APPLIED ENGINEERING GEOLOGY (GEL 518)

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COURE CONTENT:
ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL MAPPING

SITE INVESTIGATION FOR BRODGES, ROADS, RESERVIORS, DAMS, UNDERGROUND MINES AND
TUNNELS.

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY OF THE URBAND ENVIRONMENTS

SEEPAGE PROBLEMS AND GROUND SUBSIDENCE ANALYSIS

GEOTECHNICAL LOGGING AND GROUTING TECHNIQUES

INTODUCTION:

Engineering geology is the application of the knowledge of geology to solving civil engineering

problems. Engineering geologists and geotechnical engineers are an integral part of the design

team for virtually all modern engineering projects that involve site characterization and

geotechnical design. Evaluation of alternative project sites or specific site selection usually

requires data collection, analysis and explanation of physical site conditions to other members

of a project design team. Because of the need to develop a mutual understanding of geologic

conditions and the resulting implications for design criteria, a common understanding of the

relationship between geologic origin and geotechnical properties is essential. It is imperative

that the geologist and engineer work in close cooperation to assure the best product quality

The purpose of engineering geology is to provide basic information for the planning of land- use

and for the planning, design, construction and maintenance of civil engineering works. Such

information is needed to assess the feasibility of the proposed land-use which will in turn assist
in the selection of the most appropriate type and method of construction, to ensure the

stability of a structure in its natural setting, as well as to aid in the performance of necessary

maintenance. Engineering geological research and mapping are therefore mainly directed

towards understanding the interrelationships between the geological environment and the

engineering structure; the nature and the geological relationships of individual geological

components; the active geodynamic processes and the prognosis of processes likely to result

from the changes being made.

TECHNIQUES FOR AQUIRING AND INTERPRETING ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL DATA

Engineering geological mapping has much in common with geological mapping as the purpose
of both types of mapping is to present information about the geological environment. From the
point of view of the civil engineer, one of the short comings of the conventional geological
maps is that rocks of different engineering properties may be grouped as a single unit because
they are of the same age origin.

REQUIREMENTE FOR ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL MAPPING

Simple rock names supplemented by selected descriptive terms are recommended for
engineering geological mapping practice. These terms are applied to both the rock material and
the rock mass, and should include a description of color, grain size, texture, structure,
discontinuities within the mass state of weathering, strength properties, permeability and other
terms indicating special engineering characteristics.

Adequate description of a rock or soil may require additional information including the dip and
strike, or the altitude of structures and discontinuities, the surface character of bedding planes
and other discontinuities, the variability of structures and discontinuities, the details of
weathering profile. Of particular importance is the estimation of the degree of isotropy and
homogeneity of the rock mass.

From the result of an engineering geological survey, the engineering geologist should be able to
produce a map on which units are defined by engineering properties. In general, the
boundaries of these rock units could be expected to follow lithological boundaries, but the
engineering property boundaries might well bear no relation to either geological structure or to
stratigraphical boundaries. An e.g could be where weathering has differentially affected various
rock types.

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES FOR ENGINEEING GEOLOGICAL MAPPING

1 .PHOTOGEOLOGY: Photo-interpretation is an important aid to engineering geological studies

because it provides a rapid, relatively cheap and precise method for the first appraisal of a large
area. The scale adopted is usually 1:10,000 to 1:30,000. It is important that the result be
supplemented by observations on the ground at selected localities. Although the method may
sometimes show features that cannot be detected on the ground, it may also miss important
subsurface information.

Difficulties may arise in the discrimination of rocks and soils but this may be overcome by the
analysis of the resultant landforms and by differences in tones of color on the photographs. The
structural elements of the terrain, such as bedding planes, faulting and jointing may be more
easily appreciated and mapped on stereo-pairs of vertical aerial photographs rather than on the
ground. Similarly, natural ponds, seepages, springs, swallow holes, and other hydrological and
hydrogeological features may be mapped. Variations in depth to water table and of the
weathered mantle may also be determinable.

Photo-intepretation can assist engineering geological studies in soil sampling, slope stability,
drainage and material survey, in groundwater studies, and in the selection of routes, and the
sites for reservoirs and dams. Stereoscopic ground photography can be used to study
engineering geological conditions in steep or inaccessible cliffs, and temporary exposures in
engineering excavations. New forms of imaging such as radar, microwave and infra-red lines
can are becoming available to the photogeologist.

2. GEOPHYSICAL METHODS: The techniques that is particularly used for engineering geological
studies are resistivity and seismic both on the surface and in boreholes. Geophysical methods
are important as they provide a rapid means of indirect and non destructive assessment of in-
situ conditions. They generally provide two classes of information:

I Determination of the depth to boundaries between rocks and soils of different physical
properties, or to the depth to water table, and position of vertical boundaries e.g faults
between rock types.

Ii Values for certain physical properties of rocks and soils and their variation over the map area.
Such properties may be correlatable with other properties of the rock mass, such as degree of
weathering or jointing which are of concern to the engineer.
The resistivity method is based on the measurement of electrical reitivity of the ground which I
dependent primarily on porosity, fracturing, degree of saturation and the salinity of the pore-
water. For the method to work effectively there must be a good contrast between physicsl
properties such as is provided, for e.g, by shatter zones of high porosity in igneous and
metamorphic rocks, and by weathered rock over-lying fresh basement rocks.

For the seismic method, density and modulus of deformation of rock and soil mass determine
the velocity of these materials. The refraction technique is used to determine depths to
different refracting horizons, for e.g rockhead or base of the weathering zone, and depends on
there being an increase in velocity of transmission with depth. The method is useful in
outlining areas of fractured or weathered rock, tracing marker horizons, and determining the
depth to bedrock surfaces particularly beneath alluvium.

BORING AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES: Boring may be done in order to provide disturbed or
undisturbed samples, or to provide a hole for in-situ testing and the installation of instruments
in the ground. A variety of methods include augering, percussive boring and rotary core drilling.
Samples must, as far as possible, be truly representative of the ground conditions, and must
neither be contaminated by material dislodged from higher in the hole, nor modified by the loss
of some constituents.

For visual examination of index properties disturbed samples may be all that is required.
However, the determination of the physical properties of soils and rocks demands undisturbed
samples as far as possible representative of their natural conditions. Undisturbed soil samples
are usually retained in the sample tubes, with the exposed ends waxed and capped for
transport to the laboratory without change in moisture content. Rocks cores are usually
extruded with minimum force into specially constructed core boxes; samples may be wrapped
and waxed if required. Both the pattern and spacing of boreholes need to be flexible to take
account of the geological conditions, and only rarely will a predetermined grid of boreholes
driven to predetermined depths be entirely suitable for engineering geological conditions.

LABORATORY AND IN-SITU TESTING: Basic properties of rocks and soils may be determined by
standardized laboratory tests. Properties which are independent of moisture content include:
particle size analysis, liquid and plastic limits, bulk density, specific gravity and mineralogy.
Many of the test to determine physical properties require undisturbed at their natural moisture
content. These include ;consistency, cohesion and angle of internal friction, compressibility,
permeability, comprehensive strength, tensile strength and compaction.

Sophisticated instrumental techniques are available for down-the-hole in-situ determination of,
for e.g the deformation charateristics of rocks and soils, the shear strength of soils, natural
radioactivity and spontaneous potential, and piezometric pressure. Pumping –in and pumping-
out tests may be carried out in existing boreholes to provide data on the hydrogeological
characteristics of the subsurface. The walls of boreholes may be observed, and datails recorded
by borehole cameras which may linked to surface monitors.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL MAPS

The content of engineering geological maps and the amount of detail shown on engineering

geological conditions are determined by the purpose and the scale of the map. Engineering

geological maps are classified according to scale, content and purpose.

PURPOSE CONTENT SCALE

Special Analytical Small

Multipurpose COMPREHENSIVE Medium

Auxiliary

Complimentary Large

All combinations are possible; for e.g multipurpose maps may be prepared for a variety of
engineering purposes covering many aspects of engineering geology; they may be analytical or
comprehensive and may be prepared at all scales. The most general type of map is the
multipurpose comprehensive map on which are presented and evaluated all the principal
components of an engineering geological environment. This type of map would provide
information pertinent to many purposes and needs. Techniques used in the presentation of
data on a multipurpose comprehensive map are also of general application to other types of
engineering geological maps.
MULTIPURPOSE MAPS

This may be comprehensive or analytical.

ANALYTICAL COMPREHENSIVE MAPS

The content of analytical maps is usually pronouns from their title , for e.g, an analytical map
may be a map of intensity and jointing pattern, or may show slope angles, or landslides.
Therefore, an analytical map gives both details of, and evaluates, an individual component of
the geological environment for many purposes.

COMPREHENSIVE MULTIPURPOSE MAPS

These are of two basic types. They may show on one map sheet all the components of the
engineering geological environment; or they may indicate on one map sheet those areas which
have been grouped for zoning purpose on the basis of the uniformity of their engineering
geological conditions.

SMALL-SCALE COMPREHENSIVE MULTIPURPOSE MAPS

Small scale maps (1:100,000) of areas in which the engineering geology is well known can be
prepared using available maps, literature and archival documents. They show mainly the
distribution and character of lithogenic and lithofacial complexes of rocks and soils, depth to
water table, corrosiveness of groundwater and the extend of active geological processes which
are of importance in engineering geology.

On a small-scale map on which zoning is shown a general uniformity of the main component of
the geological environment is the criterion adapted for the discriminating individual
goetechtonic elements, areas determined by macrogeomorphology, and possibly zones on the
basis of uniformity in lithofacial character and structural arrangement.

MEDIUM-SCALE COMPREHENSIVE MULTIPURPOSE MAPS

Medium –scale maps (less than1:10,000 and greater than 1:100,000) are made on the basis of
field investigations and mapping supported by the use of existing archival materials and any
necessary complimentary work. The same information is shown on medium-scale maps as on
small scale maps but are presented in greater detail. Lithological suites may be divided in to
lithological complexes and, if possible, into even smaller combinations of lithological types. Two
or three uppermost rock and soil units are usually shown on the map together with a
lithological description of engineering geological terms. The properties of rocks and soils may
be shown in the legend.

Zones are differentiated on the bases of the homogeneity and structural arrangement of rock
and soil map units on medium-scale maps on which zoning is shown. Where possible, smaller
areal units are indicated in which either hydrogeological or geodynamic phenomena or both are
uniform.

LARGE- SCALE COMPREHENSIVE MULTIPURPOSE MAPS

Large-scale maps (1:10,000) are prepared by detailed field investigation and mapping, using all
existing archival material, systematic subsurface exploratory and geophysical work and field
and laboratory testing. The physical and mechanical properties of all rock and soil units
represented on the map are usually determined.

Lithological and engineering geological rock and soil types and their structures and spatial
arrangement in depth are shown by a combination of colours and colour patterns. Two or more
uppermost rock and soil units are also shown on the map together with a lithological
description of in engineering geological terms as well as statistically determined rock and soil
properties.

SITE INVESTIGATION FOR ROADS, DAMS, BRIDGES, TUNNELS, E.T.C

Generally, site investigation involves:

1. The exploration of soil conditions over the site by boring or otherwise, and the
preparation of sections indicating the nature of the ground.
2. The examination and testing of samples of the soil taking from the site and the
reduction of the information to engineering recomendations. Significant information
that should be obtainable from a site survey to enable the design requirement includes:
1. The suitability of the proposed location both horizontally and vertically.
2. Selection of suitable material for embankments.
3. Safe gradient for sides of cuttings and embankments.
4. Earth work quantities; bulking of shrinkage; volume of rock excavation.
5. Subsoil and surface drainage requirements.
6. Need for treatment of subgrade and type of traetment required.
7. Thickness of carriageway pavement.
8. Suitability of local materials for use in the construction of stabilize bases.

SITE SELECTION: The construction of certain major projects, such as earth dams, is dependent
on availability of suitable sites. Clearly, if the plan is to build on the cheapest, most readily
available land, geotechnical problems due to high permeability of the subsoil, or to slope
instability may make the final cost of the project prohibitive. Since the safety of lives and
properties are at stake, it is important to consider the geotechnical advantages or
disadvantages of various sites before the site is chosen for a project of such magnitude.
FOUNDATION AND EARTH WORK DESIGN: factors such as the availability of land at the right
price, in a good location from the point of veiw of the eventual user, and with the planning
consent of its proposed use are generally of overriding importance. For medium-sized
engineering works, such as motorways and multi-storey structures, the geotechnical problems
must be resolved in order to allow a safe and economical design to be prepared.

TEMPORARY WORKS DESIGNS: The actual process of contruction may often impose greater
stress on the ground than the final structure. While excavating for foundations, steep side
slopes may be used, and the in-flow of groundwater may cause severe problems and collapse.
These temporary difficulties, which may in extreme circumstances prevent the completion of a
construction project, will not usually affect the design of the finished works. They must,
however, be the object of serious investigation.

THE EFFECTS OF THE PROPOSED PROJECT ON IT’S ENVIRONMENT: the construction of an

excavation may cause distress to neighboring structures for a variety of reasons such as lost of
ground, and lowereing of the groundwater table. This will result in prompt legal action. On a
wider scale, the extraction of water from the ground for drinking may cause pollution of the
aquifer in coastal regions due to saline intrusion, and the construction of a major earth dam
and lake may not only destroy agricultural land and game, but may introduce new diseases into
large populations. These objects must be the subjects of investigation.

INVESTIGATION OF EXISTING CONSTRUCTION: The observation and recording of the conditions

leading to failure of soils or structures are of priority to the advance of soil mechanics, but the
investigation of existing works can also be of partucular value for obtaining data for use in
proposed works on similar soil conditions. The rate of settlement, necessity for special types of
structural solution, and the bulk strength of the sub-soil may all be obtained with more
certainty from back-analysis of the recods of existing works than from small scale laboratory
tests.

THE DESIGN OF REMEDIAL WORKS: if structures are seen to have failed, or to be about to fail,
then remedial measures must be desigened. Site investigation methds must be used to obtain
parameters for design.

SAFETY CHECKS: major civil engineering works, such as tunnels have been constructed over a
suffeciently long period for the precise construction method and the present stability or early
examples to be in doubt. Site investigations are used to provide data to allow their contunual
use.

STAGES OF SITE INVESTIGATION. This include:

1. Premilinary investigation
 2. Field investigation.
3. Laboratory testing.
4. Field measurement.

PRIMILINARY WORKS/INVESTIGATIONS: before proceeding to the site, the surveyor should first
examine any exsting information on the geological and soil conditions likely to be met. This may
be adequate for an initial estimate for feasibility, planning and costing of the projector even full
exploration on site. The data obtainable includes: the nature of the underlying rock and
superficial deposits, as well as the location of any known faults and igneous intrusions. It is also
important to consult geological surveys and meseums as they often have useful unprinted
information.

Aerial photographs are particularly suitable for areas without detailed geological maps and
areas without a thick vegetation cover. They show relief features and are very useful i highway
construction because they are in 3-dimension.

Visual estimation (recognizance) involve actually moving to the proposed site to correlate the
site features with those studied through printed sources and aerial photographs. This stage
does not involve any site investigation, however, some mapping of geologic structure and rock
and soil types may be undertaken exposed rocks and evidence of groundwater, e.g springs will
be noted. Sources of aggregate may be considered together with locations for safe disposal of
excavated materials.

FIELD INVESTIGATIONS: This employs familiar techniques of ground investigation e.g

borehole drilling, and is located in areas where reconnaissance studies indicate that further
information is required. The investigations utilize direct methods of study, such as the excavation
of trial pits, trenches, shafts from which the ground can be examined, tested and sampled for
further testing in the laboratory. Indirect methods such as geophysics may also be used.

LABORATORY INVESTIGATION: Laboratory investigations are usually necessary when;

1. The suitability of a rock or soil must be determined and

2. Their composition examined.

Soils and rocks are used for engineering construction and are always classified by laboratory
tests and these require the assessment of the general composition of these materials. Their
composition is only examined in detail when the presence of unstable material is suspected. For
example, Portland cement makes a basalt that contains the mineral olivine unstable and would be
unsuitable for concrete aggregate. Considerable quantities of rock and soil materials are used as
aggregate and bulk-fill in large construction work as dams, roads, e.t.c. the suitability of these
materials must be constantly tested during construction.
FIELD MEASURMENT

This involves monitoring of trial pits and the behavior of the materials when stress is applied on
them. The behavior of critical geologic structures and the surrounding ground is also monitored
at this stage. This is in order to estimate the correctness of design during and after construction
and to provide a feedback information. It also helps to investigate subsequent changes in the
ground conditions and or any failure during construction. Constant monitoring is required years
after completion of the structure

RESERVIORS AND DAMS

RESERVOIRS

There are a range of factors that influence the feasibility and economics of a proposed reservoir
site. The most important of these is generally the location of the dam. After that, consideration
must be given to the run-off characteristics of the catchment area, the watertightness of the
proposed reservoir basin, the stability of the valley sides, the likely rate of sedimentation in the
new reservoir, the quality of the water and, if it is to be a very large reservoir, the possibility of
associated seismic activity. Once these factors have been assessed, they must be weighed against
the present land use and social factors. The purposes that the reservoir will serve must also be
taken into account in such a survey

Reservoirs of water may be successfully stored in valleys that have floors and sides that will
allow leakage from such artificially created lakes. A dam is necessary to impound the water and
its design and construction must be able to prevent the uncontrollable leakage of reservoir water
beneath and around the structure. Reservoirs may also be created underground either by utilizing
the natural storage place of spores and fractures in rocks, or by excavating caverns of required
volume for the adequate storage. The most important physical characteristic of a reservoir is its
storage capacity.

The most important aspect of storage in reservoir design is the relationship between capacity
and yield. The yield is the quantity of water that a reservoir can supply at any given time. The
maximum possible yield equals the mean inflow less evaporation and seepage loss. In any
consideration of yield, the maximum quantity of water that can be supplied during a critical dry
period (i.e. during the lowest natural flow on record) is of prime importance and is defined as the
safe yield.

The geology of a valley, and the availability of supplies of suitable construction material, will
influence the location of a dam site and the type of dam that is constructed..
USES

Dams and reservoirs are used for storing water for the following:

1. Irrigation and flood control

2. Development of hydro-electricity power
3. Community and industrial
4. Silt and debris control
5. River canalization.

TERMINOLOGIES AND DEFINATION

ABUTMENTS: These are either the sloping sides of the valley upon which the dam is built or
the actual part of the dam that rest on this portion of the valley.

HEEL: This refers to the upstream portion of the dam where it makes contact with the bearing
surface.

TOE: The downstream portion of the dam where it contacts the bearing surface i.e where the
dam makes contact with the foundation.

CREST: This is the top of the dam. Walls are placed on top of the dam for safety or walkway
where they are known as parapet walls.

FREE BOARD: Is the distance between the highest level of water in the reservoir and top of the
dam

GALLERIES: These are formed openings with the dam, and may run either transversely or
longitudinally and they provide means of water seeping through the face or the foundation.

DEAD STORAGE WATER SURFACE: Elevation of reservoir below which water stays
permanently and cannot be withdrawn.

TAIL WATER: Water at the downstream part of the dam resulting from the back of the water
discharged through the outlet runs.

MINIMUM WATER SURFACE: The lowest elevation at which the reservoir can be lowered
and water still drawn by means of the outlet conduits.

MAXIMUM WATER SURFACE: The lowest elevation at which water can be stored in the
reservoir without overtopping the dam or be released through the spillway.

CUT-OFF: Beneath every dam is built a cut-off. This is a thin barrier that extends into the
foundation and either prevents or reduces the leakage of reservoir under the dam. The cut-off
reaches from one abutment to the other and often extends some distances from the abutment into
the side slopes of the valley.
CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS

Dams are classified based on their uses or the material with which they are constructed.

Based on their uses, they can be;

1. Multipurpose: for electricity supply, community water development, fishing and

irrigation.
2. Diversion: for diversionary purposes.

Based on construction materials, we have:

1. Earth and rock fill dams (embankment dams)

2. Masonry (concrete dams)
3. Composite dams

EMANKMENT DAMS

This consists of a core made of impermeable material, such as compacted clay or concrete,
supported by permeable shoulders of earth and rock fill. They have a broad base and impose a
lower stress on the ground than concrete dams of similar heights. They can accommodate
deformation such as those associated with differential settlement more readily because their fill
material is more plastic than those of rigid concrete dams. Therefore, they can be built in areas
where foundation rocks of high strength are not within easy reach. The can also withstand more
risks associated with earthquakes in comparison with other types of dams.
CONCRETE DAMS

These assume one of the three main designs namely gravity, buttress and arch. All these require
strong foundations that will undergo little or no deformation when loaded with the dam.

1. GRAVITY DAM: this is a massive concrete monolith that is impermeable and a

triangular cross section with dimensions that give it sufficient weight to resist the load
from the reservoir. They require supplies of concrete aggregate and cement.
2. ARCH DAM: This is an impermeable concrete shell sloped as an arch in plan. Many
gravity dams are arched in plan but the characteristic of an arch dam is that it takes
advantage of the arching effect to reduce its cross section. Arch dams are thin and require
the least volume of construction materials of all the designs. Their slopes make them the
strongest of all types against overtopping.
3. BUTTRESS DAM: This is made up of a series of inclined, water tight slabs as its
upstream, supported by a series of buttresses that are triangular in vertical cross section. It
 is not as massive as the gravity dam thereby requiring smaller quantities of construction
material. Foundation loads are high but may be reduced by widening the base of the
buttresses.

COMPOSITE DAM

These are constructed at sites that are not suitable for one particular design. They may
incorporate features of embankment, gravity, buttress and arch dams as required by the geology
of the foundation, slope of the valley and the availability of materials. E.g., a broad valley
containing reasonably good rock but with a centrally placed zone of deep weathering may be
dammed using gravity structure on its flanks which can support an arch that will span the center.

MATERIALS FOR DAMS

The location of suitable materials is an integral part of surveys for a dam. This is because the
design of a dam can be adopted both to suit the foundation conditions and available supplies.
Much additional expenses may be incurred if such supplies run out before the dam and its
ancillary works are completed.

Good rock aggregate is required in abundance for concrete dams. It should have a tendency to
break, when crushed into the range of particle sizes required to give the concrete a good
workability and adequate strength on setting. River deposits within the site of the feature
reservoir are often a source for the finer fraction of a concrete mix. The aggregate must be
sufficiently strong to carry the loads imposed on the concrete and free from all contaminants
such as clay, shale, mica, pyite and other weak or reactive materials. The aggregates must also be
sufficiently stable to withstand the repeated heating and cooling, wetting and drying that the dam
will experience.

FAILURES ASSOCIATED WITH DAMS

A dam is said to have failed when it can no longer serve the purpose for which it was
constructed. Failure of dam can be:

1. SLIDING
This is caused by horizontal forces that tend to push the dam downstream, and if
excessive can cause the dam to slide. If the dam is poorly constructed sliding make take
place in the upper part.
Limestones are very soluble especially when jointed, porous or faulted. The limestone
can be undermined, leading to sliding. Sliding can also occur within the rock foundation
 particularly if the foundation is not of uniform gradation or foundation is not of uniform
gradation or foundation rock dipping downstream.
Leakage in a rock foundation can also lead to failure and can occur despite good quality
work on the dam itself.
SLIDING PROBLEMS OF STRATIFIED ROCKS
Most dam failures occur after heavy rain storms. Water is a serious contributing factor
towards failures of dams. Water acts on stratified rocks in three main folds:
A. Water movement between the strata dissolves cementing materials as well as eroding
it. This is a purely mechanical action that increases the volume of openings in a rock,
forming cavities.
B. Water lubricates dry surfaces and decreases the dry coefficient of friction between
them. In moist rocks, this lubricating effect is produced even before the storm.
C. If the interstices between the strata are stratified, then the strata tend to stand under
hydrostatic pressure directly proportional to the hydraulic head. As this level rises
during and after storm, the pore pressure increases accordingly. This action tends to
lift the overlying strata and the dam itself, thereby decreasing the shearing strength of
the dam though the value of the coefficient of friction at the base could not be altered.
2. UPLIFT
When a dam is built, water is impounded at the back of the dam and the material
deposited consists mostly of silt. The dam is always under stress because of its weight
which is generally evenly dissipated from the heel of the dam to the toe. This factor is
usually taken into consideration at the time of planning. Whether it is evenly distributed
or concentrated on a point, the amount of load has to be taken into consideration, while
the weight of the dam acting downwards, the hydraulic effect will act to make the dam
buoyant.
3. SETTLEMENT AND REBOUND
Settlement may not have any adverse effect, but where it is differential will cause
disaster. The weight of the dam acts downwards and if the material on which it is
constructed undergoes differential settlement, the dam may crack leading to failure. In
order to avoid this, the problematic soil layer suspected to be weak should be scrapped
and replaced with concrete which will form a feature bounding between the concrete
material and the rock.
4. RESERVIOR
This is usually associated with leakage or seepage which is a tremendous loss of water.
Leakage takes place where the foundation of the dam is made up of permeable rocks and
also through fractures. This problem is reduced the foundation is on a solid rock. When
seepage is excessive, piping results, that can lead to failure. This is associated mostly
with earth dams.

5. ABUTMENT
 This is mostly associated with arch dams, where the weight of the impounded water is
partially transferred to the slopes therefore making the weight of the abutment a problem.
4. CHANNEL SECTION
Most river channels do have weak zones. As a result, investigations are necessary to
show that faults do not occur in channel and that there are not gorges to ensure that the
amount of water in the dam will be high to reduce the effect of seepages.

FOUNDATIONS

FOUNDATIONS

• All engineering work starts with the foundation.

• The purpose of a foundation is to transfer the load of a structure to the ground without
causing the ground to respond with uneven and excessive movement. These loads must
be transmitted in such a manner that two criteria are satisfied.

1 There is no risk of shear failure in the underlying deposits

2 The resulting settlement of the foundation is acceptable to both the appearance and
function of the structure.

The purpose of foundation is to transfer the load from the structure to the ground without causing
the ground to respond with uneven excessive movement. Most buildings are supported on one of
four types of foundation namely piles, pads, strips and rafts. These may be modified or combined
to form a suitable foundation for the ground conditions that exist.
PAD FOUNDATION
STRIP FOUNDATION

This is a foundation of continuous length or whose foundation length is considerably greater than
its width.
RAFT FOUNDATION

This refers to any foundation that covers a large area. It can vary from a fascine mattress carrying
a low cover over a marsh to an extensive basement of deep beams and slabs supporting a large
structure.
PILE FOUNDATION

Piles are long slender columns installed into the ground often in groups. The main purpose of
piling is to transfer loads to stiffer material at depth, to increase the effective size of a foundation
and to resist horizontal loads. Typically, piles are made from steel or reinforced concrete and
possibly timber. They may be driven or pushed into the piles or concrete piles may be cast in-situ
by pouring concrete into a drilled hole.

TYPES OF PILE FOUNDATIONS

Pilling can either be end bearing, frictional or a combination of both.

a. END BEARING PILES: Generally piles are used to transmit load through a weak or soft
deposit onto a firm stratum and a lower depth together which is capable of carrying the
load. The most common type of pile is therefore the end bearing pile which derives most
of its carrying capacity from the penetration resistance at it foot.
b. FRICTIONAL PILES: This derives their support mainly from the frictional (or
adhesional) resistance generated by the soil around their buried surfaces. An example
would be one embedded in a deep layer of clay.
BEARING CAPACITY

The intensity of loading that cause shear failure to occur beneath a foundation is known as the
bearing capacity of the ground. This capacity is governed by the fabric of rock and soil beneath
the foundation and by the reaction of this fabric to changes in effective stress. Such changes will
accompany periods of construction that change the total stress on the ground.

The behavior of a soft material to form a comprehensive clay will not be that of inherently weak
sediment but also that of an undrained materials as the clay will have a low bearing capacity. A
hard boulder will be stronger and have a high bearing capacity, but will also behave as an
undrained material.

Dense deposits of sand and gravel have their particles packed closely together yet retain a
permeability that is sufficient to readily dissipate any increase in pore pressure that may
accompany an increase in total stress. These sediments have a high bearing capacity and behave
as drained materials. Loose sands and gravel have an open texture and a lower bearing capacity
than their denser varieties.

Strong rocks have a saturated strength that exceeds the safe working stress of concrete
(approximately 4000Knm-2) and are therefore not loaded to their bearing capacity. But even
strong rocks do contain weak surfaces such as joints and soft horizons interbedded in stronger
strata, and the load from large foundation can cause movement to occur along those planes.
TERMS USED IN BEARING CAPACITY

1. SHALLOW FOUNDATION: This refers to a foundation whose depth below the surface,
z, s equal to, or has its least foundation B.
2. DEEP FOUNDATION: This is a foundation whose depth below surface is greater than
its least dimension.
3. OVERBURDEN PRESSURE: The vertical pressure at a point, caused solely by the
weight of the geological deposits above it. The effects of foundation loads are not
included.
4. ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY: The average contact pressure between the
foundation and the soil which will produce shear failure in the soil.
5. MAXIMUM SAFE BEARING CAPACITY: This is the maximum contact pressure to
which the soil can be subjected to without the risks of shear failure. This is bases solely
on the strength of the soil and is simply the ultimate bearing capacity divided by a
suitable safety factor.
6. ALLOWABLE BEARING PRESSURE: The maximum allowable net load intensity on
the soil allowing for both hear and settlement effects.

FOUNDATION INVESTIGATIONS

Two types of investigation may be required:

1. A general survey which identifies the most suitable areas in which buildings can be
founded.
2. A particular study of the geology beneath the site of proposed buildings.

Every investigation must establish the vertical sequence of soils and rocks and its lateral
variation. Measurement of deformation, strength and permeability are of special importance as
they permit the depth and type of the most suitable foundations to be assessed and provide values
that may be used in an analysis of foundation stability and settlement. Many foundations are
constructed in excavations which have to be designed so as to remain dry and stable during the
period of foundation construction.

FAILURES OF FOUNDATION

Most foundations settle because rocks and soils respond to the load placed on them. The total
settlement that results normally consists of three components.

i. A reversible settlement which occurs immediately the net pressure on the round is
increase and is attributed to the elastic deformation of the ground.
 ii. An irreversible settlement that occurs during the life of the foundation and
attributable to imperceptible creep under conditions of constant effective stress.
iii. An irreversible settlement attributable to consolidation and occurring when the fluid
pressures increased by the increase in the net foundation load, design to dissipate
from pores and fractures.

Sometimes settlement results from other causes, such as the collapse of unstable soils and of the
ground above a concealed cavity (such as a solution hole or a mine). Many foundations rise
because they are constructed on soils and rocks that expand when wetted. Foundations located on
landslides may move laterally and vertically usually at different speeds.

FOUNDATIONS OF BUILDINGS

The major elements of a building include the following:

1. The foundation which supports the building and provides stability

2. The structure, which supports all the imposed loads and transmits them to the foundation.
3. The exterior walls, which may not be part of the primary supporting structure.
4. The interior partitions which also may or may not be part of the primary structure.

The structural design of building depends generally on the nature of the soil and the underlying
geologic conditions and modifications by man or either of these factors. Soils and geologic
analysis are necessary, therefore to determine whether a proposed building can be supported
adequately and what would be the most effective and economical method of support.

The most common types of foundation systems for buildings are classified as shallow and deep.
Shallow foundation systems are several feet below the bottom of the building, e.g. spread
footings and mats. Deep foundations extend several dozen feet below the building. Examples are
piles and caissons. The foundation chosen for any particular building depend on the strength of
the soil or rock, magnitude of structural loads and depth to groundwater level.

The most economical foundation is the reinforced concrete footing, which is used for buildings
in area where the sub surface condition presents no unusual difficulties. The foundation consists
of concrete slabs located under each structural column and a continuous slab under load bearing
walls.

Mat foundations are typically used when the building loads are so extensive and the soil so weak
that individual footings will cover more than half of the building area. A mat is a flat concrete
slab, heavily reinforced with steel that carries the downward loads of the individual columns or
walls.
Piles are used mostly in areas where near surface soil conditions are poor. They are made of
timber, concrete or steel and are located in clusters. The piles are driven down into strong soil or
rock at a predetermined depth, and each cluster is then covered by a cap of reinforced concrete.
For extremely heavy or tall buildings, steel pipes known as H-pipes are driven through the
bedrock often as far as 30m below the surface.

Caisson foundations are used when soil of adequate bearing strength is found below the surface.

Layers of weak materials such as fill or peat. A caisson foundation consists of concrete columns
constructed in cylindrical shafts excavated under the purposed structural column location. The
caisson foundation carried the building loads at their lower ends, which are often bell-shaped.

BRIDGES

A bridge is a structure designed to provide continuous passage over an obstacle. Bridges

commonly carry highways, railroad lines and pathways over obstacles such as waterways, deep
valleys and other transportation routes. They may also carry water, support power cables or
house communication lines.

• There are four basic categories of design decisions;

 the type of bridge,

 the materials of which it will be made,

 the type of foundations that will support the structure, and

 the construction method to be used.

FOUNDATIONS OF BRIDGES

• The major elements of a building include the followings:

1. The foundation, which supports the building and provides stability

2. The structure, which supports all the imposed loads and transmit them to the
foundation

3. The exterior walls, which may or not be part of the primary supporting structure

4. The interior partitions, which also may or may not be part of the primary structure.
All bridges piers rest on foundations that transfer load from bridge structure into the ground. The
foundations support the bridge, and their design is critical. Difficult conditions such as deep
water or soft ground can made the construction of foundation complicated and expensive.

If the ground is very strong at a bridge site, a foundation is formed by pouring a simple concrete
material beneath each of piers. If the soil is weak, it may be excavated down the bedrock and the
piers can then be built on solid rock. Alternatively, a group of piles can be driven through the soil
to bedrock, and piers can be built on top of the piles.

For all types of bridge, under water foundations require unique construction methods. Builders
employ cofferdams and caissons to gain access to ground that is normally under water. A
cofferdam is a temporary watertight closure constructed on the spot where a pier is to be built. It
usually consists of sheets of steel driven into the ground to create a walled chamber. The
cofferdam is then pumped dry to expose the river bed. Soil can be excavated to bedrock, or piles
cam be driven to create the pier foundations. The cofferdam is removed after and foundations are
constructed.

A caisson is a large cylinder or box chamber that is sunk into the river bed. The foundation and
excavation works take place within the submerged caisson. Some caissons are removed after
construction, while others are left in place, filled with concrete and used as part of a permanent
foundation.

ROAD

A road is a path established over land for the passage of people, vehicles and animals. Roads
provide dependable pathways for moving people and goods from one place to another. They
differ in quality from dirt roads to concrete paved multi lanes highways. There are many types of
roads ranging from multi-lane freeways and expressways to two way country roads. They can be
classified into three major categories: highways, urban or city streets and rural roads.

Modern roads are made up of several layers to be able to support heavy vehicular movement at
high speeds. Each layer helps in the one above it support the weight and pressure of moving
traffic. The number of layers in a road depends on the inferred use of the road, but generally
roads are made up of three layers: from bottom to top, they are the road base, base course and the
wearing course.

Highways

The location of highways and other routeways is influenced in the first instance by topography.
Embankments, cuttings, tunnels and bridges (viaducts) can be constructed to carry roads and
railroads with acceptable gradients through areas of more difficult terrain. Obviously, the
construction of such structures increases the difficulty, time and cost of building routeways.

Nonetheless, the distance between the centres that routeways connect has to be considered.

Although geological conditions often do not determine the exact location of routeways, they can
have a highly significant influence on their construction.

As highways are linear structures, they often traverse a wide variety of ground conditions along
their length. In addition, the construction of a highway requires the excavation of soils and rocks,
and stable foundations for the highway, as well as construction materials. The ground beneath
roads and, more particularly, embankments, must have sufficient bearing capacity to prevent
foundation failure and also be capable of preventing excess settlements due to the imposed load.
Very weak and compressible ground may need to be entirely removed before construction takes
place, although this will depend on the quantity of material involved. For instance, if peat is less
than 3–4 m thick and is underlain by a soil with a satisfactory bearing capacity, such as gravel or
dense sand, then the peat may be removed prior to the construction of a road or, more
particularly, an embankment

In other cases, improvement of the ground by the use of lime or cement stabilization,compaction,
surcharging, the use of drainage, the installation of piles, stone columns or mattresses may need
to be carried out prior to road and embankment construction

Slight variations in strength, spacing of discontinuities or the grade of weathering of rock

masses can have an effect on the rate of excavation.

Where the materials excavated are unsuitable for construction, considerable extra expense is
entailed in disposing of waste and importing fill. Geological features such as faults, crush zones
and solution cavities, as well as man-made features such as abandoned mine workings can cause
difficulties during construction.

Normally, a road consists of a number of layers, each of which has a particular function.

In addition, the type of pavement structure depends on the nature and number of the vehicles it
has to carry, their wheel loads and the period of time over which it has to last

The wearing surface of a modern road consists either of “black-top” (i.e. bituminous bound
aggregate) or a concrete slab, although a bituminous surfacing may overlie a concrete base.

A concrete slab distributes the load that the road has to carry, whereas in a bituminous road, the
load primarily is distributed by the base beneath. The base and sub-base below the wearing
surface generally consist of granular material, although in heavy-duty roads, the base may be
treated with cement. The subgrade refers to the soil immediately beneath the sub-base.
However much the load is distributed by the layers above, the subgrade has to carry the load of
the road structure plus that of the traffic. Consequently, the top of the subgrade may have to be
strengthened by compaction or stabilization. The strength of the subgrade, however, does not
remain the same throughout its life. Changes in its strength are brought about by changes in its
moisture content, by repeated wheel loading, and in some parts of the world by frost action.
Although the soil in the subgrade exists above the water table and beneath a sealed surface, this
does not stop the ingress of water. As a consequence, partially saturated or saturated conditions
can exist in the soil. Also, road pavements are constructed at a level where the subgrade is
affected by wetting and drying, which may lead to swelling and shrinkage, respectively, if the
subgrade consists of expansive clay. Such volume changes are non-uniform, and the associated
movements may damage the pavement .

The Use of Geotextiles in Road Construction

The improvement in the performance of a pavement attributable to the inclusion of geotextiles

comes mainly from their separation and reinforcing functions. This can be assessed in terms of
either an improved system performance (e.g. reduction in deformation or increase in traffic
passes before failure) or reduced aggregate thickness requirements (where reductions of the order
25–50% are feasible for low-strength subgrade conditions with suitable geotextiles).

The most frequent role of geotextiles in road construction is as a separator between the sub-base
and subgrade. This prevents the subgrade material from intruding into the sub-base due to
repeated traffic loading and so increases the bearing capacity of the system.

Geosynthetics such as geotextiles, geogrids and geocells are frequently used in the various
pavement layers to improve road quality.

• These materials and methods are used in low-traffic private roadways as well as public
roads and highways.

• Geosynthetics perform four main which increase the pavement performance, reduce
construction costs and decrease maintenance functions in roads:

 separation,

 reinforcement,

 Filtration, and

 Drainage.
 • When a single carriageway road is converted into dual carriageway by building a second
separate carriageway alongside the first, it is usually referred to as duplication, twinning
or doubling

MINING/ EXCAVATION

The ease with which rock and soil may be excavated and the stability of the stability of the hole
that is created depends on a number of factors including:

1. The strength of the ground and the magnitude of the stress within it.
2. The geological structure of the ground.
3. The level of ground water and magnitude of pressure head at depth
4. The storage of the groundwater and its permeability.

In extremely deep excavations the temperature of the rock and the flow of the heat through the
crust is also of significance. A knowledge of the geology of the ground to be excavated is
desirable and should be considered essential for ensuring the safety of personnel who will work
under ground level.

EXCAVATION OF ROCKS AND SOIL

The common methods used for creating hole in the ground are;

a. Drilling(for holes and wells)

b. Augering(for holes and piles)
c. Machine boring(for tunnels)
d. Blasting(for excavating strong rock)
e. Scraping, ripping and digging(for the surface excavation of sand and weak rock)

Each relies for its success on the ability of the method to break and disaggregate rock and soil.

DRILLING: Majority of the drills are either percussive or rotary. In percussive drill, a bit
(buttom or chisel shaped) is repeatedly struck on the rock so as to form a hole. It pulverizes the
rock to fine debris which can be flushed from the hole by drilling fluid or air. In rotatory drilling
the ground is either cut or crushed by tough blades or points which are rotated against the rock
under load. The progress of drilling is affected by the hardness of the mineral constituents, the
toughness of the rock and geological structure.

Drilling fluids can be air, water, mud, polymers and aerated emulsions (called foam) and sued to
clean the bit, lift cuttings from the hole, support the sides of the hole and balance moderate
artesian water pressures encountered at depth.
AUGERING: An auger consists of a drag bit cutting head connected to a spiral conveyor, or
flight. It is mostly used in soft materials such as clay and can produce holes with diameters up to
1.5 meters or more. Augers are frequently used to drill through thick overburden prior to drilling
the rock beneath, for drilling weak rocks and for excavating large holes for cast piles and similar
structures.

MACHINE BORING: Large diameter machines may be used to bore tunnels. They are an
extension of drilling technology and carry at their head, cutters capable of breaking and
excavating the ground (short teeth for sediments, picks for weak rocks and discs for strong rock).

Common difficulties encountered are those of preventing the ground from closing around the
machine, or collapsing into it. Machines designed to excavate sediments, such as clays and
sands, are enclosed along the length by an outer tube or shield, at the tail of which is erected the
permanent tunnel lining needed to support the ground stronger materials, particularly sound rock,
can often support themselves for a period that is sufficient for the machine to need only a wood
above it to protect it from occasional falls of rocks from occasional falls of rock from the tunnel
roof.

BLASTING

Blasting is extensively used to create surface and underground excavations in rocks, and is part
of a circle that includes drilling the holes to have the explosive and clearing away the blasted
debris (an activity known as mucking).

The structure of a rock has a great influence upon the efficiency of blasting as bedding, jointing,
cleavage and other discontinuities reflect the shock waves radiating from a blast and cause the
rock to fail in tension. These fractures are also opened by the expansion of gases liberated by the
blast, so that the combined effect of an explosion is to break and loosen the rock mass.

The strength of a rock also influences the efficiency of blasting. Considerable difficulties are
presented by fragmental rocks and soft materials. Agglomerates, conglomerates and breccias are
particularly difficult when their included fragments are sufficiently stronger than the matrix that
binds them together.

Stresses within the ground also affect the efficiency of a blast. High stresses can increase the
difficulties with which may be generated and opened. Tensile stresses resulting from blasting can
cause a rock that is compressed under high stresses round a tunnel, to expand and this can cause
a rock mass and choke the blast. Hence, the blasting pattern used successfully in an underground
excavation may not be suitable for a similar excavation in comparable rock at a different
location.

SCRAPPING, RIPING AND DIGGING.

These are techniques commonly employed for removing soft and weak materials such as clay,
silt sand, shale, weathered rock and top soil. The machines used include scrappers, ripers, dozers,
graders and excavators. A knowledge of the spacing of fractures and other discontinuities, their
community and orientation when combined with the in-situ seismic velocity of the ground can be
used to indicate the ease with which a rock or soil may be excavated. The undrained strength of
the ground governs the type and size of machines required since they must be supported by load
bearing capacity of the formation. The plasticity index is a useful guide to plant mobility
especially as desiccation can covert a soft clay to a material as hard as brick.

CONTROL OF GROUNDWATER

An excavation below the water table must either be protected against unacceptable inflows of
ground water or by sub-aqueous techniques such as draglines and dredging. The most common
reason for controlling groundwater is to effect a reduction in the flow to an excavation and to
lower the pressure of water around it. The greatest hazard from groundwater to work
underground is an encounter with unexpected water bearing zones and water pressures.
Geological investigations are very important to avoid this hazard and most include sub-surface
investigations for surface excavation and probing ahead from excavations in process
underground.

To control the groundwater flowing into an excavation, it is necessary to know the volume of
water that may be drained, the rate at which it will flow and the pressure it will be subjected to.

SEEPAGE AND SUBSIDENCE ANALYSIS

SEEPAGE

Seepage estimates are important in dam construction. Most dams allow seepage (or leaks)
through either earth types (the dams) or through the base (both concrete and earth types)
material. If the base and side material is rock, it is often grouted to fill cracks and reduce the
permeability. Grout is sometimes used to reduce permeability when the base material is soil.

Seepage may be improved also somewhat if steady state flow is reached. Steady state flow is
obtained when the soil is fully saturated, the pressure gradient is unchanging, a constant soil
mass is involved, and the flow rate is constant.

The use of a core or cut off wall with a low coefficient of permeability is the principal practical
control measures available (a) the length of the flow path can be increased using a clay blanket
(b) Upstream and downstream cut off walls may also be used.

Generally, the downstream cut off wall will be more efficient in reducing seepage flow but the
upstream wall will reduce the seepage uplift pressure. Either an upstream or downstream clay
blanket can be used but the upstream blanket will be more efficient in controlling seepage uplift
since the pool elevation will have a cancelling effect. Filter drains are often used downstream of
clay cut offs or cores to reduce the seepage uplift as a side benefit.

Where clay exists in the reservoir pool area (a natural blanket) and is to be used for the dam core,
care should be taken not to accidentally excavate through into any more pervious lower soil.
After core excavation and prior to filling the pool, the pool should be rolled and carefully
inspected for any cuts (or animal holes) into the lower soil. Any such areas should be carefully
covered and compacted. If holes are left, the dam may leak so much that the elevation cannot be
obtained. Leaks of this type usually get worse with time rather than siting over.

PIPING AND CONTROL OF PIPING

Soil grains will be dislodged and eroded away when the hydraulic gradient at the exit face of a
percolating soil mass is large enough to overcome the interparticle bonding and or cementing
forces. This is a progressive process, with the smaller particles eroding first. This leads to
decrease in resistance to flow, with a corresponding increase in the hydraulic gradient and the
subsequent erosion of larger particles. This process can accelerate and can lead to the formation
of an underground flow channel or ‘pipe’ which moves upstream. Flow increase greatly when
the pipe reaches the impounded water, rapidly enlarging the pipe cavity, and can cause a dam
failure. The failure usually occurs through collapse of the pipe roof and overtopping in the
channel thus formed.

Piping can happen from:

1. Cavities toward upstream formed when roots decay

2. Animal burrows (those of muskrats, gophers, etc. including snake burrows)
3. Excavation downstream either pits or in some cases simply skinning the top surface to
some critical depths.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL MAPS

The content of engineering geological maps and the amount of detail shown on engineering

geological conditions are determined by the purpose and the scale of the map.

Engineering geological maps are classified according to scale, content and purpose.
PURPOSE CONTENT SCALE

Special Analytical Small

Multipurpose COMPREHENSIVE Medium

Auxiliary

Complimentary Large

All combinations are possible; for e.g multipurpose maps may be prepared for a variety of
engineering purposes covering many aspects of engineering geology; they may be analytical or
comprehensive and may be prepared at all scales.

The most general type of map is the multipurpose comprehensive map on which are presented
and evaluated all the principal components of an engineering geological environment.

This type of map would provide information pertinent to many purposes and needs.

Techniques used in the presentation of data on a multipurpose comprehensive map are also of
general application to other types of engineering geological maps.

MULTIPURPOSE MAPS

This may be comprehensive or analytical.

ANALYTICAL COMPREHENSIVE MAPS

The content of analytical maps is usually pronouns from their title , for e.g, an analytical map
may be a map of intensity and jointing pattern, or may show slope angles, or landslides.
Therefore, an analytical map gives both details of, and evaluates, an individual component of
the geological environment for many purposes.
COMPREHENSIVE MULTIPURPOSE MAPS

These are of two basic types.

They may show on one map sheet all the components of the engineering geological
environment;

or they may indicate on one map sheet those areas which have been grouped for zoning
purpose on the basis of the uniformity of their engineering geological conditions.

SMALL-SCALE COMPREHENSIVE MULTIPURPOSE MAPS

Small scale maps (1:100,000) of

areas in which the engineering geology is well known can be prepared using available maps,
literature and archival documents.

They show mainly the distribution and character of lithogenic and lithofacial complexes of rocks
and soils, depth to water table, corrosiveness of groundwater and the extend of active
geological processes which are of importance in engineering geology.

On a small-scale map on which zoning is shown a general uniformity of the main component of
the geological environment is the criterion adapted for the discriminating individual
goetechtonic elements, areas determined by macrogeomorphology, and possibly zones on the
basis of uniformity in lithofacial character and structural arrangement.

MEDIUM-SCALE COMPREHENSIVE MULTIPURPOSE MAPS

Medium –scale maps (less than1:10,000 and greater than 1:100,000)

are made on the basis of field investigations and mapping supported by the use of existing
archival materials and any necessary complimentary work.

The same information is shown on medium-scale maps as on small scale maps but are
presented in greater detail.

Lithological suites may be divided in to lithological complexes and, if possible, into even smaller
combinations of lithological types.

Two or three uppermost rock and soil units are usually shown on the map together with a
lithological description of engineering geological terms.
The properties of rocks and soils may be shown in the legend.

Zones are differentiated on the bases of the homogeneity and structural arrangement of rock
and soil map units on medium-scale maps on which zoning is shown.

Where possible, smaller areal units are indicated in which either hydrogeological or
geodynamic phenomena or both are uniform.

LARGE- SCALE COMPREHENSIVE MULTIPURPOSE MAPS

Large-scale maps (1:10,000) are prepared by detailed field investigation and mapping, using all
existing archival material, systematic subsurface exploratory and geophysical work and field
and laboratory testing.

The physical and mechanical properties of all rock and soil units represented on the map are
usually determined.

Lithological and engineering geological rock and soil types and their structures and spatial
arrangement in depth are shown by a combination of colours and colour patterns.

Two or more uppermost rock and soil units are also shown on the map together with a
lithological description of in engineering geological terms as well as statistically determined
rock and soil properties.