wolf gong Kohler 1887- 1967. In the 1920’s they all
migrated to the USA to escape Nazism.

In 1925 they set on a tour to W.Africa especially Kalihari Islands. On Tananarif rife
Island They conducted several experiments using animals to find out how their minds
operate. They also conducted another experiment with Sultan the Chimpanzee. Sultan
was placed in a room in which a bunch of ripe Bananas was hanging from the ceiling.
There were short pieces of sticks scattered in the room and a rope lying in one corner as
well as a stool in another corner. When sultan becomes Hungry h tried many times to
reach the Banana nut failed. (Trial and Error does not work). So sultan stopped sat down
4 some time and pondered over the situation (thinking is now coming in). Suddenly he
saw/ realized that he could use other objects in the room. So he collected the sticks pilled
them together to get one long stick. He brought the Stoll under the Banana stepped on it
and got the Banana. Therefore the solution to the problem had been attained due to
thinking or restructuring the mind.

This restructuring of the mind is called gestalt/ insight. The next time the same
experiment was conducted with a Banana hanging on a tree outside. Sultan was able to
collect the materials near the tree to get the Banana. The mind was now reorganized
about the problem. Therefore the gestalt theory means the process to restructure the
minds in order to solve the problem. Thus comes about through thinking perception and
sensation. Therefore one becomes able to perceive the elements of a situation and the
relation that existed between them and the problem situation.

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Illustration

Experiment – 1
1. Chimpanzee sultan inside a cage or a box.
2. Chimpanzee jump to reach the banana which was hang from the roof of the cage.
3. Not succeed.
4. Used the box as a jumping platform by placing it just below the hanging banana.
5. Got success.
Experiment – 2
1. Chimpanzee inside a cage & two or three box required.
2. To reach the banana specific arrangement of box were required.

Experiment – 3
1. Chimpanzee inside the cage & two sticks one
longer than the other were placed inside the
cage.
2. Chimpanzee took one after the another stick to
picked banana. Not succeed as banana was
placed outside the cage.
3. One stick has hollow end so that other stick
could thrust into it to form a longer stick.
4. Suddenly he joined two sticks together &
reached the banana.

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Experiment demonstrate role of intelligence & cognitive abilities in higher learning
(Problem solving).
Thus to react intelligently
1. Identify the problem.
2. Organize their perceptual field
3. Use insight to reach solution
Perceived situation as a whole. Perceptual field is properly organized. Problem can be
solve through flashes of insight.
Example: A student may suddenly discover that in 9’s table, the sum of the digits in the
answer is always 9.
9 X 5 = 45, 4 + 5 = 9 etc.
Learning of a new meaningful relationship is a result of insightful learning.

Insight learning therefore suggests the following;

(i) Learning occurs by re-arranging of ideas into patterns.

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(ii)Learning is purposive (not by trial and error). Exploitative, imaginative and creative
enterprise (reflective thinking).
(iii) Learning comes about only when there is perception which brings about awareness
of the elements of the problem situation and a meaningful pattern.
(iv) Transition between pre-solution is smooth (because the idea comes once and is
straight) and free of errors and the solution lasts for a long time.
(v) Solution to a problem is reached through stages which include;

1. Familiarity –identifying the elements of problem situation

2. Enumeration – generating possible solutions.
3. Identifying select the most valid solution
4. Action – put into use the solution identified
5. Verification – Evaluate/ Examine the action
6. Incubation –rest and review the problem.
Laws/ Principles
The basic laws that have been generated from Gestalt theories have been as follows;
(a) Figure on ground. The figure is the dominant issue and the ground is the . The law
suggests that in any situation some elements are outstanding (figures) than others.
(b) Proximity / Nearness. This law suggests that the stimuli close to each other tend to be
perceived together than those that are far.
(c) Similarity – stimuli that appear to be similar tend to be easily perceived than those
which are not.
(d) Pragnanz. This principle states that every event has the potential of being meaningful
and stable when the state of equilibrium exists. If there is
Disequilibrium the problem occurs to which a solution must be obtained e.g. hunger in
the case of Sultan the Chimpanzee.
(e) The closure principle. There is a tendency for a person who is involved in thinking to
complete the incomplete experiences.
(f) Continuity/ Simplicity. We tend to perceive those things that appear to be moving/
complete more than those which are not moving e.g. swinging Banana.

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APPLICATION OF COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY IN CLASS

1. Asking students to reflect on their experience

2. Helping students find new solutions to problems
3. Encouraging discussions about what is being taught
4. Helping students explore and understand how ideas are connected
5. Asking students to justify and explain their thinking
6. Using visualizations to improve students’ understanding and recall

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SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
The social learning theory was developed in 1920’s by Miller, Dotard and Waller’s
where their interest was on socialization i.e. how behaviors can be controlled, with in a
society. Later on, in the 1960’s Bandura become influenced by these people’s ideas so
much that he become extensively involved. Bandura is a Canadian Psychologist who was
born in 1925 in Alberta and obtained his PHD in clinical Psychology at Lowe University.
He is currently a Professor of Psychology in Stanford University.

In 1963, he explored more about socialization using an experiment with children exposed
to different experiences. Child A was exposed to adults who treated the doll roughly.
Child B was exposed to adults who handled the doll very kindly. Then child C was not
exposed to parents handling a doll. After this, he observed the behavior of these children
and he noticed that the children started to behave in a similar way that the adults they
observed behaved. He therefore concluded that much of the behaviors of children are a
result of what they observed hence observational learning.

In observational learning therefore the behaviors are determined from the social context.
E.g. In speaking, dressing, punctuality, etc. Therefore, observational learning is based on
behaviors which are dominant in society and are accepted/ cherished by most of the
people. Observational learning depends on the object of interest model. Bandura’s theory
also recognizes the importance of the interaction between behavioral learning and
cognitive learning. The theory therefore, emphasizes the importance of reciprocal
interaction (triadic) interaction in which the 3 elements of learning, stimulus, organism
and response stimulate each other.

The theory also recognizes that the environment and reinforcement values can reinforce
the expected belief of students of what they think they can do- self efficacy. Therefore
Bandura’s theory acknowledges that a lot of learning by the student is a result of coping
behavior of which they enjoy or drive pleasure
- Modeling or imitation (intrinsic satisfaction)

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It can also be based on behaviors which are seem rewarding which they then copy-
Vicarious learning (extrinsic satisfaction) Vicarious learning also operates on the
principle that bad behavior should be punished e.g. one getting drunk and urinating on
him/ herself during day time and he ends up stopping drinking. Observational learning
theory highlights consequences of actions. O.L therefore is important because it
emphasizes the importance of what is observed. Bandura highlights that model can
strengthen/ weaken behavior, can serve as a social cue of behaviors. It can serve to draw
attention to certain things and it may increase emotional arousal.

Bandura categorizes models into 4 groups.

 Direct models –which are experienced in real forms/ live forms. The actual thing
you are (people/persons).

 Symbolic models – Human representations in either oral written forms. E.g.

T.V.’s , photos, Films, morals, Newspapers, Books etc.

 Abstract models –models which are represented by ideas/ slogans by powerful

people. E.g. king Solomon’s proverbs, a visitor is only for one day, Abraham
Lincoln’s Democratic ideas, Mbiti – I am because we are and we are because I
am.

 Synthetic models – A model which is created from one model to generate a new
action. E.g. Rastafarians from BOB Marley x- x1 –synthesized models. Models
can have an influence in our observation through several factors which include;

(a) Attention – Focusing interests on the features of the model. E.g.

distinctiveness, color, arousal level etc.
(b) Retention /Memory – Trying to bring back the features of the model into
visual / symbolic organization and rehearsal.
(c) Motivation – The tendency to feel happy/ satisfied by the model.

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 (d) Reproduction. The tendency to do something that will strengthen the
satisfaction of that model.
(e) Identification- Associating yourself with the model.
(f) Status of the model.- How capable the model is in changing the behavior
e.g. parents to children.

EFFECTS OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

Five aspects have been identified as very influential in behaviors of people.

1. Eliciting effects i.e. the tendency to induce a behavior which has peers observed
and seen pleasing/ rewarding therefore we start engaging in such a behavior.
2. Inhibitory effect- The tendency to stop a behavior which we have been engaging
in and have seen it being punished. E.g. the previous example of a drunkard
urinating on himself children being punished when they come late, etc.
3. Disinhibitory effect –The tendency to continue behaving according to the
behavior that has been observed because it is pleasing e.g. people who have been
to prison repeat similar crimes.
4. Ripple effect - The tendency for the observed behavior to spread to other people
and they practice it.
5. Response facilitation effect. Many behaviors are observed/ learned but are not
performed because of insufficient motivation rather than prohibition.

How to Incorporate Social Learning into the Classroom

 Attention and the Flipped Classroom
 Peers Teaching Peers and Peer Coaching
 Imitation through Real Plays
 Reinforcement and Motivation

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 HUMANISTIC THEORIES
Maslow, Rogers and Collaiz are the major advocates of Humanistic theories. They
generated their ideas out of observation, experience.

The theory places the importance of learning based on individual experience (the self)
e.g. interest, experience etc. The theories therefore believe in the following;

(a) People are free agents with their own choice, responsibility intention and
Autonomy.
(b) People are born with the inner restlessness to fulfill their potentials.(self-
actualization)
(c) People act in the environment on a purpose.
(d) People act best when their experiences help them.

THE SELF- ACTUALIZATION THEORY BY MASLOW ABRAHAM (1908-1970)

A Maslow has become the most reorganized human theorist. He spent a lot of time
studying his 1st child and came to conclusion that every human being has the full
potential to learn and people are not determine by the environment but by their
experiences.
The Self-actualization theory therefore, advocates the following;
(a) An individual has a full potential to learn
(b) The learner should want to learn and know how to learn and not what to learn
(motivation). There should be a reason.
(c) The learners should be exposed to a period of self-evaluation.
(d) The learner should be exposed to maximum Autonomy which is free from threat
(self-directing).

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Maslow advocates that people’s potential are based on needs which must be satisfied
therefore our learning is based on needs. These needs are hierarchical such that we
Endeavour to satisfy the lower level needs 1st before striving for higher level needs.
.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s theory of motivation is called the “hierarchy of needs”. Maslow believes that
people have five main needs in the following order of importance:-

- Lowest – physiological needs which are very essential for the survival and
welfare of the learner e.g. need for food, shelter, clothing, sleep, air etc.
- Safety needs – need 4 security, stability, Freedom from danger and psychological
threats.
- Social and belonging needs which involve the need for affiliation e.g. love,
friendship etc.
- Self-esteem needs which are the needs that relate to the person’s concept e.g. self-
confidence, self-perception, achievement and the need to be seen as a person
substance.
- Self-actualization needs which constitute the need for prestige and power in order
to satisfy one’s curiosity and prestige.

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Maslow’s theory emphasizes the fact that an individual has a desire to satisfy their needs
when there is a deficiency of such needs.
Maslow’s Basic Principles
(a) Self- direction –students should decide what they want.
(b) Self- initiating –students should grow or be helped to grow in desire to learn
(c) Self-Evaluation- children should be helped to examine themselves.
(d) Freedom / Autonomy –children should be exposed to a non- threatening condition.

IMPLICATIONS TO EDUCATION

Maslow’s theory can help us in the following ways;

(a) Learning should be conducted according to the needs of the people. E.g. ABEK.
(b) The earning situation and the learner should not be under heavy confinement but
should allow the child to explore on their own.
(c) Learning environment should be made conducive.
(d) The teacher should help students to make wider choices in order to avoid future
frustration.

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 HUMAN MEMORY AND FORGETTING

 Human Memory is the means by which we draw on our past experiences in order
to use this information in the present' (Sternberg, 2019). Memory is the term
given to the structures and processes involved in the storage and subsequent
retrieval of information. Memory is essential to all our lives
 Memory is the process of maintaining information over time.” (Matlin, 2005)

Taxonomies of Memory
 Iconic memory –learning by seeing Echoic – what we hear
 Episodic -Events
 Semantic - meanings of what we learn
 Declarative - memory of facts
 Procedural - how certain things are done.

There are 3 important forces that are necessary in bringing about memory.

(a) Encoding –ability to organize information into easier, meaningful stood by the
receiver. The encoding of the stimulus. It is therefore, based on the principle of
pedagogy (how do I deliver? Teach?) Encoding may involve clarity, simplicity,
correctness and relevance.
(b) Storage. The ability to keep the information obtained in a safe place so that it can
be accessed when needed. Storage therefore, implies the role of the organism
through such processes like attention, rehearsal, practice, elaboration, and
churching.
(c) Retrieval. The ability to access the stored information to be used where it is
needed. Retrieval therefore, relates to the importance of qualitative and
quantitative enrichment of the message, distortion, refinement and availability.
E.g. in exams.

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Atkinson and Schifrin developed a model which express that memory has got 3 levels.

The stimuli from the environment (voices, sound, and light) is received by the sensory
memory which represents the organism and the learning process. The sensory Memory is
very brief and can accommodate small quantities of information. While a lot of
information is lost some of it is directed to the short memory.

The Short Term Memory receives the information and starts processing it. It is the
working /Active memory because the organism is active and conscious of the
information. It represents the organism and conditions around it. The information is in
small quantities and must be well practiced. Information which is very important is
directed to the Long Term Memory.

The Long Term Memory represents the life experiences of the organism. Therefore, the
information is stored in large quantities for a long time but passive. The information in
LTM is either qualitative or quantitatively improved or it becomes distorted and fades
off. When that information is needed it has to find its way back to S.T.M (retrieval).

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AMNESIA/FORGETTING
 Amnesia is the tendency to forget what we learn. Memory and Amnesia are
therefore on a single continuum where one replaces another one.
 Forgetting or disremembering is the apparent loss or modification of information
already encoded and stored in an individual's short or long-term memory. It is a
spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled
from memory storage

THEORIES OF FORGETTING

1. The Decay theory (Atrophy, Spontaneous) Forgetting is a result of time factor.

This is affected by the serial or primary recency principle. This is because of lack
of practice (rehearsal).
2. The interference theory. Jenkins (1974) Dallen back (1976) Events that occur
around the learning process can lead to forgetting. The interference may be pro-
active i.e. before the lesson or Retro-active- after the lesson or during the lesson.
3. The Retrieval Theory. Murray. The difficulty to access stored information. This
usually depends on the conditions within the learner e.g. fatigue, sickness,
depression, I.Q, anxiety etc.
4. Repressive theory Maslow, care Rogers (1970) we tend to become motivated to
forget. Motivated or international forgetting. The theory focuses on the
perceptions of the organism about the content learnt in terms of the relevancy,
pleasantness, difficulty level etc.
5. Source Amnesia (Systematic Partial Forgetting)
6. This is a situation in which we may learn something but forget where we learnt it
e.g. meeting someone you have ever seen but you can’t remember where;
Remember part (a) of the question and you forget part (b)

26
 HOW TO IMPROVE MEMORY
- Practice –doing and repeating our activities. It can be massed practice ( a lot of
information) or distributed practice.
- Mnemonics –A technique designed to make long information short because
Mnemonics can be in different forms namely; Acronym, verbal mediation, peg
word and Loci.
- Imagery –Ability to form mental pictures in the mind. (use of T/Aids)
- Advanced organizers, - Early preparations before the learning process –Reading
etc.
- SQ 3 R – S- Survey, Q-question 3 R- Read, Recite and Review.

IMPLICATIONS TO EDUCATION
Source Amnesia is the other side of Memory and nobody is potentially happy about
forgetting the major role of teacher therefore, is to refuse forgetting by increasing
memory and motivation. Therefore, the strategies for reducing Amnesia are same as those
of increasing memory e.g. participatory learning, use of teaching Aids, practice etc.

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TRANSFER OF LEARNING
The concept of transfer of knowledge implies that learners should respond adaptively to
new situations by applying knowledge that they have acquired. Therefore, the concept
suggests the importance of meaningful and practice learning. Therefore are 2 basic types
of transfer namely;

- Positive transfer which suggests that learning in the previous situation facilitates
learning in the new situation. E.g. Knowledge Graphs in Math can be used in
Geography.
- Negative transfer on the other hand is a situation in which learning in the previous
stages hinders learning in the present situation. E.g. Science 0 + 0 = 0 Zygote,
Religion – God created man.

Other forms of transfers can be reflected as pro-active transfer in which previous learning
affects subsequent learning while in retro-active transfer in where current learning can
affect previous learning.
- Transfer can also be lateral in which the relationship is at the same level. From
one subject to another at the same level.
- Sequential – in which the relationship is one after the other.
- Vertical – the relationship occurs from one level to another e.g. knowledge in S.4
can help you in S.6.
Travers still articulates that there are many cases of transfers of learning which he calls;
(a) Stimulus generalization – tendency to transfer ideas and understanding from one
situation to another which are similar e.g. the knowledge about the animal dog to
any other animal.
(b) Semantic generalization transfer.
The tendency to transfer ideas and understanding from one stimulus to another with
similar meanings. E.g. Boat and ship girl and Woman.

28
(c) Response generalization transfer. This suggests the tendency to transfer ideas and
understanding from one stimulus to another that tend to create similar response.
E.g. a gun and a soldier, lightning and thunder.
(d) Transposition phenomena transfer knowledge and ideas from one stimulus to
another which are not the same. E.g. A priest at a Bar – definitely he is spoilt.

THEORIES OF TRANSFER OF LEARNING

1. The Hypothesis Theory- This theory suggests that when a person is confronted
with a problem one first makes a decision concerning the kind of a problem.
There after the person decides how to go about the problem. Therefore, the theory
believes that transfer of knowledge occurs 1st when we can 1st identify the nature
of the problem and then begin to see what. One uses previous experiences to help
him in the situation e.g. if a car is not starting one decides if the problem is fuel or
battery. Therefore, if the solution is not the one then you move to other solutions.
2. Mental discipline theory-this theory suggests that the mind consists of several
abilities which can be trained by learning certain subject matter. Therefore one
can use knowledge obtained from one end to other areas which are relevant or
related.
3. The identical elements theory Thorndike this theory suggests that transfer of
knowledge can occur from one area to another if the elements of one situation
duplicate those to which knowledge is to be transferred.
4. Generalizing principle- Ausubel. The theory suggests that people can extract
understanding of what they have learnt and apply it to many new situations. E.g.
In politics.

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Transfer of learning refers to the influence of past learning on current and future learning
and to the application or adaptation of previous or current learning to similar or novel
situations (Haskell, 2001). Since virtually all learning involves connecting past learning
to new situations, all transfer, therefore, involves transfer of learning.
However, because nothing ever recurs in exactly identical ways or in exactly
identical contexts, the fundamental problem in transfer involves perceiving when and
how something is identical to or equivalent to something else. Haskell perceives other
problems that plague our understanding of transfer: the need to differentiate between
levels of transfer and kinds of transfer and the need to develop taxonomy for each.
Accordingly, both of Haskell’s taxonomies of learning will be described below.
Levels of Transfer of learning
Haskell's (2001) taxonomy for levels of transfer- a system of classification directly
reflecting six precise degrees of similarity-has generally been absent in the transfer
literature. Each level of transfer withing this taxonomy, therefore, adds greater specificity
when judging the impact of connecting past learning to new situations.
Level 1: Nonspecific transfer
Nonspecific transfer implies that all learning essentially is transfer of learning because all
learning is dependent upon being connected to past learning. This level of transfer,
though true and thoroughly necessary, is perhaps unimportant in light of daily experience
of transfer.
Level 2: Application transfer
Application transfer refers to the application of what we have learned to specific
situations. For example, after having learned about computer programming, we are then
able to genuinely apply this knowledge to actually program a computer.
Level 3: Context transfer
Context transfer, in contrast, refers to the application of what we have learned under
slightly different situations. A lack of transfer may occur if the context changes, even if
the learned task itself does not change. We experience this type of transfer when “place
learning” plays a central role in learning because learning may be retrieved due to cues

30
being provided by the physical place itself. For example, some of us have failed to
recognize someone even though they may be staring at us.
Level 4: Near transfer
Near transfer occurs when we transfer previous knowledge to new situations closely
similar to, yet not identical to, initial situations. Transferring our experiences associated
with driving a car with a manual transmission to driving a truck with a manual
transmission reflects an example of near procedural transfer.
Level 5: Far transfer
Far transfer entails the application of learning to situations entirely dissimilar to the initial
learning. This level of transfer of learning reflects analogical reasoning. For example,
learning about logarithms in algebra and applying this knowledge in assessing the growth
of bacteria in microbiology.
Level 6: Displacement or creative transfer
Displacement or creative transfer results in the creation of a new concept because of the
interaction of the newly perceived similarity between the new and the old. This type of
transfer of learning involves more than the mere insight that something is similar to
something else. For example, the effects of the downward pull of the earth’s uniform
gravitational field that we experience while standing on earth is equivalent to the effects
that we experience while standing in an elevator that is accelerating upwards at precisely
the right rate. This transfer of learning, that acceleration and gravity is actually the same
thing, refers to the Principle of Equivalence—a basic postulate of

KINDS OF TRANSFER
Haskell’s (2001) taxonomy for kinds of transfer implies that types of transfer may be
classified into two categories:
(1) What type of knowledge is the transfer predicated on?
(2) What specific kind of transfer is involved?
Transfer based on types of knowledge
According to Haskell’s (2001) first category of kinds transfer is classified based on the
type of knowledge involved i.e. declarative, procedural, strategic, conditional, and

31
theoretical knowledge. First four types are typically mentioned by psychologist working
with cognition and instruction while fifth one is added by Haskell.
1. Declarative knowledge essentially is the knowledge of or about anything. For example,
a person either knows or does not know about perfectly black body.
 
2. Procedural knowledge is basically how-to knowledge. For example, successfully
identifying a computer does not guarantee that we know how to program it.
 
3. Strategic knowledge involves knowledge of our own cognitive processes, including
how learning and memory develop. It occurs quintessentially when we self-monitor our
progress during any learning attempt.
 
4. Conditional knowledge is knowledge of or awareness of when our knowledge may be
applied in ways that are context-appropriate.
 
5. Theoretical knowledge consists of our understanding of various explanatory
connections regarding phenomena, cause and effect, and in-depth level relationships.
Although the five types of knowledge are frequently difficult in practice to separate,
Haskell (2001) offers several reasons to support his statement that declarative knowledge
is the most crucial type for successful transfer: (a) declarative knowledge establishes the
preconditions essential for the other four types; (b) the other four are either directly
generated by or included in it; (c) a general framework for the assimilation of additional
detailed new information is provided by it; (d) the elaboration of new information is
frequently facilitated by it; and (e) helpful mental models to aid in grasping new
information is often provided by it.
 
Transfer based on kinds of transfer
Haskell’s (2001) second category for classifying kinds of transfer is predicated on the
specific kind of transfer. According to Haskell, we should not infer that any of these
fourteen specific kinds of transfer are inevitably mutually exclusive:

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1. Content-to-content transfer, or declarative-to-declarative transfer, occurs when a
person utilizes knowledge in one subject area in order to learn another area. More
specifically, this kind of transfer implies two things: existing knowledge in a content area
may expedite or interfere with routine learning, and new knowledge may be learned that
is somewhat different from what was originally learned. Knowledge about triangles,
squares, and circles from geometry, for example, can benefit one taking art classes.
2. Procedural-to-procedural transfer, or skill-to-skill transfer, involves a person applying
procedures learned in a specific skill area to another skill area. Procedures in this context
imply a sequence of actions. For example, skills derived from driving a car normally
transfers to driving a truck.
3. Declarative-to-procedural transfer helps a person to actually do something because a
person has learned something about whatever he/she wish to do. For example, knowledge
about various types of mushrooms enables a person to safely pick mushrooms in the wild.
4. Procedural-to-declarative transfer enables a person to acquire additional abstract
knowledge about an area when he/she already has practical experience in that area. For
example, practical experience in digging for fossils may help a person in learning
theoretical knowledge about paleontology.
5. Strategic transfer occurs when a person gains knowledge concerning his/her cognitive
processes, such as learning and memory, by monitoring their cognitive activities while
learning.
6. Conditional transfer enables a person to decide when his/her knowledge regarding
when to apply what in a specific context may be appropriate for being transferred to
another context. For example, knowledge about the basic trigonometric properties of
triangles may be appropriate for solving vector problems in physics.
7. Theoretical transfer occurs when a person is able to transfer his/her in-depth
understanding of cause and effect relationships in one area to another. For instance, a
spectrum produced by a prism and a rainbow produced by sunlight and raindrops are the
same.
8. General or nonspecific transfer enables a person’s past knowledge that is not specific
to a training situation to be transferred to additional situations despite there being no

33
conspicuous similarities between the past and the present situations. Knowledge about
vectors in calculus will help in understanding meteorology.
9. Literal transfer, a form of near transfer, entails the direct application of knowledge or
procedures in a novel learning situation.
10. Vertical transfer is required whenever learning necessitates prerequisite skills. For
example, skills at writing letters of the alphabet are useful to writing words.
11. Lateral transfer occurs when a person transfers past learning to the identical level in a
knowledge hierarchy. Using the skills associated with driving a car to learn how to drive
a truck is an example of lateral transfer.
12. Reverse transfer, or backward transfer, involves modifying or reviewing a person’s
schemata relative to his/her similarities to novel information. This type of transfer
essentially reverses the direction of how a person typically perceives process transfer. For
example, a student, confronted with a particular problem in economics, might specify its
general demands, examine her/his repertoire, and realize that calculus can benefit
her/him.
13. Proportional transfer basically is a more abstract type of transfer. Recognizing the
Golden Mean or Divine Proportion--the irrational number 1.618- -in the various growth
patterns of numerous things—for example, the spiral that shells form or the way a fern
curves is an example.
14. Relational transfer occurs when a person perceives two things to be sharing the same
structure, despite the lack of any underlying causal relationship. Mathematical analogies
are frequently used to illustrate this type of transfer. A bat’s wing and a whale’s flipper
are an example of what is referred to in biology as a homology, when two species’
external appearance correspond in form despite having different underlying causal
relationships.

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ROLE OF A TEACHER IN THE TRANSFER OF LEARNING PROCESS
 Questioning- plan higher order thinking and open ended questions in your lessons.
 Collaboration-Increase the opportunities your students have to collaborate with
each other. This helps to generate ideas and model thinking.
 Assessment-Do an audit of your assessments. Do they require students to think
conceptually and apply their knowledge to unfamiliar situations? If not, add some.
These should be your questions that score at the Advanced level.
 Reflection-What opportunities are your students given for reflection? What does
this look like in your class? Through the process of reflection students can have
epiphanies regarding concepts and skills. Make sure that the reflection process has
both a written and a communicative component.
 Project Based Learning-This process requires students to apply skills and
concepts to real world situations. It is one thing to be able to compute a
mathematical problem using the Pythagorean Theorem. It is at another level to
apply it in a concrete manner.
 Think Alouds-Model some examples of transfer for specific skills by doing a
Think Aloud. As you give the students one example ask them to generate another.

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The more you model, the more they will begin to understand how to think at this
level.

36
 ATTENTION AND EMOTIONS IN LEARNING

ATTENTION
 Attention is defined as the act of selective consciousness
 RossDumville defined Attention as the concentration of consciousness upon one
subject rather than another.
 Attention refers to how we actively process specific information in our
environment.
 Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the
environment while ignoring other things. Examples include listening carefully to
what someone is saying while ignoring other conversations in the room.
 Titchner “Attention is a state of sensory clearness with a margin and a focus. 
Attention is the aspect of consciousness that relates to the amount of effort
exerted in focusing on certain aspects of an experience, so that they become
relatively vivid”

CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTENTION

• Attention is focusing consciousness on one object. One object is the focus of attention.
All other objects are in the margin of attention. (Right now, what is the focus of your
attention? What objects are in the margin of your attention?)

• Attention is selective. We choose to attend to one object in preference to others.

• Attention is constantly shifting from focus to margin

• Attention is a state of preparedness where the muscles and sense organs ready
themselves for attending

• Attention cannot be divided between two mental tasks.

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 TYPES OF ATTENTION

• Voluntary attention: a person actively searches out information that has personal

Relevance

• Selective attention: a person selectively focuses attention on relevant information

• Involuntary attention: a person is exposed to something surprising, novel, threatening,

or unexpected- e.g.: surprise, movement, unusual sounds, size of stimulus,

Contrast effects and color

FACTORS INFLUENCING ATTENTION

 Motion: people are more likely to pay attention to an object with there is motion
involved. (Ormrod, 2008) example: Children are more drawn to toys that move
such as toy cars.
 Size: Objects or text that are larger gain more attention than normal or
small objects.  Example: Traffic signs are large and are usually in all capital
letters
 Intensity: Intense objects or text attract attention. Example: Bright colors attract
more attention than plain black text.
   Novelty: "Stimuli that are novel or unusual is some way tend to draw people's
attention."         (Ormrod, 2008, ) Example: A person will pay attention to a two-
headed goat before a one-headed goat, because a two-headed is not something
that a person see every day.
 Emotion: Words with strong emotional connections seem to gain more attention
than others. 
 Personal Significance:  A person is more likely to pay attention to a person or
concept that hold personal significance to them. Example: If a person has had a
family member or friend diagnosed with cancer, they are more likely to pay

38
 attention to a lecture about cancer, because they know how it could affect their
lives.
 Social cues: "People are more likely to pay attention to things they see others
looking at or reacting to." (Ormrod, 2008)Example: If you see a crowd of people
staring at something you will try to find out what the group is reacting to, its
human curiosity.  

THEORIES OF ATTENTION

Capacity Theory

According to capacity theory, we not only have a filter that manages sensory input from
multiple channels, but we also have limited attention capacity.

Initially, attention capacity increases as arousal increases. But at a certain point the
relationship changes and higher levels of arousal impede capacity and interfere with
performance.

Multimode Theory

In 1978, Johnston and Heinz proposed a broader model in the form of ‘multimode

theory,’ which viewed attention as a flexible system that allows selection of a message
over others at several different points. Later selection requires more processing, capacity,
and effort. It
further proposes that people's intentions and the demands of the task determine the
information processing stage at which information is selected.

Filter Theory/Selective Attention Theory

39
The term ‘selective attention’ means that we usually focus our attention on one or a few
tasks or events rather than on many. In 1958, Broadbent proposed his ‘filter
theory’ which specified that we could only attend to one stimulus at a time.

In the 1960’s, Anne Treisman proposed her ‘attenuation theory’ as a modification to the

filter theory. She suggested that rather than being fully blocked and discarded, unattended
signals are weakened and some information is retained for future use. 

IMPROVING ATTENTION

 Vary Instructional Strategies

Teachers should use a variety of instructional strategies and these should be changed
approximately every 15 to 20 minutes. For example, they could deliver information for
15 minutes via lecture. This strategy could be followed by small group work or
cooperative learning for 20 minutes. Next, students could engage in individual seatwork
or watch a video.

Use Signals

The teacher and parents should have a private way of signaling students when they are
tuned out. For example, a gentle tap on the shoulder may be effective. Also, the student's
teachers and parents may need to signal him when something important is about to be
stated. Looking right at him, his teacher or parent could say, "Now listen very carefully. I
am about to give you important instructions about tomorrow's test."

Include Physical Activity Kids who struggle with attention often do better if they are
given brief breaks for active play. Taking a break to bounce on an exercise ball, breaking
up learning into chunks, and outdoor play times, or providing a quick stretching or
jumping jacks break in the classroom, can all help the attention-challenged student stay
focused. Starting with 15 minutes of active play before a challenging task can also help a
child stay more engaged.

40
Have "Attention Breaks"

Teach the child or children what "paying attention" means and how it looks. Practice
attentive behavior in non-threatening, non-crucial times during the school day. Then, at
periodic intervals, have practice attention breaks. Using a timer or an app on the phone,
have a signal go off during the work period, and have the child mark whether he/she was
paying attention. This can help train a student's brain to understand what attention looks
like, and how often he/she is tempted to disengage.

Remove Visual Distractions

When a child is struggling with a difficult task, clutter in the classroom or on the desk can
make it impossible to keep his/her brain where it needs to be. Remove unnecessary
clutter and visual experiences from the workspace. This gives the child fewer excuses for
not focusing on the task at hand.

Play Memory Games

Memory isn't really a muscle, but it can help improve focus. Memory games help learners
so that they are able to concentrate when something challenging is presented. Have
regular times in the normal school day where the class plays memory games, or work
with the attention-challenged students outside of normal class time to play concentration
games. Add memory games to classroom electronics to encourage this type of play
during free time.

Break Tasks into Pieces

If these strategies don't work, look at the task itself. Can you break it into smaller
chunks? Have the child focus long enough to perform part of the task, then take a break,
coming back to the project to finish. Children with attention struggles may actually
perform the requested task faster with this strategy than if they simply tried to finish it all
in one sitting.

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 SIGNIFICANCE OF ATTENTION

• It arouses interest in learners to learn a particular thing.

• It increases efficiency of the learner
• It motivates learners to learn more
• It make the learners ready to learn
• It brings a state of alternates in learners for doing task
• It helps the learner to perceive events or ideas.

EMOTIONS

 A state of feeling that results in physical and psychological changes that influence

our behavior.
 "An emotion is a complex psychological state that involves three distinct
components: a subjective experience, a physiological response, and a behavioral
or expressive response."(Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2007)
 In psychology, emotion is often defined as a complex state of feeling that results
in physical and psychological changes that influence thought and behavior.
 Emotions are basic psychological systems regulating an individual’s adaptation
to personal and environmental demands. They are considered to be subjective
experiences and multidimensional constructs with affective, cognitive, expressive,
motivational and physiological components (Kleinginna & Kleinginna, 1981;
Scherer, 1984; Scherer, Schorr, & Johnstone, 2001). Emotions are closely related
to cognitive, behavioral, motivational and physiological processes, therefore they
are generally important for learning and achievement. They may initiate,
terminate or disrupt information processing and result in selective information
processing or they may organize recall (Pekrun, Götz, Titz, & Perry, 2002).

42
 THEORIES OF EMOTIONS

Evolutionary Theory of Emotion

Charles Darwin proposed that emotions evolved because they were adaptive and allowed
humans and animals to survive and reproduce. Feelings of love and affection lead people
to seek mates and reproduce. Feelings of fear compel people to either fight or flee the
source of danger. According to the evolutionary theory of emotion, our emotions exist
because they serve an adaptive role. Emotions motivate people to respond quickly to
stimuli in the environment, which helps improve the chances of success and survival.

The James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Proposed by psychologist William James and physiologist Carl Lange, the James-Lange

theory of emotion suggests that emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to
events. This theory suggests that when you see an external stimulus it leads to a
physiological reaction. Your emotional reaction is dependent upon how you interpret
those physical reactions. For example, suppose you are walking in the woods and you see
a snake, you begin to tremble, and your heart begins to race.

The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

This theory was proposed by Walter Cannon as a result of disagreed with the James-
Lange theory of emotion. First, he suggested, people can experience physiological
reactions linked to emotions without actually feeling those emotions. For example, your
heart might race because you have been exercising and not because you are afraid.

43
Cannon also suggested that emotional responses occur much too quickly for them to be
simply products of physical states. When you encounter a danger in the environment, you
will often feel afraid before you start to experience the physical symptoms associated
with fear such as shaking hands, rapid breathing, and a racing heart.

Schachter-Singer Theory

Also known as the two-factor theory of emotion, this theory suggests that the
physiological arousal occurs first, and then the individual must identify the reason for this
arousal to experience and label it as an emotion. A stimulus leads to a physiological
response that is then cognitively interpreted and labeled which results in an emotion

EFFECTS OF EMOTIONS ON LEARNING

The interpersonal effects include;

-Poor social judgment and social perception (e.g. on comparison with mates),
-Poor Emotional expression and experience (display and feeling rules within
instructions),
- Difficulty in creating, maintaining and dissolving social relationships (with
teachers and peers)
- Lack of Enjoyment and humor

Intrapersonal;
-Effects on one’s Cognitive Processing
-Memory
-Decision Making Being Influenced by Emotions
-Interpretation, Judgment and Reasoning
-Attention

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MANAGEMENT OF EMOTIONS IN THE TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS

 Keep class rules/activities simple and clear e.g. Be on time, try Your Best
 Reward positive behaviors
 Respect One Another
 Allow for mini-breaks
 Fair treatment for all
 Use motivational strategies- Celebrate their hard work, and praise their good
efforts consistently. 
 Exercising
 Applying Reason to Emotion
 Be patient and persevering

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 MOTIVATION PROCESSES IN LEARNING

Many Psychologists believe that motivation is the heart of Psychology and have
advocated for its importance e.g. personality –Apex, Motivation centre. Motivation
derives its name from a Latin word,”Mouveers” which means to move, push it is
therefore it’s therefore a hypothetical concept used plain why behaviours occur that way.

THE THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

1. The Drive –Reduction theory (Chull, Thorndike,)
PA Drive is a state of internal and seeks to maintain a balance (homeostasis) the theory
therefore, suggests that when one is deprived of an essential element of great need one
becomes energized to act to get that need. (Deficiency of a need).
2. The Incentive Theory (Murray, Cannon)
An incentive is an external reinforcer that exists in the environment that motivates us to
do something. Therefore the theory suggests that certain stimuli in the environment can
become during forces that attract us. Therefore we become attracted to such stimuli and
we become motivated to get them. E.g. the need for a recognized categorized certificate
attracts us to study.
3. Optimal level of a arousal theory (Murray 1958)
An arousal is the energy and the ability we develop. Therefore, the theory suggests that
we tend to become motivated to satisfy our own needs beyond the ordinary, up to the
maximum. The theory therefore, suggests that there is the optimal level of performance
which one always strives to achieve/ satisfy. Therefore once we have attained the
minimum we feel satisfied until we become motivated to leave it.
4. The attribution theory (Locus of Control) Rotter (1966)
An attribution is the interpretation of the causes of event around behaviour. These causes
can be internal or external. If one is controlled by internal attribution, one tends to be
motivated to act because it is possible to handle the situation.

46
 5. Self-efficacy is one’s judgment of one’s capacity to do something. The theory
therefore suggests that if we judge ourselves as having high capacity of doing
something we tend to become motivated to do so.
6. Social –learning theory. It emphasizes the importance of observed behaviours
which we intend to emulate. The theory therefore suggests that if we observe
behaviours which we feel are rewarding or satisfying, we tend to be motivated to
emulate such behaviours. On the other hand, if they observe certain behaviours
which are furnishing they tend to be motivated to avoid them.
7. The cognitive –dissonance theory (festinger 1957) A cognitive –dissonance is a
state of mental imbalance. The theory suggests that when we become aware that
we have acted contrary to expectations we tend to motivated to reduce it.

8. Achievement motivation (mclelend 1961)

The need to achieve. The theory suggests that we generate the need to achieve we
become motivated to seek pleasure and succeed, and to avoid failure or pain.

9. Self-actualization /hierarchical theory(maslow, 1960)

This is the desire to attain the highest. This theory suggests that we have needs which are
arranged in a hierarchical manner. Therefore, some needs are basic and should be met
before others. Therefore, we tend to be motivated to satisfy those needs that are of great
value to us more than others.

IMPLICATION IN EDUCATION

Torrance (1970) believes that teachers can foster intrinsic motivation in learners through
encountering incompleteness; having students produce something which can be used,
allowing students to ask questions etc.

- In the same way we believe that teachers can play a big role in fostering
motivation in learning in several ways;
(a) Creating a conducive learning environment by being friendly, using humor etc.

47
(b) Use local examples based on the students’ experiences to illustrate content.
(c) Use reinforcement which acts as an energizer to act/ believe towards a goal.
(d) Allow students to be active in the learning process.
(e) The teacher should be a good role model of learning activities. E.g. punctuality,
hard work, decent language, corrects English etc.
(f) Use relevant teaching strategies to the content.
(g) Teachers should enhance self-efficacy feeling in students.
(h) Teachers should relate content to the cognitive levels of students.

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