FB2 Energy in Biology Unit 2021/22

Part A: Photosynthesis
❏ 2.1 Recall that absorbed energy is stored in the chemicals which make up the plants’
cells
❏ 2.2 Describe the role of photosynthesis as making food molecules and storing them as
energy available to be transferred to living organisms through food chains
❏ 2.3 Describe photosynthesis as a series of chemical reactions that use energy from
(sun)light to build large food molecules in plant cells and some photosynthetic
microorganisms (eg phytoplankton)
❏ 2.4 State that light energy is absorbed by the green chemical chlorophyll
❏ 2.5 State that energy is used to bring about the reaction between carbon dioxide and
water to produce glucose (a sugar), oxygen produced as a waste product
❏ 2.6 Recall the names of the reactants and products of photosynthesis, and use the word
equation
❏ 2.7 Recall the formulae of the reactants and products of photosynthesis, and use the
symbol equation
❏ 2.8 Recall that glucose may be converted into chemicals needed for growth of plant cells,
for example cellulose, protein and chlorophyll, converted into starch for storage used in
respiration to release energy
❏ 2.9 Investigate and explain how the rate of photosynthesis may be limited by: temp,
carbon dioxide, light intensity
❏ 2.10 Interpret data on factors limiting the rate of photosynthesis

Part B: Respiration
❏ 2.11 Describe how the basic processes of life carried out by all living things depend on
chemical reactions within cells that require energy released by respiration
❏ 2.12 Recall that all living organisms require energy released by respiration for some
chemical reactions in cells, and explain how chemical reactions are involved in:
movement, synthesis of large molecules and active transport
❏ 2.13 Describe respiration as a series of chemical reactions that release energy by breaking
down large food molecules in all living cells
❏ 2.14 Recall that aerobic respiration takes place in animal and plant cells and some
microorganisms & requires oxygen
❏ 2.15 Identify mitochondria as the site of aerobic respiration and ATP as the energy
currency.
❏ 2.16 Recall the names of the reactants and products of aerobic respiration and use the
word and symbol equation
❏ 2.17 Recall that anaerobic respiration takes place in animal, plant and some microbial cells
in conditions of low oxygen, to include plant roots in waterlogged soil, bacteria in puncture
wounds, human cells during vigorous exercise, and yeast in microbiology.
❏ 2.18 Recall the names of the reactants and products of anaerobic respiration in animal
cells in conditions of low oxygen or absence of oxygen, to include glucose → lactic acid (+
energy released)

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 ❏ 2.19 Recall the names of the reactants and products of anaerobic respiration in plant cells
and some microorganisms including yeast, and use the word equation: glucose → ethanol
+ carbon dioxide (+ energy released)
❏ 2.20 Describe the role of anaerobic respiration in yeast during brewing and bread-making.
❏ 2.21 Explain that aerobic respiration releases more energy per glucose molecule than
anaerobic respiration
❏ 2.22 Calculate the difference in energy release between aerobic and anaerobic respiration,
given energy values for ATP molecules and number of ATPs produced.
❏ 2.23 Understand the structures involved in breathing (thorax, ribs, lungs, trachea,
bronchi, bronchioles and diaphragm) and understand the process of breathing.

Part C: Enzymes
❏ 2.24 Define enzymes as proteins that function as biological catalysts.
❏ 2.25 Investigate, describe and explain the effect of changes in temperature and pH on
enzyme activity.
❏ 2.26 Use amylase, protease and lipase enzymes as examples of digestive enzymes, and
catalase as a non-digestive enzyme.
❏ 2.27 Describe collision theory of chemical reactions
❏ 2.28 Understand that concentration, temperature and surface area are factors which affect
the rates of chemical reactions.

Part D: Energy exchange between organisms

❏ 2.29 State that the Sun is the principal source of energy input to biological systems.
2.30 Define the following:
❏ Food chain as a chart showing the flow of energy (food) from one organism to the
next beginning with a producer (e.g. mahogany tree → caterpillar → song bird →
hawk),
❏ Food web as a network of interconnected food chains showing the energy flow
through part of an ecosystem,
❏ Producer as an organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using
energy from sunlight, through photosynthesis,
❏ Consumer as an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms,
❏ Herbivore as an animal that gets its energy by eating plants,
❏ Carnivore as an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals.
❏ Decomposer as an organisms that gets its energy by breaking down dead organic
matter.
❏ 2.31 Describe energy losses between trophic levels in terms of heat by respiration and
excretion.
❏ 2.32 Explain the shapes of pyramids of numbers, biomass and energy.
❏ 2.33 Explain why food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels
❏ 2.34 Describe the carbon cycle.

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Part A: Photosynthesis
2.1 Recall that absorbed energy is stored in the chemicals which make up the plants’ cells
2.2 Describe the role of photosynthesis as making food molecules and storing them as energy
available to be transferred to living organisms through food chains
2.3 Describe photosynthesis as a series of chemical reactions that use energy from (sun)light to
build large food molecules in plant cells and some photosynthetic microorganisms (eg
phytoplankton)

Photosynthesis is a process in which producers (plants and algae) manufacture organic

molecules (food) from carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of (sun)light.

In order to produce their own food, producers use light as a primary source of energy. Special
molecules called chlorophyll are able to absorb light energy that will then be used in the process
of photosynthesis.

Not all cells in plants will carry out the process of photosynthesis, only the ones with chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll will be stored in structures called chloroplasts.

Watch the video "Amazing Process of Photosynthesis"

Read the Article: Learn the Photosynthesis Formula

Want to go further? Watch it!

Practical 1: Draw a cross-section of a leaf.

Look at the model of a cross section of a leaf and identify all the tissues.
Use digital microscopes to take a snapshot of a leaf cross section. Use textbooks to help you to
annotate the leaf diagram as fully as you can. Paste it in the box below.

cross section of a Ligustrum leaf. (medium power)

Now make a careful tissue plan of the same cross section of leaf on A4 paper. Focus on the following points:
1. use a sharp HB pencil
2. use firm lines - no sketching
3. do not shade

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 4. do not include details of individual cells
5. ensure the proportions are correct.
6. add the magnification to your drawing (recall doing this in FIB Bio1: Building Blocks)
7. annotate your diagram using a ruler.
8. write a clear descriptive title

Scan your diagram or take a photo and paste it into this box. Note: Av leaf thickness: 0.25mm
Low power tissue plan of the same section of leaf

Research and complete this table:

Structure Function(s) and special features

Upper epidermis

Cuticle

Palisade mesophyll

Spongy mesophyll

air spaces

lower epidermis

guard cells

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What are chloroplasts?

What is chlorophyll and what is its function?

What is the difference between palisade and spongy mesophyll?

What is the name given to plants adapted to

● hot and dry conditions?

● salty conditions
● living in water

What are the main functions of the guard cells?

What are stomata?

Through what process does a plant get carbon dioxide into the cells?

How does a plant take in water?

Bridge to IB - Optional extension work

If you have already covered much of this work, you should be able to complete this work
quickly. Choose one (or more, time depending) of the following topics to explore as we work
through this unit.

a) Investigate the structure of chloroplasts. Draw and label a diagram. Find out what each part
does (without getting too technical) Are chloroplasts the same in all plants?
b) Investigate other pigments found in plants that are not necessarily involved in
photosynthesis: These may be found in structures called plastids. Find out names, positions

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 and functions. Hint: colour of fruits.
c) Investigate the arrangement of leaves in plants so that they avoid shading each other.
d) Investigate the structure of stomata and how they function (open and close). Relate structure
to function.
e) Investigate cyanobacteria. What are they? How do they photosynthesize? What is their
significance in the evolution of life?
f) Investigate how the structures differ between ‘sun’ and ‘shade’ plants.

You MUST cite any sources you have used at the end. I do not expect Wikipedia references...
You may present your findings to the rest of the class.

2.4 State that light energy is absorbed by the green chemical chlorophyll
2.5 State that energy is used to bring about the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to
produce glucose (a sugar), oxygen produced as a waste product

Photosynthesis can be defined as an energy transducer. What might be meant by this

statement and how does it apply to photosynthesis?

What are the substrates for photosynthesis and how do plants obtain them?

What are the products?

Cells in the green parts of plants contain small structures called chloroplasts. Photosynthesis
takes place in the chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain a green substance called chlorophyll.
Chlorophyll traps light energy. This energy is used in the reactions which produce glucose (a
sugar) from carbon dioxide and water which can be converted into starch and stored.

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Practical: Carry out the chromatography of chlorophyll investigation. You may use a variety of
plant materials, such as grass, spinach and red leaves to compare the distribution of pigments.

HW: Complete the task outlined on the sheet and write the answers in your exercise book.

2.6 Recall the names of the reactants and products of photosynthesis, and use the word
equation
2.7 Recall the formulae of the reactants and products of photosynthesis, and use the symbol
equation

The biochemistry of photosynthesis

Energy is used to bring about the reaction between carbon dioxide and water to produce
glucose (a sugar, a type of simple carbohydrate), with oxygen produced as a waste
product. Light is the energy source for photosynthesis and chlorophyll is required to
absorb the light energy. Glucose may be converted into chemicals needed for growth of
plant cells, such as cellulose (a complex carbohydrate), protein and chlorophyll. Glucose
can also be converted into starch (yet another complex carbohydrate) for storage used in
respiration to release energy. Starch is insoluble; it does not interfere with osmosis in
plant cells, so is an excellent storage molecule. However, it can easily be converted back
to glucose when needed. Starch grains can be seen in chloroplasts.

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 Simplify the information above as a word equation for photosynthesis. Light and chlorophyll
should go above and below the arrow.

The formula for the simple sugar (glucose) formed by photosynthesis is C6H12O6. Use this to
write a balanced equation for photosynthesis in the space below

Why is light and chlorophyll above and below the arrow and not part of the equation?

What other chemical substances do plants need in order to grow successfully?

2.8 Recall that glucose may be converted into chemicals needed for growth of plant cells, for
example cellulose, protein and chlorophyll, converted into starch for storage used in
respiration to release energy

Testing leaves for starch

Please follow the instructions carefully and safely. Wear safety goggles throughout the
experiment. Wash your hands after the experiment.

1. Take a leaf and dip it into the boiling water for 1 minute (you can use a kettle to boil it or a
water bath at 100oC).
2. Label a boiling tube with your name.
3. Use forceps to remove the leaf from the beaker and
place into the labelled boiling tube.
4. Add enough ethanol to the boiling tube so it just covers
the leaf.
5. Place the boiling tube into the beaker of boiling water
but do not turn the gas back on.
6. Boil the leaf in the ethanol for 5 minutes. The ethanol will
turn green.
7. After 5 minutes CAREFULLY pour the waste ethanol into
the sink using tongs keeping the leaf in the boiling tube.
8. The leaf will be brittle. Soften the leaf by adding a little
warm water.
9. Gently remove the leaf. Spread it out on a white tile.
10. Completely cover the leaf with iodine solution.
11. A blue-black colour will show if the leaf contains starch.

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 1. Why is the leaf originally placed in boiling water?

2. What is the purpose of the boiling ethanol in the experiment?

3. Why did the ethanol turn green when it was added to the leaf?

4. What happened when the leaf was covered in iodine?

5. What conclusion can be drawn about the presence of starch in the leaf?

6. What are the main safety considerations with this experiment?

2.9 Investigate and explain how the rate of photosynthesis may be limited by: temp, carbon
dioxide, light intensity
2.10 Interpret data on factors limiting the rate of photosynthesis

The conditions needed for Photosynthesis

We can do experiments to find out if plants need chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide to
photosynthesise. The first step in the experiment is to destarch a leaf. This involves keeping the
plant in the dark for 48 hours so that any starch that the leaf has made previously is used up in
respiration. This means for each experiment we start with a starch-free plant.

VARIABLE PROCEDURE Observations upon adding iodine

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 Test a variegated leaf kept in the light for
Expt 1: 24 hours for starch. A variegated leaf is
Chlorophyll one which has parts which do not contain
chlorophyll, so look green and white.

Plant (2a) has been kept in the dark for a

further 48 hours. Remove a leaf and test
for starch.

Expt 2:
Light

Plant (2b) has had its leaves partly covered

with foil. Remove a foil covered leaf and
test for starch.

(a) A destarched plant was placed in a

strongly lit environment for 24 hours,
but where CO2 has been removed
from the air using soda lime. Test a
leaf for starch.
Expt 3:
Carbon
Dioxide
(b) Another destarched plant was placed
in a strongly lit environment for 24
hours, where CO2 is enriched, using
saturated sodium hydrogen
carbonate. Test a leaf for starch.

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Record the results in the table below.

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Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis can only happen in the light - but the rate of photosynthesis can be affected by
the intensity of light. It can also be affected by the carbon dioxide concentration, air temperature
and even the colour (wavelength) of the light.

Answer the ‘questions on measuring the rate of photosynthesis’, which explore the effect of
carbon dioxide and light intensity on how fast photosynthesis can occur.

List the three factors which most affect the rate of photosynthesis

1.

2.

3.

If any of these factors are too low, the rate of photosynthesis becomes limited. The one which
determines the overall rate of photosynthesis is called a limiting factor. As you increase this factor,
the rate of photosynthesis will increase - up to a point - where something else may then become
limiting. You need to know the shapes of the rate of photosynthesis versus light intensity,
concentration of carbon dioxide and temperature graphs.

Practical: Studying the rate of photosynthesis using leaf discs. Use the worksheet to explore
the relationship between light intensity and rate of photosynthesis. Use spinach leaves for best
results.

Try exercise 6 “Limiting Factors” on worksheet.

Revision

Sketch and label the drawing of a cross section of a leaf

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Leaf Structure and Function: Match the structure with the correct function.

Structure Function Structure

(muddled up) (correctly matched)

Xylem This layer has guard cells which control the

opening and closing of stomata

Spongy Mesophyll This layer decreases water loss. It is

Layer transparent so that light can pass through.

Lower epidermis Loosely-packed cells covered with a thin film

of water allows diffusion of gases. Large air
spaces.

Phloem Supports the leaf when the cells are turgid.

Covered by waxy cuticle.

Waxy Cuticle Composed of xylem and phloem. Provide

transport and support.

Upper epidermis Cell walls thickened with lignin. Conducts

water and mineral salts and gives mechanical
support.

Palisade mesophyll Transports sugars made during

photosynthesis. Sieve plates separate
adjacent cells.

Vascular bundle Cells are tightly-packed and contain many

chloroplasts for maximum light absorption.

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Part B: Respiration

Describe how the basic processes of life carried out by all living things depend on
chemical reactions within cells that require energy released by respiration
Recall that all living organisms require energy released by respiration for some
chemical reactions in cells, and explain how chemical reactions are involved in:
movement, synthesis of large molecules and active transport
Describe respiration as a series of chemical reactions that release energy by
breaking down large food molecules in all living cells

Read page 114-115 of your Pickering textbook to help answer these questions.

Define ‘respiration’
The release of energy from food molecules

Where does respiration occur?

In all living cells

Which elements do food molecules contain?

C, H, O, N

What is the difference between respiration and breathing?

Breathing is the taking in and releasing of air, (in the lungs) leading to the diffusion of oxygen;
respiration is the release of energy from food and takes place in the cells.
What is the relationship between respiration and photosynthesis?
The products of photosynthesis are the reactants of respiration; animals are reliant on plants for
their survival

Plants photosynthesize during the day. When do they respire?

All the time.

What is a substrate in the context of respiration?

The starting material - which is usually glucose

State four uses of energy from respiration in living organisms.

Muscle contraction; protein synthesis; active transport; cell division;

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Some uses of energy in organisms

Muscle contraction Protein synthesis Active transport of minerals

Cell division Growth Movement

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Recall that aerobic respiration takes place in animal and plant cells and some
microorganisms & requires oxygen. Identify mitochondria as the site of aerobic
respiration and ATP as the energy currency.

Cellular respiration takes place in the mitochondria of cells. In the presence of oxygen, enzymes
convert glucose (the substrate) into carbon dioxide and water, plus a lot of energy. The glucose is
oxidised. The energy is released in the form of molecules of ATP. These ATP molecules are used
in working cells to drive the reactions of the body, such as muscle contraction, active transport
and cell division. Some of the energy is ‘lost’ as heat.

Draw a simple model of a molecule of ATP, using circles, rectangles and pentagons.

How much energy in (kJ/mole) is released by burning 1 mole of glucose?

2870 kJ/mole

How much energy does the hydrolysis of 1 mole of ATP release?

30.5 kJ/mol

How many ATP molecules are produced in the hydrolysis of 1 mole of glucose in aerobic
respiration?

38

How many ATP molecules are produced in the hydrolysis of 1 mole of glucose in anaerobic
respiration?

2
What is the efficiency of conversion of energy in glucose to ATP in aerobic respiration?
38*30.5 = 1159
1159/2870 = 40%

What is the efficiency of conversion of energy in glucose to ATP in anaerobic respiration?

2*30.5 = 61
61/2870 = 2%

How much energy is lost as heat in each case?

Name four uses of energy provided by ATP.

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Investigation: “How much energy is there in different nuts?” Carry out the practical and answer the
questions on the sheet. You can compare almonds, walnuts and cashew nuts. You can compare
your results with the stated results on the package.

Teacher Demonstration: The food calorimeter

You will burn a known mass of food in a

known volume of water.

How much energy did the food contain?

Mass of food:

Volume of water:

initial temperature of water:

final temperature of water:

specific heat capacity of water:

Use the same formula to calculate the energy contained in 1 g of food.

energy contained in 1g of food =

Was this an improvement on the values you obtained? Why is this?

Respiration is such an important process, is occurs in all living cells. Aerobic

respiration burns food (glucose) using the oxygen from the atmosphere. In doing
so, it releases energy from the food, and makes the molecule ATP. Carbon dioxide
and water are waste products from this process.

Write out the word equation for aerobic respiration

Write out the balanced symbol equation for respiration, including the number of ATP produced.

Practical investigation: Using a Respirometer. Use this Google doc to help you set up a
respirometer to investigate the effect of temperature on the respiration rate of mealworms.

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Anaerobic Respiration

Anaerobic respiration takes place in animal, plant and some microbial cells in
conditions of low oxygen, to include plant roots in waterlogged soil, bacteria in
puncture wounds, human cells during vigorous exercise, and yeast in
microbiology.

In animals glucose is converted to lactic acid with a small amount of energy

released. In plant cells and some microorganisms including yeast, it is a two-step
process, where glucose is converted first to ethanal, and then finally to ethanol.
Carbon dioxide is released as well as a small amount of energy.

Activity: anaerobic respiration in humans.

Try these two quick activities.

Muscle fatigue and anaerobic respiration

Hold a heavy textbook out with your arm perfectly

horizontal. Time how long you can hold it like that. Rest for
10 seconds, then repeat. Rest for another 10 seconds and
repeat a third time. Record all your times.

Calculate the difference in time as a percentage change

between each trial.

What is the pattern?

Why is this?

Compare dominant and subdominant hand muscle

fatigue

With your dominant hand, hold a clothes peg between your

thumb and index finger. Click it open and closed as fast as
you can for a whole minute. Now repeat with your
sub-dominant hand.

Compare the experience between the two hands.

Anaerobic respiration occurs when an organism cannot get enough oxygen to respiring cells, for
example, during intense exercise. In this situation, the glucose is converted to lactic acid in
animals and ethanol and carbon dioxide in yeast. Only a small amount of energy is produced
during anaerobic respiration - only 2 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose, compared with 38
ATPs in aerobic respiration. This is better than nothing, but does mean that less ATP is available
to drive the reactions. When the ATP runs out, many processes simply cannot continue. When
ATP runs out in muscles, this is called muscle fatigue; muscles cannot work any more. Also, the
lactic acid causes a burning sensation as it builds up.

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 How many molecules of ATP are formed during anaerobic respiration?

Write the word equation for anaerobic respiration in animals.

Glucose --> lactic acid

Write the symbol equation for anaerobic respiration in animals.

C6H12O6 --> 2C3H6O3 + energy

Write the word equation for anaerobic respiration in yeast.

Glucose --> ethanol + carbon dioxide

Write the symbol equation for anaerobic respiration in yeast.

C6H12O6 --> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + energy

What is the efficiency of anaerobic respiration? (remember, each molecule of ATP yields
30.5kJ/mole upon hydrolysis)

~2%

How does this compare with aerobic respiration?

20 times worse

Remember glucose yields 2870 kj/mol on oxidation; ATP yields 30.5 kj/mol

Describe the role of anaerobic respiration in yeast during brewing and

bread-making.

Practical investigation : Anaerobic respiration in

yeast

In this investigation, you will be carrying out an

investigation into the effect of changing the sugar
substrate on anaerobic respiration of yeast. The
production of carbon dioxide over time will be used to
measure the rate.

Homework: “Yeast P6” Question

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Breathing - getting the air in and out
In order for our cells to receive the oxygen needed for aerobic respiration, large complex animals
need a system to bring air in close contact with the blood. This happens in the lungs, which are
large spongy structures surrounded by a very good blood supply. Air is brought into the lungs via
the trachea, which is a large tube, reinforced with rings of cartilage. These rings keep the trachea
open under low air pressure. The trachea splits into two bronchi, which in turn split again and
again into smaller bronchioles. These eventually end in tiny air sacs which look like bunches of
grapes, called alveoli. These are surrounded by a dense capillary network. It it between the
alveoli walls and the blood capillaries that gas exchange occurs. At every breath, oxygen diffuses
from the alveoli to the red blood cells in the capillaries and carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite
direction.

Ventilation

Breathing is the process of bringing air into and out of the lungs. A number of structures are
involved: the diaphragm flattens, and intercostal muscles between the ribs contract which pull the
ribcage up and out. These two processes increase the volume of the thorax, which in turn
decrease the air pressure in the lungs. To equalise this pressure imbalance, air is drawn into the
lungs through the mouth and nose. This is called inspiration.

Breathing out - or expiration - is the reverse. The diaphragm moves back to its curved position,
and there is elastic recoil in the ribcage. This reduces the volume of the thorax, which increase
the pressure. Air is forced out of the mouth and nose as a result.

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 1. In your exercise books, draw a labelled diagram of the thorax, to show all the structures
including: trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, ribs, intercostal muscles

2. In the space below, make a flow diagram outlining the process of inspiration

Bridge to IB

Respiration is much more complicated that these few pages suggest and the role of ATP in
driving chemical reactions is hard to underestimate. You can find out more by watching the ‘Crash
Course’ video on ATP & Respiration.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=00jbG_cfGuQ

Part C: Enzymes & rates of chemical reactions

Watch the McGraw Hill animation called “how enzymes work”, for an introduction into the model of
enzyme function.

Enzymes can be defined as proteins which function as biological catalysts. The substrate fits
into a special part of the enzyme called the active site to form an enzyme-substrate complex.
The product is released from the enzyme and the active site is available to receive more
substrate. This model is known as the lock and key model, where the enzyme is the lock and the
substrate is the key. Each active site is specific to a particular substrate. For example, only
hydrogen peroxide (the substrate) fits into the active site of catalase (the enzyme). The enzyme is
not altered by the reaction in any way - it does not take part in the reaction, it just speeds it up.

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The shape of the active site is easily altered as it is held together by weak chemical bonds. If the
enzyme no longer works because its active site has changed shape, we say it is denatured.
Many things can affect how well an enzyme works: extreme temperature, extreme pH, surface
area of substrate and enzyme concentration. Enzymes are specific to a function within a body
they have different optimum pHs.

1. What type of molecule are enzymes?

2. What is a catalyst?

3. What is the active site?

4. Define the term substrate in the context of enzymes.

5. Define the term product.

6. Describe the lock and key theory of enzyme activity.

7. Enzymes are said to be specific – what does this mean?

The effect of pH on the rate of digestion of starch by amylase.

Amylase is a digestive enzyme known as a carbohydrase. It breaks down starch into maltose
and is made in two places in the digestive system - in the mouth and in the pancreas. This
investigation will measure the time taken for amylase to completely break down starch using
iodine to track the reaction. You will mix amylase with starch, and vary the pH using pH buffers.
Samples will be taken at 20 second intervals. By noting the time at which the solution no longer
gives a blue-black colour with iodine solution ( the iodine solution remains orange) the rate of
reaction can be calculated.

You can use a range of pH buffers in this experiment to change the pH, but you must keep all
other variable constant.

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Method:

● Place two drops of iodine solution into each dimple on a spotting tile.
● Set up a 40˚C water bath by mixing hot and cold water to a thermos box. Use a
thermometer to check the temperature. Place a test tube rack in the water bath.
● Using a syringe, add 2 cm3 of amylase to one test tube and place in the water bath.
● Add 1 cm3 of pH 7 buffer to a second test tube and place in the water bath.
● Using a new syringe, add 3 cm3 of starch to a third test tube and place in the water bath.
● When the three solutions have reached 40˚C, add them together into a single test tube
and start the stopwatch.
● After 20 seconds, use a pipette to place one drop of the mixture on the first drop of iodine.
The iodine solution should turn blue-black. (If the iodine solution remains orange the
reaction is going too fast and the starch has already been broken down.) Squirt the rest of
the solution in the pipette back into the test tube.
● Wait another 20 seconds. Then remove a second drop of the mixture to add to the next
drop of iodine.
● Repeat this until the iodine solution remains orange for two consecutive samples.
● Count how many dimples you have used: each one equals 20 seconds of reaction time.
Record your results.
● Repeat the experiment using a range of different pH buffers. You should have time to try
out at least three different pH
● Record your results in the table below.

Table to show the time taken for the amylase to digest the starch at different pHs, at 40˚C

pH buffer Number of drops until Time taken (seconds) Rate of reaction (1/time)
used colour remains orange

On graph paper, draw a line graph to show the rate of enzyme reaction at different pH
values. Draw a line of best fit between the pH values.

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 1. What was the substrate for this experiment?

2. What was the enzyme?

3. How many seconds did it take for the amylase to completely digest the starch at pH7?

4. What was the best (optimum) pH for amylase to work, according to your results?

5. List three variables that were controlled in this investigation.

a)
b)
c)

6. Although the data collected was numerical, it was actually only semi-quantitative. What does
this mean?

7. What does ‘qualitative’ mean?

8. How could the data collected be made more reliable?

Note: The amylase used in this experiment is derived from a fungus, not an animal. It’s
optimum pH level is between pH4 and pH5.

Enzymes and temperature

Enzymes are proteins and are affected by temperature. Enzymes have an active site, which is
where the reaction takes place. At very low temperatures, enzymes are inactive, as there is
insufficient energy in the system to allow successful collisions between enzyme and substrate to
occur. As temperature increases, the kinetic energy increases. The enzymes and substrates
move around more quickly which increases the chances of collisions. The collisions also occur
with greater force, so the rate of reaction increases. The fastest rate of reaction occurs at the
optimum temperature. As temperature increases beyond this point, the bonds in the enzyme
molecules become damaged, or denatured. The active site changes shape and the substrate can
no longer fit. This is irreversible and the rate of reaction rapidly decreases as temperature
continues to rise. Eventually, all the enzymes will be denatured and the reaction will stop.
Reducing the temperature at this stage will have no effect.

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Investigating effect of temperature on the activity of lipase

Phenolphthalein is an indicator that is pink in alkaline solutions

of about pH10. When the pH drops below pH 8.3
phenolphthalein goes colourless. Here, an alkaline solution of
milk, lipase and phenolphthalein will change from pink to
colourless as the fat in milk is broken down to form fatty acids
(and glycerol) thus reducing the pH to below 8.3. The time
taken for this reaction to occur is affected by temperature.

Procedure
SAFETY: Keep the phenolphthalein solution away from sources of
ignition. Wear eye protection and quickly rinse any splashes of
enzyme solution or sodium carbonate from the skin.

Method

● Label 4 test tubes with the temperature to be investigated. ( 20˚C, 30˚C, 40˚C and 60˚C)
● Add 5 drops of phenolphthalein to each test tube.
● Measure out 5 cm3 of milk using a syringe and add this to the test tube labelled ‘20˚C’
● Measure out 7 cm3 of sodium carbonate solution using a measuring cylinder and add this
to the test tube. The solution should be pink.
● Place a thermometer in the test tube. Take care! (The equipment could topple over.)
● Place the test tube in a water bath and leave until the contents reach the same
temperature as the water bath.
● Remove the thermometer from the test tube and replace it with a glass rod.
● Use the 2 cm3 syringe to measure out 1 cm3 of lipase from the beaker in the water bath for
the temperature you are investigating.
● Add the lipase to the test tube and start the stopwatch.
● Stir the contents of the test tube with the glass rod until the solution loses its pink colour.
● Stop the stopwatch and note the time in a suitable table of results.
● POOL RESULTS FROM TWO OTHER GROUPS

Writing up the experiment - Teamie Assignment

You will be set an assignment on Teamie asking you to design and record results in a table. You
will need to process your data, draw conclusions from the results and evaluate the experiment.

Questions

1. What effect does cold temperature have on enzyme activity?

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 2. In terms of collision theory, explain inactivation of enzymes at low temperature.

3. As temperature increases, enzyme activity also increases. Using collision theory, explain why
this happens.

4. Enzymes work at an optimum temperature. What does this mean?

5. As temperature increases beyond the optimum temperature, enzyme activity decreases

rapidly. Why does this happen?

6. What term is used to describe enzymes that have been heated so much that they are
permanently damaged.

7. What has happened to the shape of the enzyme that has become denatured?

8. What effect has this had on the active site?

9. Why does this stop enzyme-substrate reactions?

10. What effect will cooling an enzyme down have on reaction rate? Why?

Sketch and explain a generalized graph to show the effect of temperature on enzyme. Annotate
the graph using the terms inactive, denatured, optimum temperature

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Review questions on factors affecting enzymes

1. What effect do extremes of pH have on enzymes?

2. Pepsin is a digestive enzyme found in the stomach. How might its optimum pH differ from
trypsin, a digestive enzyme made in the pancreas?

3. Look at the graphs below.

a) Compare the shape of the pH graphs with the temperature graph.

b) Arginase is an enzyme involved in making urea. Compare the graph of arginase with pepsin
in terms of the function of the enzymes.

c) What does graph 1 tell us about the effect of pH on the activity of enzymes?

graph 1: enzyme activity and pH graph 2: enzyme activity and temperature

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Collision theory and enzymes - using online simulations

Collision theory explains how particles react. In order for particles to successfully react, they need
to collide with each other with sufficient energy to produce a reaction. The more successful
collision there are the faster the rate of reaction. Factors such as temperature, pressure, presence
of a catalyst (or enzyme) and surface area all contribute to successful collisions.

Explore this concept before viewing this animation. BBC bitesize is also helpful here.

http://www.kscience.co.uk/animations/anim_2.htm (go
to bottom of screen)

Using the animation at the bottom of the webpage,

explore the effect of a variable - either temperature,
pH or substrate concentration.

Decide on a number of different values to change the

chosen variable and use a stopwatch to time how
long it takes for all the substrate to be converted into
product.

Repeat each trial at least three times.

Start with enzymes at 10; Substrate at 25;

Container at 400; inhibitor at 0

What was the variable you chose to investigate?

At what value of variable was the enzyme working at its optimum?

Explain the results, using your understanding of enzymes and collision theory.

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Part D: Energy exchange between organisms
❏ 2.29 State that the Sun is the principal source of energy input to biological systems.
2.30 Define the following:
❏ Food chain shows the flow of energy (food) from one organism to the next
beginning with a producer (e.g. mahogany tree → caterpillar → song bird → hawk),
❏ Food web as a network of interconnected food chains showing the energy flow
through part of an ecosystem,
❏ Producer as an organism that makes its own organic nutrients, usually using
energy from sunlight, through photosynthesis,
❏ Consumer as an organism that gets its energy by feeding on other organisms,
❏ Herbivore as an animal that gets its energy by eating plants,
❏ Carnivore as an animal that gets its energy by eating other animals.
❏ Decomposer as an organisms that gets its energy by breaking down dead organic
matter.
❏ 2.31 Describe energy losses between trophic levels in terms of heat by respiration and
excretion.

We have looked at energy on the level of the organism. However, energy is also passed between
organisms, and energy is lost at each link in the chain, through processes such as respiration and
excretion.

Food chains show the feeding relationships

between organisms. The sun is the ultimate
source of energy for life on earth. Plants
convert some of the light energy to chemical
energy in the form of glucose through
photosynthesis.

Because they make their own food, plants are

called autotrophs. Animals can eat plants to
gain some of this energy for themselves. They
are called heterotrophs, because they have to
gain their energy in the form of organic
molecules by consuming something else.

Each stage of the chain is known as a trophic

level. Herbivores are known as primary
consumers, as they eat producers. Carnivores
are secondary consumers, as they feed on
other animals. Animals at the end of the chain
are called top consumers.

As you move through the food chain, the

amount of energy available reduces, so there
are fewer animals at the top.

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Food webs

Food chains are usually quite simple but food webs show the interactions between different food
chains and are more realistic. Food chains usually are drawn horizontally, with the producer at the
left. Food webs, such as the one below, are usually drawn vertically, with the producers at the
bottom.

Use the food web above to answer the following questions.

1. Name one producer

2. Name one herbivore

3. Identify an organism that occupies more than one trophic level. Explain your answer using
examples from the food web.

4. Name one top predator

5. Draw a food chain with 7 trophic levels.

6. Explain why this is unusually long for a terrestrial food chain. (hint: it is to do with energy)

7. What might happen to the number of mice if the rabbits all die out from disease?

Task: Use ‘FIB food chains and webs (IB)’ to create your own food chains & food webs.

Bridge to IB: Senior Biology ‘FIB energy inputs and outputs’ - explore the energy
problem with food chains.

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Food pyramids

❏ 2.32 Explain the shapes of pyramids of numbers, biomass and energy.

❏ 2.33 Explain why food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels
❏ 2.34 Describe the carbon cycle.

Relative numbers of organisms at each trophic level (feeding level) can be shown by drawing
pyramids of numbers. These can be rather misleading however, as a whole tree or a tiny fly are
both counted as single organisms!

Similar pyramids can be drawn to show relative amounts of biomass in each level. These are more
realistic, because they take size into account, but can still be inverted when productivity is high,
such as in the oceans during summer months.

The most accurate pyramid is called a pyramid of energy, and this shows the amount of energy
which is passed through each level. It will always be a pyramid shape and cannot be inverted.

Constructing ecological pyramids

Complete the activities in the ‘Food chain record sheet’ - where you have to use data collected
from a freshwater ecosystem to construct pyramids of numbers, biomass and energy.

Bridge to IB: Senior Biology ‘Ecological Pyramids’ - Look at the different types of
pyramid in more detail and explore some of the unusual shapes that can exist in certain
conditions.

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