TOPIC 29: Analysis and articulation of discourse.

Cohesion and
coherence. Anaphora & Cataphora. Linking words & Deixis.
1. Discourse Analysis
● Discourse analysis – study of the language in communication (spoken or written)
● The definition is still in progress – unlike phonetics, grammar, semantics – the focus of
analysis depends on a certain context
● Discourse – the stretch of language consisting of several sentences related in some way
– a text is such a thing – stretch of meaningful & unified language
● Discourse – interpretation of text in a context to interpret relation between patterns in
language and conveyed meaning
2. A history of discourse
⮚ Firth (1957) language is meaningful according to the context of a situation, although
Bloom & Chomsky opposed to this, as phonological, semantic, & grammar concepts
are important too.
⮚ T-Mitchell (1957), in his article “Buying and Selling in Cyrenaica”, he introduced
semantics to study language, which is split into several stages regarding content in
everyday transactions; (1) salutation, (2) enquiry, (3) investigation, (4) bargaining, (5)
conclusion.
⮚ W.Lavob (1972), he compared the phonetic dimension of language to the organization
of texts in discourse. In this case, discourse is a functional unit consisting of single/cleft
sentences (shared knowledge).
⮚ J.Sinclair et al (1972) distinguished 2 categories; (1) phonemes & suprasegmentals, (2)
morphemes, clauses & sentences, (3) the structure of interaction. Lack of grammar
points out at the existence of discourse in 2 aspects (1) the context of a situation, (2)
tactics employed in the organization of the text.
3. The structure of discourse
a. Overall Organization
5 ranks are identified concerning discourse structure based on a normal classroom:
1) Lesson: no specific structure
2) Transactions: series of exchanges framed by markers (OK, well, right, now...)
3) Exchanges: refer to the exchange of info in terms of informing, directing &
eliciting. These are formed by moves (functional elements)
4) Moves; basic interactional units; (1) initiation, (2) response, (3) evaluation
5) Acts: minimal contributions to an exchange. Three major categories are identified:
a. Meta-interactive; (1) marker (framing function), (2) metastatement (focus
on the message & reason to write), (3) loop (goes back/forth to
previous/future content)
b. Interactive; (1) initiation moves (such as informative, directive, elicitation),
(2) response moves (acknowledge, react, reply), (3) follow-up moves
(accept, evaluate, comment)
 c. Turn-taking; (1) cue (verbal & non-verbal language), (2) bid (questions),
(3) nomination (reference to specific person)

b. The pattern of conversational discourse

A conversation always has three sequences (intro, topic discussion & closing sequence),
which are formed by exchanges & moves
a) Introductory sequence: 2 main functions; (1) framing moves (clue act, summons
& transition marks such as greeting, responding...) & (2) focusing moves
(metastatements to indicate the importance of message)
b) Topic sequence: aka the most important part of discourse, which is composed of
(1) opening moves, (2) supporting moves, (3) challenging moves (oppose opening
moves), (4) bound-opening moves (indicates the end of a section), (5) re-opening
moves
c) Closing sequence: characterized by passing turns, pre-closing signals, summaries
& evaluations, closing items
c. Adjacency pairs
● Conversational turn-taking procedures are prototypically formed by a sequence of
opening/responding moves, which belong to a pre-allocated exchange of systems
● Some pairs allow for alternatives in responding (aka seconds). This has resulted in the
coinage of the concepts preferred & dispreferred category (only in seconds), which
depend on the speaker’s perception of the message.
● Main features of seconds (in relation to the first move); (1) delays, (2) prefaces, (3)
appreciations, (4) apologies, (5) declination, (6) account
d. Variations
⮚ Insertion sequences: moves between the adjacency pairs that attempt to voluntarily
interrupt the structure of interaction
⮚ Side sequences: moves with extra information, usually marked by either verbal or
non-verbal signals
4. Coherence
● Successful interpretation of discourse
● The reader/listener’s ability to code/decode the encapsulated info in an exchange by
recognizing the roles of the utterances
● To achieve coherence = functional meaning (intention) + propositional meaning
(sentences).
● Texts are characterized by:
o Unity of structure; contextual configuration in so far as the field, the tenor &
the mode of discourse. These refer to (1) use of grammar to accomplish the
social process of language, (2) use of resources to keep up interaction, (3) the
use of textual resources & text organization, respectively.
o Unity of texture: speaker’s ability to perceive a coherent message in the web of
meanings therein embedded.
● Coherence is achieved by the items listed below (a-e)
 a. System constraints on communication
Goffman (1976) establishes a set of universal constraints on communication in lines of
system constraints (components in communicative systems) & ritual constraints (rules of
social interaction). The following charts summarizes them all:
a) Openings Summons-answer
Identification
Greeting
b) Closings Pre-closing signal/closing
c) Back-channel signals Verbal & non-verbal signals
d) Turnover signals Transition-relevance place such as slowing of
tempo, vowel elongation, falling intonation
e) Acoustically adequate & interpretable Environmental conditions + negotiation of
messages meaning
f) Bracket signals Non-verbal signs + side sequencers
g) Non-participants constraints Repetition, eye contact, hand waving
h) Preempt signals Verbal (eeeh) & non-verbal

b. Generic scripts
● Knowledge people have of the stereotypical structure of event sequences
● The structure is dependent on the set of actions in sequences to meet a certain goal
● Typical elements; Scenes, roles & props = generic outlines in memory to understand a
communicative event
c. The structure of speech events
Searle (1976) claims there are 4 types of speech acts according to speaker’s attitude
towards the prepositional content of the utterance:
1) Directive/commissive Expression of a desire concerning the action specified in the
preposition of the utterance. It can be for affirmation or
denial.

2) Representative/ Speakers decide if prepositional content is true/false and

declarative brings about a new state of being.

3) Expressive Speaker expresses statements of joy/disappointment

4) Evaluation Speaker expresses evaluation towards an action

● Although this theory is completely trustable, some problems have been detected, such
as (1) the overlapping of functions, (2) speakers’ varied intentions, (3) hierarchy
involvement.
● The effects of that theory have also touched upon language teaching in the change of
notional-functional syllabuses
d. Rhetorical genres
The organization of discourse shows TEMPLATES associated with a specific genre. Each
genre has a different structure, syntax, and certain flexibility in structuration
5. Cohesion
● Set of linguistic structures language has to link different parts of the text
● The sections of discourse are connected via cohesive devices, namely cohesive ties &
deictic markers
a. Cohesive ties
⮚ Reference: lexical items to establish textual references by means of grammar references
like (1) pronouns, (2) demonstratives, (3) comparatives.
● Co-reference = situational referents of lexical & grammar items are the same
● Source of interpretation = either co-textual (linguistic environment) or contextual
(extralinguistic environment)
● Co-text reference = endophoric. Two types; (1) anaphoric (ties to previous content),
& (2) cataphoric (ties pointing ahead in time)
● Outside co-text reference = exophoric = only it is possible through closer examination
of the context
⮚ Substitution: specific words are replaced by others. The referents are different but
belong to the sake class. It is used to create nominals, verbs groups & clauses
⮚ Ellipsis: essential structural elements are omitted, so it can only be recovered by
pointing at elements in preceding text. It’s a form of substitution in which the original
element is replaced by ZERO, and it occurs in nominal, verbal and clauses
⮚ Conjunction: connect clauses & help us interpret its relation. Some common types are
additives, adversatives, causal, temporal, logical, contrast, expansion….
⮚ Lexical Ties: relate words semantically in a text. Two main types; (1) reiteration
(repetition of words or use of synonyms), (2) collocation
b. Deictic markers
Deixis – deictic markers are used to allude to various referents, which help us locate actions
in a time frame, social relationships, objects in space, as well as parts in a text. There are 5
major types, which are to be encountered right below:
⮚ Person deixis: grammatical markers of participant roles in speech events.
⮚ Spatial Deixis: relation between the space & location of participants in discourse. It
distinguishes different degrees of proximity, while it could also refer to social
organization (a set of groups)
⮚ Time Deixis: time relative to the time of speaking
⮚ Spatial Deixis: keeping track of the references in discourse, which could be any of the
above
⮚ Social Deixis: coding of social relationships among speakers (honorifics, titles of
address, vocatives…). 2 types; (1) absolute deixis (social roles), (2) relational deixis
(locate people in relation to other people)