NOTES IN GENERAL BIOLOGY

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF CELL CONCEPT

1. ZACHARIAS JANSSEN
 1595
 First to compound microscope together with his son Hans Janssen.
2. ROBERT HOOKE
 1665
 Discovered cell through a cork Robert Hooke and Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek
 Discovered cell membrane and cell wall save magnification microscope power.
 Wrote a book name MICROGRAPHIA in 1667
3. ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOEK
 1674
 Father of Microbiology
 First to enhanced the microscope magnification (more improved)
 Discovered protozoa; bacteria and plant vacuoles
4. MATTHIAS JAKOB SCHLEIDEN Mathias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor
 1838 Schwann both have a research, titled
 state that “all plants are made up of cell” “Microscopial Research Accordance in the
5. THEODOR SCHWANN Structure and Growth of Animals and Plants.”
 1839
 states that “all animals are made up of cells”
6. RUDOLF VIRCHOW
 1857
 Father of Pathology (Pathogen – virus, bacteria, or protozoa)
 Stated that “all cells only arise from pre-existing cells”
 His study disproves “Aristotle’s Theory of Spontaneous Generation.”
-Aristotle conclude things without experimenting thoroughly.
-To see is to believe

UNIFIED CELL THEORY [3]

1. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things.
2. All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
3. Cells arise from other cells through cellular division.

MODERN CELL THEORY [6]

1. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things.
2. All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
3. Cells arise from other cells through cellular division.
4. Cells carry genetic material passed to daughter cells during cellular division

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 Mitosis
-Growth and repair
-Body cells that also known somatic cells (scientific name)
 Meiosis
-Cellular divisions
-Germ cells or sex cells
5. All cells are essentially the same in chemical composition
 Biomolecules ORGANIC COMPOUND 5 ELEMENTS OF LIFE
-Molecules of life
-Atom (represented by the elements) *Proteins *Carbohydrates *PCHON
*Lipids *Nucleic Acids -Phosphorus

6. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells -Carbon

 Energy transformation
8 -Hydrogen
 Photosynthesis (Plants)- cellular respiration [mitochondria]
 Cellular Respiration -Oxygen

-Nitrogen
DISCOVERY OF CELL PARTS

1. CAMILLO GOLGI
 1897
 Study and discovered Golgi body
2. KEITH PORTER
 1953
 Study and termed endoplasmic reticulum

*Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – (fats) Lipids synthesis The difference between the
*Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – Protein synthesis two of them is ribosomes

3. GEORGE PALADE
 1955
 study and discovered ribosomes (known before as Palade particles)
4. RUDOLF ALBERT VON KOLLIKER
 1857
 Obtained the credit on the discovery of mitochondria (first to study)
-The study is not finish
-There is no name
5. RICHARD ALTMANN
 1886
 name the mitochondria as bioblast (life germs)
6. CARL BENDA
 1898
 change the name of bioblast into mitochondria

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7. FRANZ ANDREAS BAUER
 1804
 first to make observations about the nucleus of the cell
 his research is not detailed enough
8. ROBERT BROWN
 1831
 obtained the credit on the discovery of nucleus of the cell (more detailed)
9. JOHN GURDON & DONALD BROWN
 1964
 made an accurate study and discovery of nucleolus of the cell
10. CHRISTIAN DE DUVE
 1955/ 1965
 discovered lysosomes (1955) and peroxisomes (1965)
11. EDUOARD VAN VENEDEN
 1883
 first to study centrosome and credited for its discovery
12. THEODOR BOVERI
 1888
 coined the term “centrosome“ – contains 2 centriole units
*2 centriole- centrosome
*1 centriole- centriole
 Centrosome can only found in animals not in the plants
13. NIKOLAI KOLTSOV
*cytosol (liquid part)
 1903
 discovered cytoskeleton- make cytoplasm solid *cytoskeleton (solid part)
14. JAN EVANGELISTA PURKINJE
 1903 Inside the nucleus
 credited for the discovery semi liquid part of the cell called protoplasm

-Cytoplasm (inside the cell and outside the nucleus)

-Karyoplasm (inside the nucleus)

*Nucleus- chromosomes (solid part of nucleus)

*Nucleoplasm –cytosol

-cytoskeleton
nucleosol

HIDDEN WORLD OF CELLS

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 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Cell Parts:

 Nucleus- dictating (protected by the nuclear membrane)

-Control center of the cell
-Directs majority of biological processes of the cell
-Carries the organism’s genetic make up (DNA)
*Nucleolus- ribosomes synthesis
creation
created

 Cell membrane- wall, it protects the cell (responsible in controlling the things that entering)
-A phospholipid bilayer separates the cell from outside environment
-Semi – permeable / (selectively permeable)

Figure 4.9. The eukaryotic plasma membrane is

a phospholipid bilayer with proteins and
cholesterol embedded in it.

 Cytoplasm- organelles (little organs) - biological process where the organelles are suspends.
- cell's entire region between the plasma (cell) membrane and the nuclear envelope
- comprised of organelles (little organs) suspended in the gel- like cytosol, the cytoskeleton, and
various chemicals Retain the shape and supports the entire
- cite of numerous metabolic processes of the cells
- Cytoskeleton (network of protein fibers) is composed of intermediate filament, microfilament
(actin), and microtubules (tubulin)
*The difference of the 3 is their sizes.
The biggest among the three

*Tubulin- refer to tubulin protein superfamily of globular proteins, it

is the building blocks of microtubules (narrow, hollow tubes inside
a cell), which are involved in cell division and cell movement.

*Actin- a family of globular multi-functional proteins that form

microfilaments in the cytoskeleton, and the thin filaments in muscle
fibrils. It is found in essentially all eukaryotic cell.

Figure
TYPES OF FIBERS 4.22. Microfilaments thicken the cortex around the cell’s
IN CYTOSKELETON
inner edge. Like a rubber bands, they resist tension. There are
microtubules in the cell’s interior where they maintain their shape
by 4resisting compressive forces. There are intermediate filaments
throughout the cell that hold organelles in place.
 PROTEIN FIBER DIAMETER FUNCTION
MICROFILAMENT 7 nm cellular movement
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT 8-10 nm create a supportive scaffolding inside the cell
MICROTUBULE Up to 25 nm resist compression, provide a track along which vesicles move
through the cell, and pull replicated chromosomes to opposite ends
of a dividing cell.

ORGANELLES

MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLE NON MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLE

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
GOLGI BODY
VACOULE
VESICLE RIBOSOME
MITOCHONDRIA CENTROSOME
PLASTID(S)
LYSOSOME
PEROXISOME

COMPARISON BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

 Eukaryotic cells have a membrane and the prokaryotic cells do not have a membrane.
BACTERIA- binary fission (asexual reproduction)

*Nucleoid region- suspended and it is also a false nucleus

*Flagellum- In human it is sperm cells; movements; propels them

*Cilia- hair like projection

*Pili- responsible for genetic exchange; supports

*Conjugation- genetic exchange process

*Pseudopod- false feet

Figure 4.5. The figure shows the
generalized structure of
prokaryotic cell. All prokaryotes
have chromosomal DNA localized
in nucleoid, ribosomes, cell
membrane, and a cell wall. The
other structure shown present in
some but not all, bacteria.
*Peptidoglycan- cell wall of bacteria
*Cellulose- Plants wall
*Chitin- found in the cell wall of fungi; it is also found in carb and other animal (that
turns orange when cooked)
*Golgi body- protein packaging of the cell; vesicles & vacuoles

Category Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Presence of membrane bound nucleus Absent (nucleoid) Present (Nucleus)

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Type of organism Unicellular organism Multicellular organism
Mode of reproduction Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
Presence of organelles Absent Present
Appendages/ Motility Cilia; Flagella; Pseudopod Flagella
Size Less than 5 micrometers 10 – 100 micrometers
Presence of cell wall Present (Peptidoglycan) Present except animal cell (Cellulose or
Chitin)

TISSUE BUILDERS: THE SPECIALIZED ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS

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TISSUE- Group of specialized cells that have specific function necessary for the organism to survive.

• STEM CELL- Sex ell, Muscle cell, Fat cell, Bone cell, Blood cell, Nervous cell, Epithelial cell, and Immune
cell.

Bone cell + bone cell = bone tissue

Nerve cell + nerve cell = nervous tissue

*How tissues are formed?

-Tissue is being formed by cell modification also known cell modification

Cell Differentiation

• A process in which cells divide and mature into different type of cell.

• Differentiated cell came from one common type of cell that is capable of dividing into numerous
unique type of cell called stem cell.

*Stem cell undergo asymmetric cell division – each of the

daughter cells produce has its own unique life course with
the aid of transcription factor.

*Transcriptional regulators can act at different stages, and in

different combinations, through the path of cell development
and differentiation.

CLASSIFICATION OF STEM CELLS

a. Toniponent stem cell Scientific name

• Zygote or conceptus -blastocyst

• Creates the placenta (trophoblast) and the embryo (embryoblast/ inner cell mass)

> trophoblast- creation of placenta

> embryoblast- creation of embryo

b. Pluripotent embryonic stem cell

organs
• Forms the 3 germ line (endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm) that will develop into embryo.

• It is the embryo itself.

c. Multipotent stem cells

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 • Adult stem cells

• Develops into an adult cell to where organ system it is located

WHAT ARE THE MAJOR TISSUES AND THEIR FUNCTION IN THE HUMAN BODY?

HUMAN TISSUE

EPITHELIAL TISSUE IS MEANT FOR: CONNECTIVE TISSUE:

Protection Diffusion -Structural framework of the -Supports, surrounds, and interconnects other
body types of tissue
Reduces friction Absorption
-Transport -Stores energy reserve,
Excretion Cleaning
-Protects delicate organs -Defense system
Sensation Secretion

MUSCLE TISSUE: NEURAL TISSUE:

-Specialized for contraction
-Produces all body movement
-Also called nervous or nerve tissue
-Specialized for conducting electrical
impulses
-Rapidly senses internal or external
environment
-Processes information and controls
responses

WHAT ARE THE MAJOR TISSUES AND THEIR FUNCTION IN PLANTS?

*There are two types of tissue and these are Meristematic tissue and Permanent tissue.
Growth of the plants

MERISTEMATIC TISSUE

INTERCALARY MERISTEMS LATERAL MERISTEMS

APICAL MERISTEMS
-Present at the tips of the roots
(Root Apical Meristems) and shoots
(Shoot Apical Meristems) and helps
in the increase of the height/ length
of the plants by creating new set of
plant parts.
-It is located in the leaves and internodes
at the intercalary position.
-These help to increase the length of the
internode.
-It adds to the height of the plant.
-It is located in the stems and roots
on the lateral side.
-It increases the thickness of the
plant.
-Vascular cambium and cork
cambium are the two lateral
meristems.

PERMANENT TISSUE

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 DERMAL TISSUE
-covers and protects the plant;
controls gas exchange and water
absorption (in roots). It is covered
by a waxy cuticle that prevents
evaporative water loss (except on
roots).
CELLS OF DERMAL TISSUE
• STOMATA (surrounded by guard
cells) - guard cells; gas exchange in
leaves.
• EPIDERMAL CELLS - absorption of
water; not covered by waxy cuticle;
root hairs (ex. thorns).
• TRICHOMES (or small hair) -
reduce transpiration; increase solar
reflectance; defend the leaves
against herbivores.
*The cell plate of the plants form in the inner cell wall.
VASCULAR TISSUE GROUND TISSUE
-transports water, minerals, and sugars to -The cells that made it up are
different parts of the plant. parenchyma (photosynthesis in the
leaves, and storage in the roots),
• Xylem tissue- transports water and
collenchyma (shoot support in
nutrients from the roots to different parts of
areas of active growth), and
the plant; structural support in the stem.
sclerenchyma (shoot support in
-Xylem is made from VESSEL ELEMENTS and areas where growth has ceased)
TRACHEIDS, both of which are tubular,
elongated cells that conduct water.
-they are actually dead when they carry out
their job of transporting water throughout
the plant body.
• Phloem tissue- transports organic
compounds from the site of photosynthesis to
other parts of the plant. The xylem and
phloem always lie adjacent to each other in a
vascular bundle (stem) and vascular cylinder
(roots).
-Phloem is made from SIEVE TUBE CELLS
(conduct sugars and other organic
compounds) and COMPANION CELLS (lie
adjacent to the sieve cells to provide
metabolic support and regulation.
*Pith- storage of starch in plants
CELL CYCLE AND CHECKPOINTS
9
CELLULAR REPRODUCTION

-Creation of organs

-Growth of organism

-Replaced damaged or old cells

-Production of sex cells

*Organelles- when the human baby is form inside the belly of a mother.

KEY MATERIALS FOR CELL DIVISION

NUCLEUS CENTRIOLES CHROMOSOME

Cell’s center that Organize spindle fibers Organize structure of

contains the genetic that aids migration of DNA and protein.
material –DNA. chromosome.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) - stores genetic makeup

CHROMATIN CHROMATID CHROMOSOME

Fiber – like condensed Part of chromosome. Organize structure of

DNA on histones. DNA and protein.

*RNA (Ribonucleic acid) – single stranded; the first nucleic acid evolve in our world; can’t store genetic
makeup but can bind with other.

*DNA is inside in chromatin itself.

*CHROMATOSOMES

1 nucleosome (bead)- 8 histone + 146

base pairs of DNA.

*Chromatin is being locked in

nucleosome with the help of histone.

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 BASIC PARTS OF CHROMOSOMES

• p arm (petite arm)

• q arm (queue arm)- longer

• Heterochromatin (dark) –
condensation in this section is
very compact; it promotes sturdy
structure.

• Euchromatin (light) – a little bit

loose; promotes flexibility.

THE CELL CYCLE

GAP 1 PHASE SYNTHESIS PHASE GAP 2 PHASE M PHASE

• Cell increase in size; • DNA Replication. • Rapid protein • Cell starts to divide
synthesis; into 2 diploid cells
• doubles the number
(mitosis) or 4 haploid
of organelles; • Cellular checkpoint
cells (meiosis).
to see if the cell is
• prepares for DNA
ready to divide.
replication.

THE CELL CYLE AND CHECKPOINTS

GAP 0 PHASE – every organelles is checked.

1. CELL GROWTH CHECKPOINT

-occur toward the end of phase 1 (G1); checks whether the cell is
big enough and has made proper proteins for synthesis phase (S)
and if not, the cell goes through a resting period (G0) until it’s
ready to divide.

2. DNA SYNTHESIS CHECKPOINT

-occurs during synthesis phase (S); checks whether DNA has been
replicated correctly.

3. MITOSIS CHECKPOINT

-occurs during mitosis phase (M); checks whether mitosis is

complete and if so, the cell divides, and the cycle repeats.

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 CELL CYCLE REGULATORS

-The most important core cell cycle regulators are proteins called Cyclins, enzymes called cyclin
dependent kinases (Cdks), and an enzyme complex called the Anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome
(APC/C).

• Cyclins are among the most important core cell cycle regulators. Cyclin is associated with a particular
phase, transition, or set of phases in the cell cycle and helps drive the events of that phase or period.
Four basic types found in humans and most other eukaryotes: G1 Cyclins, G1/S cyclins, S cyclins, and M
cyclins.

Cyclin – dependent kinases

-In order to drive the cell cycle forward, a cyclin must activate or inactivate many target proteins inside
of the cell. Cyclins drive the events of the cell cycle by partnering with a family of enzymes called the
cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks). A lone Cdk is inactive, but the binding of a cyclin activates it, making it
a functional enzyme and allowing it to modify target proteins.

-Cdks are kinases, enzymes that phosphorylate (attach phosphate groups to) specific target proteins.
The attached phosphate group acts like a switch, making the target protein more or less active. When a
cyclin attaches to a Cdk, it has two important effects: it activates the Cdk as a kinase and directs the Cdk
to a specific set of target proteins.

Anaphase Protein Complex/Cyclosome

-M cyclins must be destroyed to anaphase start.

-It destroyed the protein(s) that hold sister chromatids together, allowing them to separate in anaphase
and move to opposite poles of the cell.

*How APC/C works?

-APC/C tags the target cell with a small protein tag called ubiquitin (Ub). When a target is tagged with
ubiquitin, it is sent to the proteasome (to destroy and/or recycle it).

• The APC/C also uses ubiquitin tagging to trigger the separation of sister chromatids during mitosis.
COHESIN, the protein glue that holds sister chromatids together.

• APC/C first adds a ubiquitin tag to a protein called SECURIN, sending it for recycling. SECURIN normally
binds to, and inactivates, a protein called SEPARASE.

• When securin is sent for recycling, SEPARASE becomes active and can do its job (chops the cohesion
allowing the sister chromatids to separate).

12
 CELL DIVISION

• Mitosis – cellular division of the body cell and also called somatic cell.

• Meiosis – sex cells, also called gametes.

• Gametogenesis – creation of gametes (sperm cell and egg cell)

MITOSIS

I II III IV
PROPHASE METAPHASE ANAPHASE TELOPHASE
-NUCLEAR MEMBRANE -CHROMOSOME ALIGNS -CENTRIOLES PULL THE -CELL BEGINS TO
DISAPPEAR, CHROMOSOMES AT THE METAPHASE CHROMOSOME ON RECONSTRUCT ITSELF
ARE EXPOSED PLATE (CELL’S EQUATOR) OPPOSITE POLES VIA
SPINDLE FIBERS

*Aster- under construction of spindle fiber (an immature spindle fiber).

*In mitosis the results is two identical diploid cells.

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 EUKAROYOTIC REPLICATION CYCLE (times are for cells growing in culture)

G0: Resting Phase • Prophase – 36 minutes

G1: Growth & Metabolism (6-12 hours; DNA= 4n->2n) • Metaphase – 3 minutes
S: DNA Replication (6-8 hours; DNA=2n->4n) • Anaphase – 3 minutes
G2: Growth of structural Elements (3-4 hours; DNA=4n) • Telophase – 18 minutes
M: Mitosis (1 hours; DNA=4n->2n) TOTAL OF NO. OF HOURS = 16-25 HOURS

TOTO
MEIOSIS (sex cell division)

MEOISIS I MEOISIS II
> PROPHASE I > PROPHASE II
> METAPHASE I > METAPHASE II
> ANAPHASE I > ANAPHASE II
> TELOPHASE I > TELOPHASE II
RESULT: 2 UNIDENTICAL DIPLOID CELLS RESULT: 4 UNIDENTICAL HAPLOID
CELLS (1/2 EACH CELLS).

14
 PROPHASE I
LEPTONENE ZYGOTENE PACHYTENE DIPLOTENE DIAKINESIS
• Chromosomes • Bivalent formation • Crossing over will • Synaptonemal • Chromosomes
condense. (pairing) happens. take place. complex disappears. disperse, end of
Prophase I.

*Cytokinesis- process of separation of cytoplasm

*Kinetochore- a protein structure; it forms at the centromere of every chromosome.

*Homologous chromosome- same length

*Synaptonemal complex- temporary protein glue in zygotene.
*Chiasma- area where the chromosomes exchange genetic makeup.
MEIOSIS II
The cell divide itself- 4 haploid cells

PROPHASE II METAPHASE II ANAPHASE II TELOPHASE II

In the second meiotic
division, homologous
chromatids do not
duplicate but merely
separate.
The chromatids line up at
mid-cell. The centrioles and
asters are at the poles. A
spindle has formed.
The now-separated
chromatids approach their
respective poles. The cell
membrane begins to
constrict.
It has been completed.
There are now fours cells,
each with half the number
of chromosomes of the
parent cell.

MEIOSIS ON HUMANS (ANIMALS)

15
 GENETIC DISORDERS: RESULT OF CELL CYCLE MALFUNCTION
*HOW GENETIC DISORDER OCCURS?

Mutation – The change in the original genetic make of an organism resulting to abnormalities or peculiar
characteristics. It occur at the molecular level (genes) and change a single gene. Or at the chromosome
level and affect many genes.

*HOW MUTATION HAPPENS?

> Environmental Factors

> Oncogene is triggered Sex chromosomes (sperm & egg)

Traits of the parents to its children by the help of
INHERITABILITY OF MUTATIONS
gametes.
• Germ mutations – occurs in gametes; INHERITABLE (colorblindness, hemophilia).

• Somatic mutations – affect the body cell; NOT INHERITABLE (cancer causing).

TYPES OF MUTATIONS

• Point Mutations - effects a single gene, aka gene mutation.

a. Substitution - one base exchanges for another, affects 1 amino acid (Ex. GCA – TCA GCT – TCA).
entire chromosomes
b. Frameshift - one base is removed or deleted and/or added, affects
itself;the whole
entire protein structure.
DNA
• Chromosomal Mutations - most drastic, change in structure or number of chromosomes (affects many
genes).

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 TYPES OF GENETIC DISEASE INHERITANCE

• SINGLE GENETIC INHERITANCE - caused by changes or mutations in a SINGLE GENE within the DNA
sequence that results to SINGLE GENE DISORDERS. Sometimes called MENDELIAN OR MONOGENETIC
INHERITANCE

Single – gene disorders have different patterns of genetic inheritance:

AUTOSOMAL INHERITANCE

> AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT INHERITANCE, in which only one copy of a defective gene (from either
parent) is necessary to cause the condition. (Ex. Marfan Syndrome, Huntington’s disease).

> AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE INHERITANCE, in which two copies of a defective gene (one from each parent)
are necessary to cause the condition. (Ex. Cystic Fibrosis, Sickle Cell Anemia).

> CODOMINANCE, in which two different versions (alleles) of a gene are expressed and influence the
genetic trait or characteristics of the offspring.

SEX LINKED INHERITANCE

> X – LINKED INHERITANCE, in which the defective gene is present on the female, or X-chromosome. X-
linked inheritance may be dominant or recessive.

* X Linked- Dominant (ex. Fragile x Syndrome)

* X Linked – Recessive (ex. Hemophilia)

* Some X-linked dominant disorders are embryonic lethal in males, and most affect females less
severely.

* A few carriers may be mildly affected due to skewed X-inactivation.

* What if the father is affected and the mother is carrier? = the occurrence of an X linked recessive trait
will increase.

> Y – LINKED INHERITANCE, in which mutated gene is located on the Y – chromosome, therefore
transmission is from father to son only.

• MULTIFACTORIAL GENETIC INHERITANCE - caused by changes or MUTATIONS OF MULTIPLE GENES

within the DNA sequence and ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS. Sometimes called COMPLEX OR
POLYGENETIC INHERITANCE.

*Multifactorial genetic inheritance can be acquired in lifestyle.

Example(s) of Multifactorial Gene Disorder: Heart Disease, Hypertension, Arthritis, Diabetes, Cancer, and
Induced eye defects.

• CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITY - occurs during cell division. Some gains or loses a chromosome
because of NONDISJUNCTION, others might have a DELETION, DUPLICATION, INVERSION or
MISPLACEMENT OF SECTION within the segment of chromosome structure.

17
NUMERICAL CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITY - Cell experiences aneuploidy– gain or loss of
chromosome due to nondisjunction (failed separation of chromosomes).

Ex. Trisomy (Autosomes), Down Syndrome, Edward Syndrome, Patau Syndrome, Monosomy, Turner
Syndrome, Trisomy (Allosomes), Klinefelter Syndrome, Triple x Syndrome, and Jakob Syndrome.

STRUCTURAL CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITY - A section of chromosome is either deleted, inverted,

duplicated or misplaced.

Ex. Chromosomal Inversion, Chromosomal Deletion, Chromosomal Duplication, Chromosomal

Translocation, Cri Du Chat Syndrome, Pallister Killian Syndrome, and Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia.

• MITOCHONDRIAL INHERITANCE - applies to the genes of mitochondrial DNA. Mitochondria of the egg
cell contributes to the developing embryo therefore the mitochondrial characteristics came from the
female. Sometimes called MATERNAL INHERITANCE.

TRANSPORT MECHANISMS OF THE CELL

CELL MEMBRANE

COMPONENTS FUNCTION
Phospholipid Main framework structure
Integral or channel proteins Transport of substances
Peripheral proteins Cell recognition
Carbohydrate complex unit Cell recognition; interacts with
(Glycoproteins & Glycolipids) the aqueous environment
Cholesterol Dampens effect of temperature

PASSIVE vs. ACTIVE

PASSIVE TRANSPORT ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Does NOT use ATP to transport materials across Use ATP to transport material across the
the cell membrane (an effortless way to transport membrane.
molecules and substances in and out of the cell.)

PASSIVE TRANSPORT

 The movement of substances are describe as going “down a concentration gradient”

 Substances moved from region of higher to lower concentration
 Example is DIFFUSION

DIFFUSSION - A physical process where a substance is spread throughout the available space from the
area of greater molecular concentration to lower molecular concentration. The purpose of diffusion is to
reach the equilibrium of both side of the cell (inside & outside of cell).

THE RATE OF DIFFUSION DEPENDS ON: (The factors that affects the diffusion)

18
 1. Concentration gradient – Difference between the two concentrations. If there is no difference in
two concentration, then it is already reach the equilibrium state.

2. Size of particles – bigger molecules slows down diffusion and vice versa.

3. Temperature – hotter temperature makes molecules move faster thus increases diffusion. The
colder the temperature the slower the molecules move.

4. Solvent density – higher density of the solvent decreases diffusion rate and vice versa (the higher
the density the more viscous it is, the harder for the diffusion to happen and vice versa).

DIFFUSION: FACILITATED TRANSPORT - a form of diffusion which the entry and exit of the substances
are aided by the membrane proteins.

TRANSPORT PROTEINS THAT AIDS FACILITATED DIFFUSION:

• Channel proteins are embedded in the cell membrane & have a pore for materials to cross.

• Carrier proteins can change shape to move material from one side of the membrane to the other.

DIFFUSION: OSMOSIS - a form of diffusion which refers to the movement of water through a
semipermeable membrane (cell’s plasma membrane).

CELL AT DIFFERENT SOLUTION

TONICITY

- describes how extracellular solution affects and changes the volume of the cell.

ISOTONIC HYPERTONIC HYPOTONIC

“iso” means equal
- The cell is at EQUILIBRIUM.
- The water will flow in both
directions outside and inside
the cell.
- The solute and water
concentrations are the same
inside and outside the cell.
- Seems to be normal
“hyper” means above
- The water is GOING OUT of
the cell.
- The solute concentration is
greater outside the cell,
therefore water will flow
outside the cell.
- The cell shrink (plasmolysis).
“hypo” means below
- The is GOING INSIDE the cell
(the water is attracted to the
solute inside the cell).
- The solute concentration is
greater inside the cell than
outside, therefore water will
flow into the cell.
- The cell burst (cytolysis).

*There must be equilibrium inside and outside of the cell.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT

 it is a “uphill movement of substances” in a cell membrane

 “Uphill” means “up a concentration “ – meaning from lower to higher concentration
 usage of ATP is necessary

19
 PROTEIN PUMP- protein structure used by active transport

BULK TRANSPORT:

• Exocytosis - expelling of material outside of the cell.

• Endocytosis - moving in of large molecules or particles, cell part or even a whole cell inside of the cell.

ENDOCYTOSIS
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis Receptor mediated endocytosis
- Example is white blood cells
- Engulf liquid materials - Only engulf specific materials
- Phagocytotic Vesicle (ex. hormones)
- Pinocytotic Vesicle
- Cell engulfs a solid particle - Coated Vesicle

*If there is more solute in one area, then there is less water; if there is less solute in one area, then
there must be more water.

UNIT II: MOLECULES

ENZYMES
• ENZYMES- protein catalyst that INCREASES THE VELOCITY of the reaction rate

example of specialized protein in which it will going to use it furtherly speed up any chemical
processes or any biochemical processes that the cell needs to perform.

• ACTIVE SITE- part of an enzyme where the reaction will be taken place. This is the part of the enzyme
where the substrate will fit itself.

MECHANISM OF ENZYME ACTION

1. The substrate, sucrose,
consists of glucose and
fructose bonded
together.
2. The substrate binds to
the enzyme, forming an
enzyme-substrate
complex
3. The binding of the
substrate and enzyme
placers stress on the
glucose-fructose bond
and the bond breaks.
4. Products are released,
and the enzyme is free to
bind other substrates.

*Enzyme is also an agent for building

*Anabolism- process of building materials

*Catabolism- breaking of materials

Theories of Enzyme Specificity

(a) Lock and key model- specific enzyme that will workout to specific substrate; one to one ratio.

20
Example: Lipase enzyme substrate to Lipid, Protease enzyme substrate to Protein, and Nuclease enzyme
substrate to Nucleic Acid.

(b) Induced fit model- one specific enzyme that could cater not just one but plenty of substrate.

*The active site quite flexible, it can change it shape so that other substrate can fit in.

MAJOR TYPES OF ENZYMES

TYPE DESCRIPTION
OXIDOREDUCTASE(S) For oxidation reduction reactions.
TRANSFERASE(S) Transfer of functional groups.
HYDROLASE(S) Aids hydrolytic reactions or hydrolysis.
Hydrolase(s) means it is a process of splitting up
big chunk of molecules to smaller one.
LYASE(S) OR DESMOLASE(S) Addition or removal of a H2O, CO2 and/or
NH3 to the double bond without oxidation and
hydrolysis.
ISOMERASE(S) Rearrangement of atoms to create isomers.
LIGASE(S) OR SYNTHASE(S) Joins molecules using ATP energy.

FACTORS AFFECTING ENZYME FUNCTION

• Enzyme concentration

- As the number of enzyme increases the reaction rate will be faster and vice versa.

> More enzymes equals to more frequently collide with substrate.

> Reaction rate levels off

- substrate becomes limiting factor

- not all enzyme molecules can find substrate

• Substrate concentration

- As the substrate increases as so with the number of enzymes increase, therefore the reaction rate will
go higher and vice versa.

> More substrate equals to more frequently collide with enzyme.

> Reaction rate levels off (maximum rate of reaction)

- all enzymes have active site engaged

- enzyme is saturated

• Temperature

> Optimum T°

- greatest number of molecular collisions

21
- human enzymes = 35°- 40°C (body temperature = 37°C)

> Heat: increase beyond optimum T°

- increase energy level of molecules disrupts bonds in enzyme & between enzyme & substrate (H, ionic =
weak bonds)

- Enzyme is also a protein, and protein can be destroyed in higher temperature.

- Denaturation – process of destruction of protein; lose 3D shape (3° structure)

> Cold: decrease T°

- molecules move slower

- decrease collisions between enzyme & substrate

• pH Level

> Changes in pH

- adds or remove H+

- disrupts bonds, disrupts 3D shape (disrupts attractions between charged amino acids; affect 2° & 3°
structure; denatures proteins)

*If the pH level is not suited to that enzyme it will results to enzyme lose its 3D structure and can’t
function well.

> Optimal pH

- most human enzymes = pH 6-8

- depends on localized conditions

- pepsin (stomach) = pH 2-3

- trypsin (small intestines) =pH 8

• Salinity or Salt concentration

-How salty a particular environment

> Changes in salinity

- adds or remove cations (+) & anions (-)

- disrupts bonds and 3D structure (it will disrupts bonds and 3D structure of the enzyme if and only if
there’s too much salinity to it.

- disrupts attractions between charged amino acids

- affect 2° & 3° structure

22
- denatures protein

> Enzymes intolerant of extreme salinity (dead sea is called dead for a reason)

COMPOUND WHICH HELP ENZYMES

• ACTIVATORS

COFACTORS COENZYMES

-Minerals -Vitamins (NAD [niacin; B3], FAD [riboflavin;

-Non-protein, small inorganic compounds &
ions (Mg, K, Ca, Zn, Fe, Cu; bound within
enzyme molecules).
B2], and Coenzyme A)
-Non-protein, organic molecules (binds
temporarily or permanently to enzyme near
activate site.

COMPOUNDS WHICH REGULATES ENZYMES

• INHIBITORS – if activators is a molecules or sub sort of helping hand for enzymes to function well,
inhibitors is another molecules that will stops or slows down the reaction rate of specific enzyme.

• INHIBITION- a process

(a) COMPETITIVE INHIBITION (b) NONCOMPETITIVE INHIBITION

- Competitive inhibitor interferences with - Allosteric inhibitor changes shape of

active site of enzyme so substrate cannot enzyme so it cannot bind to substrate.
bind.

COMMON DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

CARBOHYDRATE DIGESTION PROTEIN DIGESTION FAT DIGESTION

Amylase Rennin Bile
Maltase Pepsin Lipase
Sucrase Trypsin
Lactase Peptidase

23
 UNIT III: BIOENERGETICS
INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND CELLULAR RESPIRATION
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1 glucose molecule (product of photosynthesis)
GENERAL CHEMICAL REACTION FORMULA:

6CO2 + 12 H2O + light energy C6H12O6 + 6O2+ 6H2O

This is enough to make 1 glucose molecule byproduct of 6 oxygen and 6

molecules of water.

• Carbohydrate made is glucose (C6H12O6)

• Water appears on both sides because 12 H2O molecules are required and 6 new H2O molecules are
made

• Water is split as a source of electrons from hydrogen atoms releasing O2 as a by – product

• Electrons increase potential energy when moved from water to sugar therefore energy is required.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS IS COMPOSE OF TWO PHASES

Light Dependent Reaction Light Independent Reaction

- Discovered by Jan Ingenhousz - Discovered by Melvin Calvin and Andrew Benson

- Creates NADPH and ATP - Sometimes it also known as Calvin Benson Cycle

- Technically happens in day time - Creates glucose (C6H12O6)

- Technically happens in night time

*NADPH and ATPS will be a source of energy so that the photosynthesis could still continue during night
time, hence dark reaction eminence.

INSIDE THE LEAF: MESOPHYLL

• Mesophyll is a tissue between the leaf’s upper and lower epidermis.

• Mesophyll cells also house chloroplasts thus making the mesophyll the site of photosynthesis.

MESOPHYLL: DICOT LEAF and MESOPHYLL: MONOCOT LEAF

*Chloroplasts is a plastid, it is an organelle that carries the green pigment responsible for photosynthesis
and that is chlorophyll.

*Inside the chloroplasts is chlorophyll.

PARTS OF CHLOROPLASTS

24
 Chloroplasts are technically made up of the ff:

•Outer Membrane
These are the two coats, so that the chlorophyll is well protected.
• Inner Membrane

• Intermembrane Space

• Stroma (aqueous fluid)- a aqueous part of chloroplasts, this is the site of DARK REACTION or the LIGHT
INDEPENDENT REACTION

•Thylakoid- specific site of light reaction phase

• Thylakoid Lumen-the set of coins, the thylakoid lumen builds of 1 set of granum (stack of thylakoids)

• Granum (stack of thylakoids)

Granum is the singular and Grana are the plural.

Grana (Granum)- is the site for LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION

TWO PART OF CHLOROPHYLL MOLECULE

PORPHYRIN RING PHYTOL

- Serve as a head - Interacts with hydrophobic

regions of proteins inside the
- Light absorbing unit of the
thylakoid membranes of the
molecule; Magnesium atom is
chloroplast.
the center.

CHLOROPHYLL (Photosynthetic pigment)

• Chlorophyll is very important because without chlorophyll there will be no such thing photosynthesis
to happen.

•The name chlorophyll comes from the Greek words chloros (green) and phyllon (leaf). French chemists
Pierre-Joseph Pelletier and Joseph-Bienaimé Caventou first isolated chlorophyll in 1817.

FIVE TYPES OF CHLOROPHYLL

NAME OF PIGMENT CHEMICAL FORMULA BAND ABSORPTION COLOR FOUND IN…

Chlorophyll a C55H72O5N4Mg 430 - 662 nm green all types of plants and in algae
Chlorophyll b C55H70O6N4Mg 453 - 642 nm green terrestrial plants
Chlorophyll c1 C35H30O5N4Mg 447–520 nm blue - green marine algae (diatoms,
dinoflagellates)
Chlorophyll c2 C35H28O5N4Mg 447–520 nm blue - green marine algae (diatoms,
dinoflagellates)
Chlorophyll d C54H70O6N4Mg 696 – 710 nm red Red algae
*These chlorophyll have a different chemical formula because of its capacity to absorb light and the way
they absorb light will be base on the pan presented into their sunlight as it layer to their the leaf of
plant.

25
 *Colors is the light that can be absorb

• Chlorophyll a- most abundant type of chlorophyll comparing to their fibers. It means that it’s
technically present in all types of plants and algae.

• Chlorophyll b-it is only present in terrestrial plants it means the plants that are living on the
continental cast above watery area.

CELLULAR RESPIRATION

GENERAL CHEMICAL REACTION FORMULA:

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 36 ATP

-One glucose molecule that requires six oxygen atoms byproducts six molecules of carbon dioxide six
molecule of water, and 36 ATP which is the very product of cellular respiration.

*In this case, glucose is no longer a product but rather a raw material.

CELLULAR RESPIRATION IS DIVIDED INTO 4 SECTIONS

1. GLYCOLYSIS

•Derived from the Greek word glyk, “sweet,” and the word lysis, “dissolution.”

• Also known as the Embden – Meyerhof pathway.

• Discovered by Gustav Georg Embden and Otto Meyerhof in 1940

•Glycolysis is a series of reactions that extract energy from glucose by splitting it into two three-carbon molecules
called pyruvates (1 pyruvates is composed of 3 carbons).

•Glycolysis doesn't require oxygen, and many anaerobic organisms—organisms that do not use oxygen — also
have this pathway.

•Glycolysis is the most primitive biological processes ever because majority of living organism doesn’t rely on
oxygen, only few (the only few includes humans).

organisms—organisms that do not use oxygen — also have

this pathway. 2. PYRUVATE PROCESSING

• Each pyruvate is processed to release one molecule of CO2, and the remaining two carbons are used to form the
compound acetyl CoA.

•The oxidation of pyruvate results in more NAD+ being reduced to NADH.

•Preparatory or transition stage before Krebs Cycle.

26
 3. KREBS CYCLE

•Completes the breakdown of glucose

•Takes the pyruvate (3-carbons) and breaks it down, the carbon and oxygen atoms end up in CO2 and H2O.

•Hydrogens and electrons are stripped and loaded onto NAD+ and FAD to produce NADH (Nicotinamide Adenine
Dinucleotide Hydrogen) and FADH2 (Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide Hydrogen).

*NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide) and FAD (Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide) is an electron carriers that
carries the electrons that came from hydrogen atoms.

•Production of only 2 more ATP but loads up the coenzymes with H+ and electrons which move to the 3rd stage.

*3rd stage it’s the major stage cell cycle of cellular respiration (electron transport chain).

•Discovered by Hans Adolf Krebs in 1937

4. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

• The third major stage, but it will become fourth if the pyruvate is considered.

•Electron carriers loaded with electrons and protons from the Krebs cycle move to this chain-like a series of steps
(staircase).

•As electrons drop down stairs, energy released to form a total of 36 ATP

•Series of chemical reactions ending with hydrogen combining with O2 to form H2O

•This process happens in the inner membrane of the mitochondria.

•In the membrane of mitochondria, the machinery (enzyme) that builds up the ETC structure are the following:

a. Complex I NADH Dehydrogenase complex or NADH Oxidoreductase

b. Complex II Succinate Dehydrogenase complex

c. Complex III Cytochrome Reductase

d. Complex IV Cytochrome C Oxidase

e. ATP Synthase

*The byproducts of photosynthesis and products (glucose) of it can be used so that respiration might
happen. And the byproducts of respiration and its product are also being used so that the
photosynthesis might be possible to happen as well. Plants can both perform these processes, the
photosynthesis and the cellular respiration because in each plant cells contain chloroplasts (the one that
is responsible for the creation of foods of the plants) and mitochondria (the who will break so that the
plant will able to used).

27
 UNIT III: BIOGENETICS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
LIGH DEPENDENT REACTIONS- It is the phase of photosynthesis that requires the presence of sunlight.
In the absence of sunlight the process will not proceed. Hence, its name is light dependent reaction.

• Light dependent reaction used photosynthetic pigments that also known as chlorophyll (organized to
photosystems) to convert light energy into chemical energy (specifically ATP and NADPH) it occurs in
grana (stacks of thylakoids) within the chloroplast and involve three phases:

 CHLOROPHYLL PHOTOACTIVATION- chlorophyll at the ground state becomes energized

chlorophyll (electrons are energized) upon receiving light. Technically it is not the chlorophyll
itself but rather the electrons found in chlorophyll molecule. When the reaction is not being
energized that is the time that the energized chlorophyll or energized electrons will begin to
proceed in to the next step.
 PHOTOLYSIS- Photolysis means there are going to break something using the energy that
absorbs in lights hence it is called photolysis. Photolysis is splitting of water molecule into
hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen absorbed by NADPH (thus NADPH is created) while oxygen is
being released as a byproduct (it is the waste of the plants that can be used by heterotrophs like
us).
 PHOTOPHOSPHORLYATION- Photons power chemiosmosis to phosphorylate (addition of
phosphate group) ADP to become ATP. The created ADP and ATP will served as the source of
dark independent reaction or light dependent reaction.

PHOTOSYSTEMS (light harvester)- these are the functional units for photosynthesis, defined by
particular pigment organization and association patterns, whose works is the absorption and transfer of
light energy, which IMPLIES TRANSFER OF ELECTRONS. Physically, photosystems are found in thylakoid
membrane.

TWO TYPES OF PHOTOSYSTEMS

- PHOTOSYSTEMS I that also known as plastocyanin-ferredoxin oxidoreductase, it is discovered by Louis

Duysens

- PHOTOSYSTEMS II absorbs a light bond different to the bond of photosystems I. It is discovered by

Pierre Joliot and photosystems II is also known as water-plastoquinone oxidoreductase.

LIGHT ENERGY- it technically the energy that came from the sun, it is the free energy.

28
29
*Dark reaction also happen in day time. This process doesn’t require light, hence it is called dark
reaction.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS: LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTIONS

LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTION- the stage of photosynthesis where carbon dioxide and other
compounds are converted into glucose. These reactions occur in the stroma. For the Calvin-Benson
cycle to synthesize one molecule of sugar (G3P), six (6) molecules of CO2 must enter the cycle. The cycle
may be divided into three phases:

 CARBON FIXATION- the CO2 taken in by the plant combines 5 carbon compound that also
known as ribulose 1, 5- biophosphate (RuBP) to form two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate
(3PGA). This step in catalyzed by the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/ oxygenase or
RUBISCO.
 CARBON REDUCTION- in this phase, 2 PGA molecules uses 2 ATP molecules to form an isomer
of 3PGA called as 1, 3- phosphoglycerate. In the next step, 2 NAPH was consumed to form
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
 RuBP REGENERATION- this step regenerates the RuBP which is what the reaction began with. At
the same time, it also synthesizes glucose which is stored as food. Glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate
uses 12 ATP molecules to convert intro ribulose-1, 5- biphosphate which enters a new cycle of
dark reaction by combining with incoming CO2.

*Carbon fixation or calvin- benson cycle will happen 6 times to create 1 molecule of glucose.

30
PHOSYNTHESIS C3, C4, & CAM PLANTS

31
 CELLULAR RESPIRATION: GLYCOLYSIS

ANAEROBIC RESPIRARTION AEROBIC RESPIRATION

• Anaerobic DOES NOT require oxygen • Aerobic requires oxygen
• Simple • Yields large amounts of energy (ATP)
• Fast • More complex than the other
•Produces smaller amounts of energy
(ATP)

• Best example the process called

Glycolysis which technically is the first
stage of cellular respiration.

32
 GLYCOLYSIS
 Series of reactions (10 stages of reactions) which break the 6 – carbon glucose molecule
down into two 3-carbon molecules called pyruvate (pyruvic acid).
 Process is an ancient one – all organisms from simple bacteria to humans perform it the
same way.
 Yields 2 ATP molecules for every one glucose molecule broken down (4 ATPs are
created but 2 of those will be reused for ATP Investment phase).
 Yields 2 NADH per glucose molecule.
* NADH is the counter part of NADPH
GLYCOLYSIS IS DIVIDED INTO TWO PARTS

FIRST PHASE SECOND PHASE

• Also known as “ATP Investment stage or ATP Investment
Phase.”
• In the first phase, glucose is being converted into
Glyceraldehyde - 3 – Phosphate (G3P)
• During the process of conversion of glucose to G3P, an
energy is consumed. (It means ATP is being invested)
• Also known as “ATP Generation Stage or ATP Generation
Phase.”
• Here, G3P is being converted into Pyruvate or pyruvic acid
• During the process of conversion, ATP is being created or
generated.

• From there, G3P will proceed to the second phase process.

33
• Kinase is an enzyme that phosphorylates a particular substrate. In this case, the substrate of
hexokinase is glucose and the product of their reaction is Glucose - 6 - Phosphate.
*Phosphorylation means that the kinase or an enzyme will either adds up a phosphate or
remove phosphate group from the substrate.
• Glucose - 6 – Phosphate will be isomerase to become fructose - 6 - Phosphate through of this
enzyme called phosphoglucose isomerase.
*Isomerase is a group of enzyme that will rearranged the elements of a particular compound to
create a new one but then the number of elements being use is just a same, because the
elements are being rearranged.
• Fructose - 6 - Phosphate will be converted to Fructose - 1,6 – Bisphosphate (It means 2
phosphate group is being attached).
• Fructose - 1,6 – Bisphosphate will be converted to GLYCERALDEHYDE

– 3 – PHOSPHATE and DIHYDROXYACETONE PHOSPHATE (DHAP) through the help of Fructose

bisphosphate aldolase.
*The job of aldolase is to cut the Fructose - 1,6 – Bisphosphate in half. Producing 2 molecules of
with three carbon atoms each meaning to say G3P in the DHAP contains 3 carbon atoms each.
• G3P will be converted to become pyruvate. The DHAP will be converted to G3P later after it converted
into a pyruvate through the help of Triose phosphate isomerase.

• G3P will be converted to 1, 3 BISPHOSPHOGLYCERATE with the help of an enzyme called

Glyceraldehyde – 3 – phosphate dehydrogenase.

• Upon the interaction of this enzyme to G3P an NAD and 1 molecule of NADPH is being created. At the
same time one phosphate group is attached to G3P.

• 1, 3 BISPHOSPHOGLYCERATE will be converted to 3 – PHOSPHOGLYCERATE through the help of

Phosphoglycerate kinase. This time, this kinase will not add up a phosphate group to the compound but

34
rather it will snatched one phosphate group to the compound or to the substrate, to generate one ATP
molecule.

• From 3 – PHOSPHOGLYCERATE it down to 2 – PHOSPHOGLYCERATE through the help of

Phosphoglycerate mutase.

• 2 – PHOSPHOGLYCERATE it will turns out PHOSPHOENOLPYRUVATE through the help of Enolase. The
enolase will be dehydrate.

• PHOSPHOENOLPYRUVATE will interact to the last enzyme called Pyruvate kinase which its job is to
remove the last piece of phosphate group attach on it to makes PHOSPHOENOLPYRUVATE the final
product of glycolysis which is PYRUVATE.

*This process will be happen twice for the DHAP process, hence glycolysis will produce 2 molecules of
pyruvate.

35
 CELLULAR RESPIRATION: KREBS CYCLE

*Succinate (4C) will be converted to Fumarate (4C) through the help of Succinate
Dehydrogenase. In this Dehydrogenase, there will be no release of another carbon dioxide
molecule but then there is will be a creation of another electron carriers which is FADH2.
FADH2 is works the same way as NADH, it just they have do different molecular structures but
their works the same way. Both of them are electron carriers.
*In overall, in the one molecule of pyruvate there will be a creation of 3 molecules of NADH, 1
molecule of GTP, and 1 molecule of FADH on Krebs cycle alone.
*Since there is 2 molecules of pyruvates, Krebs cycle will happen twice hence, in total there will
be 6 molecules of NADH, 2 molecules of GTP, and 2 molecules of FADH

36
 ELECTRONS TRANSPORT CHAIN
 Electron carriers loaded with electrons and protons from the Krebs cycle move to this
chain-like a series of steps (staircase).
 As electrons drop down stairs, energy released to form a total of 32 ATP
 Series of chemical reactions ending with hydrogen combining with O2 to form H2O
 This process happens of the inner membrane of the mitochondria.
 In the membrane of mitochondria, the machinery (enzyme) that builds up the ETC
structure are the following:
a. Complex I NADH Dehydrogenase complex or NADH Oxidoreductase
b. Complex II Succinate Dehydrogenase complex
c. Complex III Cytochrome Reductase
d. Complex IV Cytochrome C Oxidase
e. ATP Synthase

37
*Correction: In the part of cellular respiration, Glycolysis happens in cytoplasm NOT in
mitochondria.

38
 UNIT II: GENETICS
Q3 LESSON #1 BASIC OF GENETICS- MENDELIAN AND POST MENDELIAN GENETICS

What is the difference?

MENDELIAN GENETICS POST MENDELIAN GENETICS

-Principles developed by Gregor Johann Mendel -New concepts arise from Mendel’s work. His work
serves as basis on any modern day genetic
research.

THE MENDELIAN GENETICS

UNLOCKING OF TERMINOLOGIES

• Genes – unit of heredity, comprise the segments of DNA, contains code of different traits.

• Trait – physical manifestation of genes; any characteristics that is passed on from parent to offspring.

• Heredity – transmission of traits from parent to offspring. Homozygous (pure)

• Genotype – internal genetic constitution Heterozygous
• Phenotype – physical expression of the code (Physical manifestation of genotype regardless which is
homozygous and heterozygous).

• Dominant – trait that strongly express in an individual.

• Recessive – trait that is less express in an individual.

• Hybrid – traits express in an individual contrasting from the parents (e.g., straight hair + curly hair =
wavy hair) (incomplete dominance).

• Homozygous – pure; one identical unit factors; individual that has IDENTICAL unit factors or gene(e.g.,
TT – homozygous tall).

• Heterozygous – mix; two types of unit factors; individual that has TWO types of unit factors (e.g., Tt –
heterozygous tall).

• Allele – another variant of gene; alternate gene. DNA coding determine distinct traits that can be
passed on from parents to offspring.

• Genome – entire set of gene.

• Locus – a fixed location on a strand of DNA where a gene or one of its alleles is located.

• Mono/Dihybrid Cross – single or two trait (limited); determining possible traits of the offspring within
the progeny considering single or two trait.

39
• Punnet Square – traits no limit; Mathematical analysis or a grid like system of determining the
possible trait of the offspring.

Gregor Johann Mendel

• Austrian monk

• Studied the inheritance of traits in pea plants

• Developed the laws governing inheritance of traits

• Called the “Father of Genetics”

PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY

•LAW OF UNIT CHARACTER - “An organism possess a pair of heritable factors for each character or
trait.”

*23 pairs of chromosomes

*each gametes you have copy of characteristics

•LAW OF DOMINANCE - “In a heterozygote, one allele may conceal the presence of another.”

*one of the pairs of inherited traits will be dominant (only dominant), the recessive will be seen
unless there are two recessive alleles
•LAW OF SEGREGATION - “In a heterozygote, two different alleles segregate from each other during the
formation of gametes.”

•LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT - “The alleles of different genes segregate, (assort)

independently of each other.”

*It took 3 months to form the body of a child inside a mother’s womb

40
Genotype = 2:2

Phenotype = 4:0

Genotype = 1:2:1

Phenotype = 3:1

41
42
 POST MENDELIAN GENETICS
COMPLETE DOMINANCE

 The dominant gene takes over the recessive gene.

 The dominant trait is expressed as the phenotype.
 Recessive trait is expressed only if it paired up to another recessive trait.

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

 The dominant and recessive gene in a heterozygote are both expressed resulting to a combined
phenotype.

CODOMINANCE

43
CODOMINANCE

 Both the dominant genes in a heterozygote are phenotypically expressed or shown.

MULTIPLE ALLES

• Group of alleles (codes) that determine a single trait (gene).

GENOTYPE PHENOTYPE
IAIA Blood type A *Human have 2 blood type (A and B and the codominance is
IAi Blood type A blood type AB)
IAIB Blood type AB
*Blood type O – universal blood donor
IBIB Blood type B
IBi Blood type B *Blood type AB – universal blood receiver
ii Blood type O

DISCONTINOUS TRAITS

• TRAITS MANIFESTED IN A DISTINCTIVE WAYS (e.g. red rose and white rose can be distinguished easily)

44
CONTINOUS TRAITS

• TRAITS MANIFESTED IN A LIGHTLY DIFFERENTIATE ALTERNATIVES (e.g. Fair skin of varying shades –
light brown, tan, dark brown)

SEX RELATED TRAITS

•A.k.a. Sex linked traits

•Sex-linked gene is a gene located on a sex chromosome.

•Male has sex chromosome XY

•Female has sex chromosome XX

•Many sex-linked traits carried on X chromosome

•PEDIGREE shows the presence or absence of a trait according to the relationships between parents,
siblings, and offspring. It can be used for any species, not just humans.

•The eye color of the fruit fly is on X chromosome

45
*Dominant chromosomes is X

*Autosomes – body chromosomes

*Allosomes – sex chromosomes

*Colorblindness are mostly on males but the carriers are female.

SEX LIMITED TRAITS

•Characteristics present to one sex but absent in the other.

EXAMPLE:

 Estrogen in ONLY present to females while Testosterone is for males.

 Human chorionic gonadotropin is secreted by placenta during pregnancy of females.
 VAGINA is for female, PENIS is for male.

SEX INFLUENCED TRAITS

•Traits influenced by sex.

•Certain disease only affects male and/or female

EXAMPLES:

-BALDNESS is on males not much in females.

- COLORBLINDNESS are mostly on males but the carriers are female.

-CERVICAL CANCER affects females.

UNIT II LESSON 2: GENETICS

STRUCTURE OF PROTEIN AND NUCLEIC ACIDS (A RECALL)
BIOMOLECULES

• known as molecules of life or biological macromolecules

• made from elements of life [P (Phosphorus), C (Carbon), H (Hydrogen), O (Oxygen), N (Nitrogen)]

• micromolecules macromolecules

• made from monomers to build polymers

HYDROLYSIS AND DEHYDRATION

They form in what way?

DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS

-combing two or more monomers through removal of water molecule

46
 HYDROLYSIS

-breaking of biomolecules by means of inserting water molecule

Biomolecule / Polymer Building blocks/ Monomers Bonding Site Complex Structure Elements where it is made
of
CARBOHYDRATES Monosaccharides Glycosidic Polysaccharides Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
Bond
LIPIDS Glycerol + Fatty Acids Ester Bond None Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
PROTEINS Amino Acids Peptide Bond Polypeptides Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Nitrogen
NUCLEIC ACIDS Nucleotides Phosphodiester Polynucleotide Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Bond Nitrogen, and Phosphorus
*Carbohydrates and Lipids are both similar in Hydrogen but different in arrangement

*Proteins made up of element of life minus the Phosphorus

Polymers (Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic Acids)

Monosaccharide (Glucose, Galactose, Fructose)

*Bonding site- dehydration synthesis

PROTEINS (BUILD, REPAIR, COMMUNICATE, STORE, PROTECT)

• AMINO ACIDS

-building blocks of protein

-body have 20 amino acids

-each amino acid is combined via PEPTIDE BONDING

-series of amino acids called POLYPEPTIDE CHAIN/ PROTEIN

*synthesize means “creation”

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 TYPES OF AMINO ACIDS

• NON ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

-produced by the body (10)

• ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

-obtained through diet (10)

*The Essential and Non Essential Amino Acids base from necessities

NON ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS

(Sgt. Pac Gaga) (Pvt. Mat Hill)
S Serine P Phenylalanine
G Glycine V Valine
T Tyrosine T Threonine
P Proline M Methionine
A Alanine A Arginine
C Cysteine T Tryptophan
G Glutamine H Histidine
A Asparagine I Isoleucine
G Glutamic acid L Leucine
A Aspartic acid L Lysine

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*Methionine – all of the amino acid chain started in Methionine

*GROUPS – base on structure

PROTEIN STRUCTURE

*FOLDING PATTERNS

• Pleated sheet
Keep the protein structure intact
• Alpha helix

49
 NUCLEIC ACIDS (BLUE PRINT OF LIFE)

• Nucleotide- building blocks of nucleic acid regardless if it is DNA or RNA

*RNA (Ribonucleic acid) – single stranded; the first nucleic acid evolve in our world; can’t store genetic
makeup but can bind with other.

*DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) – stores genetic makeup; inside the chromatin itself.

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51
SUGAR- PHOSPHATE BACKBONE

• RNA- Uracil (U)

• DNA- Thymine (T)

*The RNA and DNA differs in Uracil (U) and Thymine (T), the rest they are the same.

*ERWIN CHARGAFF discovered the complementary base pairing

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 CENTRAL DOGMA AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

1. REPLICATION

2. TRANSCRIPTION

3. RNA

4. TRANSLATION

5. PROTEINS

DNA REPLICATION

-DNA REPLICATION is the process by which a double-stranded DNA molecule is copied to produce two
identical DNA molecules. Replication is an essential process because, whenever a cell divides, the two
new daughter cells must contain the same genetic information, or DNA, as the parent cell.

DNA REPLICATION STAGES

1. Replication fork formation HELICASE (the one that unzips), TOPOISOMERASE (the one that keep
intact and prevent the strand to entangled)

2. Primer synthesis PRIMASE (primase is an enzyme that will create base pairing)

3. Elongation (leading and lagging strand synthesis; primer removal) DNA POLYMERASE,
EXONUCLEASE

*DNA is parallel

*Leading and lagging is in opposite direction

*DNA polymerase that creates daughter strand in leading is called Polymerase II

*DNA polymerase that creates daughter strand in lagging is called Polymerase I

*Lagging- fragmented (broken line)

4. Ligation DNA LIGASE (an enzyme that link the fragmented daughter strand)

*Okazaki fragments – newly synthesized DNA that is boud by DNA ligase

5. Termination

-There is no enzyme in termination because the process is already done in ligation.

*DNA Replication is semiconservative

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54
55
• Protein synthesis- creation of protein

• mRNA- Xerox copy

• tRNA- anticodon

• RNA Polymerase- the one that creates polymers

• Ribosome- the meeting place and the one who will read the code

• Methionine- the starting point; the head of amino acids sequence

• AUG- starting point of anticodons

STOP CODONS (it doesn’t carry amino acids)

1. UGA

2. UAG

3. UAA

BIOTECHNOLOGY

-Biotechnology use of biological agents for technological advancement.

The primarily applications of this technology are:

A. MEDICINE – vaccine and antibiotic production.

B. AGRICULTURE – crop genetic modification in order to increase yields.

C. INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS – fermentation, treating oil spills, and producing biofuels.

BIOTECHNOLOGY MODIFYING TECHNIQUES:

A. CLASSICAL BREEDING (natural method)

• Breeders make two different breeds of same specie mate to have a chance of having an offspring with
their desired trait (ex. cat to cat, dog to dog).

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• The organism that undergone this process is called cisgenic organism (the product).

B. GENETIC ENGINEERING (artificial method)

• Recombinant DNA technology

• Gene splicing

• Changing the DNA in living organisms to create something new by means of recombinant DNA
technology and gene splicing.

• The organism that undergone this process is called transgenic organism

G -enerically

M-odified

O-rganism

1. ISOLATION- the desired gene from the donor and the bacterial plasmid

2. CUTTING- restriction enzymes act as molecular scissors and cut DNA at specific sites called restriction
sites.

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4. LIGATION- combining the cut fragments of DNA and forming artificial recombinant molecules (rDNA)

5. INSERTION- recombinant DNA introduced into bacterial cell.

6. EXPRESSION- bacterial cell reproduces by means of Binary Fission so as with the recombinant DNA
inside making multiple copies of the desired gene. When the protein is produced in large amounts it is
isolated and purified.

*Bacteria the only one can penetrates human cells

C. GENE THERAPY

• An application of gene editing technology, in its simplest form, it involves the introduction of a good
gene at a random location in the genome to aid the cure of a disease that is caused by a mutated gene.
The good gene is usually introduced into diseased cells as part of a vector transmitted by a virus that can
infect the host cell and deliver the foreign DNA.

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D. CLONING

• A method of creating an exact copy of apart of genome or the whole organism

1. CELLULAR CLONING- natural occurring, performed by unicellular organism

2. MOLECULAR CLONING- reproducing a desired regions or fragments of the genome

3. REPRODUCTIVE CLONING- artificial or induced in the laboratory. Usually involved multicellular

organisms.

• DOLLY (sheep)- the first animal mammal cloned

-Ian Wilmut and Keith Campbell fused 277 adult mammary gland cells with 277 egg cells, but they
achieved only thirteen pregnancies, and only one pregnancy resulted in a live birth.

• CC or CARBON COPY (cat)- she was the world's first cloned pet

-CC was born on December 22, 2001, to her surrogate mom, Allie.

-CC was genetically identical to Rainbow, the cat who donated the genetic material. But the cats looked
different because coat patterns and other features can be determined in the womb.

UNIT III: EVOLUTION AND ORIGIN OF BIODIVERSITY

LESSON 1: EVOLUTIONARY MODIFICATIONS AND MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION

WHAT IS EVOLUTION?

• The change of an organism over time; slow pace of development or change; as results of adaptation to
its environment for the sake of survival.

• Change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. These
characteristics are the expressions of genes that are passes on from parent to offspring during
reproduction. Different characteristics tend to exist within any given population because of mutation,
genetic recombination, and other sources of genetic variation.

HOW EVOLUTION OCCURS?

• Evolution occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection (including sexual selection)
genetic drift and other mechanism of evolution act on this variation, resulting in certain characteristics
becoming more common or rare within a population. It is this process of evolution that has given rise to
biodiversity at every level of biological organization, including the levels of species, individual organism,
and molecules.

59
 EVOLUTIONARY MODIFICATION

REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION MECHANISM

• Reproductive isolation mechanism are collection of evolutionary mechanism, behaviors, and

physiological processes critical for speciation. They prevent members of different species from
producing offspring or ensure that any offspring are sterile. These barriers maintain the integrity of a
species by reducing gene flow between related species.

PRE-ZYGOTIC

• Pre-zygotic isolation mechanism prevent fertilization and zygote formation. There are numerous types
of prezygotic isolation mechanism; GEOGRAPHIC OR ECOLOGICAL OR HABITAT ISOLATION – potential
mates occupy different areas or habitats thus, they never come in contact; TEMPORAL OR SEASONAL
ISOLATION – different groups may not be reproductively mature at the same season, or month or year;
BEHEAVIORAL ISOLATION – patterns of courtship are different; MECHNICAL ISOLATION – differences in
reproductive organs prevent successful interbreeding; and GAMETIC ISOLATION – incompatibilities
between egg and sperm prevent fertilization.

*These five (5) types of zygotic isolation inhibits or prevents the fertilization and/or zygotic formation.

*Zygote is a first diploid cell that will be formed after fertilization

*Among all pre-zygotic isolation mechanism, Geographic or ecological or habitat isolation is the most
common.

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POST-ZYGOTIC

• Post-zygotic isolation mechanisms allow fertilization but nonviable or weak or sterile hybrids are
formed. Just like the later one, there are few types of these mechanism; HYBRID INVIABILITY – fertilized
egg fails to develop past the early embryonic stages; HYBRID STERILITY – hybrids are sterile because
gonads develop abnormally or there is abnormal segregation of chromosomes during meiosis; and
HYBRID BREAKDOWN – F1 hybrids are normal, vigorous and viable, but F2 contains many weak or
sterile individuals.

SPECIATION

• It’s an evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species.

TYPES OF SPEACIATION:

a. ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION or GEOGRAPHIC SPECIATION (allo- other, patric- place; “other place)

- occurs when some members of population become geographically separated from the other members
thereby preventing gene flow. Examples of geographic barriers are bodies of water and mountain
ranges.

*Among all speciation, Allopatric or geographic speciation is the most common

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b. PERIPATRIC SPEACIATION (peri- around, patric- place; “other place”)

- a new species is formed from an isolated peripheral population. Occurs when the size of the isolated
subpopulation is small.

c. PARAPATRIC SPECIATION (para- beside, patric- place; “beside each other”)

- occurs when the groups that evolved to be separate species are geographic neighbors. Gene flow
occurs but with great distance is reduced.

d. SYMPATRIC SPECIATION (sym- same, patric- place; “same place”)

- occurs when members of a population that initially occupy the same habitat within the same range
diverge into two or more different species. It involves abrupt genetic changes that quickly lead to the
reproductive isolation of a group of individuals.

MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION

1. ARTIFICIAL SELECTION – domestication of an organism

• Human identify the desirable traits in plants and animals. Steps taken to enhance and perpetuate
those traits in future generations. It is done via SELECTIVE BREEDING, CROSS BREEDING and
INDBREEDING (to preserve the desired trait)

2. NATURAL SELECTION – nature selects the fittest (organism with favorable characteristics)

• Natural selection or “SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST,” is the more prolific reproduction of individuals with
FAVORABLE TRAITS THAT SURVIVE ENVIRONMENTL CHANGE because of those traits. This leads to
evolutionary change.

• Natural selection- the organism have a specific characteristics that help them to survive; depends on
organism genetic make up.

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 NATURAL SELECTION: TYPES OF EVOLUTION

a. DIVERGENT EVOLUTION is a type of evolution in which new specie evolve from a shared ancestral
species. That is, two or more new species share a common ancestor. At some point in a history a barrier
(such as a geographical barrier, for example a mountain or ocean) has divided the population into two or
more populations and has also interfered with interbreeding between the populations.

b. CONVERGENT EVOLUTION is the result of similar selection pressure in the environment selecting for
similar features or adaptions. These adaptions have not been inherited from a common ancestor. Similar
traits evolve independently in species that do not share a common ancestry.

c. COEVOLUTION refers to the evolution of one organism in response to another organism.

3. GENE FLOW – two or more species of different population interbreeds when one migrates to the
other.

*Filipinos considered mix breeds or mix race

4. GENETIC DRIFT – change of allele frequencies as a result of chance process (bottleneck event, founder
effect)

• Bottleneck Event – a DISASTER happens and PART OF POPULATION DIES resulting in genetic drift.

*Natural selection and bottleneck event can happen in same selection pressure

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• Founder Effect – a magnification of genetic drift in a small population that migrates away from a large
percent population carrying with it an unrepresentative set of alleles. A small portion of the population
leave the area and form a new gene pool. The occurrence of the recessive trait will become more
frequent if these small portion of the original population expresses the recessive trait. As a result, the
once recessive trait turns to be dominant trait within their group.

5. MUTATION – change in genetic make up

-Good Mutation (additional good characteristics on organism that will help to their survivability)

-Bad Mutation (illness)

CAUSES:

a. DNA fails to copy accurately

b. External influence can create mutations.

• Mutations can be also be caused by exposure to specific chemical or radiation.

Example: two headed snake, two body frogs.

UNIT III: EVOLUTION AND ORIGIN BIODIVERSITY

LESSON 2 EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION

FIVE EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION

1. EVIDENCES FROM FOSSILS

• Fossils are remains of ancient organism trapped in rocks, tar pits, frozen in ice or embedded in amber.
The activities and behavior of ancient life forms also left behind fossil traces (such as footprints, dungs,
gastric stones, nests and burrows) which scientist can study.

• The records found in rocks show a gradual evolutionary descent from simpler to more complex life
forms. Paleontologists use the fossils found in rocks to tract the evolutionary history of many organisms.

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SIX TYPES OF FOSSILS

TYPES OF FOSSIL DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES

1. MOLDS Impression made in substrate = negative image of an Shells
organism
2. CASTS When a mold is filled in Bones and teeth
3. PERTRIFIED Organic material is converted into stones Petrified trees;
Coal balls
(fossilized plants
and their tissues,
in round ball
shape)
4. ORIGINAL REMAINS Preserved wholly (frozen in ice, trapped in tar pits, Woolly mammoth;
dried/desiccated inside caves in arid regions or Amber from the
encased in amber/ fossilized resin). Baltic Sea Region
5. CARBON FILM Carbon impression in sedimentary rocks Leaf impression on
the rock
6. TRACE/ICHNOFOSSILS Record the movements and behaviors of the organism Trackways,
toothmarks,
gizzard rocks,
coprolites
(fossilized dungs),
burrows and nests.

*Molds are rge fossils being pressed or imprint; expression is made from hard material

*Cast connected to mold

*Petrified example are tress and plants that mix with different sendiments; undergone sendimentation

*Carbon film expression made from a soft or delicate part of organism or plants; shallow imprint;
counter part of molds

*Trace or ichnofossils are marks made by organism (ex. footprints, scratch)

TWO DATING OF FOSSILS

A. RELATIVE DATING

I. Based upon the study of layer of rocks

II. Does not tell the exact age: only compare fossils as older or younger, depends on their position in
rock layer.

III. Fossils in the uppermost rock layer/ strata are younger while those in the lowermost deposition are
oldest

*PRINCIPLES OF RELATIVE DATING*

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• PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION: Sedimentary layers are deposited in a specific time- youngest rock on
top, oldest rocks at the bottom.

• PRINCIPLE OF INCLUSION: The inclusions or xenolith is older than the rock layer where it is found.

• PRINCIPLE OF CROSS-CUTTING RELATIONSHIPS: If an igneous or fault cuts through existing rocks, the
intrusion/ fault is YOUNGER than the rock it curs through.

• PRINCIPLE OF ORIGINAL HORIZONTALITY: Deposition of rocks happen horizontally – tilting, folding or

raking will happen after it was formed.

• PRINCIPLE OF LATERAL CONTINUITY: Strata are deposited in a basin and this will be continuous from
end to end.

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• PRINCIPLE OF FOSSIL SUCCESSION: Fossil assemblages (groups of fossils) in a given strata.

*Principle of fossil succession is also known as Poulnot Succession

-They live in the same are or/and same organism that live during those times in that specific layers.

B. ABOLUTE DATING

• Determine the actual age of the fossil

• Through radiometric dating, using radioactive isotopes carbon-14 and potassium-40

• Considers the half-life or the time it takes for half of the atom of radioactive element to decay

• The decay products of radioactive isotopes and stable atoms.

*ABOSOLUTE DATING CAN BE DIVIDED INTO TWO PARTS*

• RADIOMETRIC DATING- the materials are rocks, it determine the age of the rocks

• RADIOCARBON DATING- the materials are fossils, it determine the age of the fossils

SOME RADIOACIVE ISOTOPES AND THEIR DAUGHTER PRODUCTS OF DECAY

RADIOACTIVE DAUGHTER HALF-LIFE USES

PRESENT ISOTOPE PRODUCT (YEARS)
Carbon-14 Nitrogen-14 5730 Used for dating organic (carbon-based)
remains up to about 60 000 years old
Uranium-235 Lead-207 710 000 000 Used for dating igneous rocks containing
uranium-based minerals in the range from
1000 to 1 000 000 years
Potassium-40 Argon-40 1 300 000 000 Used for dating igneous rocks containing
potassium-bearing minerals in the range from
500 000 years and older

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Rubidium-87 Srontium-87 47 000 000 000 Used to data the most ancient igneous rocks

2. EVIDENCES FROM ANATOMICAL STRUCTURES

- Structures in different organisms can be compared to infer common lineage

• HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES are structures with the same set of bone that presumably evolved from
a common ancestor. They appear different and may have varied functions.

*Same in structure but different in function

PENTADACTYL- universal limbs; different functions depends of the area or environment (ex. swimming
limbs in watery area, flying limbs in atmosphere, running limbs in the land)

• ANALOGOUS STRCUTURES are structures that perform the same function but have very different
embryological development o set of structure like bones.

*Same in function but different in structure

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• VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES are structures or attributes that have lost most of its ancestral function in
more recent species.

*Human vestigial structures examples are appendix, wisdom tooth, tail bone

3. EVIDENCES FROM COMPARATIVE EMBRYOLOGY

•EMBRYOLOGY is the study if the development of an organism from an embryo to its adult form.
Common structure are shared in the embryo stage and disappear by the time the embryo reaches the
juvenile or adult form.

*Being compared to other species; somewhat alike

*Two parts in common: gill slits (pharyngeal gill slits) and tail (post-anal tail).

4. EVIDENCE FROM MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

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• Many organisms have similar molecules of life (RNA, DNA, proteins) that suggest descent from a
common ancestor with modification. The near universality of genetic code reflects an evidence of
common ancestry and relatedness and can be inferred from the similarities in the DNA sequences
between and among organisms.

• LUCA

LAST UNIVERSAL COMMON ANCESTOR

- According to several scientists every organisms came from one type of organism or same ancestor that
undergo extreme evolution through millions of years.

- DNA fragments that found is the one that solidified the statement.

5. EVIDENCE FROM BIOGEOGRAPHY

• The topography of place (habitat) might trigger evolution. Consider the birds called flinches that
Darwin studied on the Galapagos Islands. All of the flinches probably descended from one bird that
arrived on the island. The first bird was a seed eater. It evolved into many flinch species, each adapted
for a different type of food. This is an example of ADAPTIVE RADIATION. This is the process by which a
single species evolves into many news species to fill available ecological niches.

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 HISTORY OF THE EARTH – GEOLOGICAL TIMELINE

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

-It is the chronological arrangement of events throughout the earth’s history through radiometric
dating.

• A time line of prehistoric events

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EONS OF EARTH

EON EVENTS
HADEAN Formation of Earth; Earth is not habitable; Earth is still forming
ARCHEAN Formation of atmosphere, continents and ocean, rise of photosynthetic
prokaryotes (algae)
PROTEROZOIC Rapid oxygen build up (formation of ozone) and rise of multicellular organism
PHANEROZOIC Life diversification, most recent eon

DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHTS

The Path to Natural Selection: PRE- SCIENTIFIC VIEW

• Ancient Greek philosopher Anaximander (611-547 B.C.) and the Roman philosopher Lucretius (99-55
B.C.) conceived of the idea that all living things were related and they had changed over time.

• The GREAT CHAIN OF BEING of Plotinus Aristotle and Plato denotes three general features of universe
by each principles. Principle of Plenitude, Principle of Continuity, and Principle of Linear Gradation.

a. PRINCIPLE OF PLENITUDE states that the universe is “full “exhibiting the maximal diversity of kinds of
existences; everything possible (i.e. not self-contradictory) is actual.

b. PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUITY assert that universe is composed of an infinite series of forms, each of
which shares with its neighbor at least one attribute.

c. PRINCIPLE OF LINEAR GRADATION is consist of hierarchical order from the barest type of existence to
the ENS PERFECTISSUM, or God.

• The world was seen as the result of a grand design – God’s design. The work had been finished around
4004 B.C. according to Archbishop James Ussher of Ireland (1561-1656).

The Path to Natural Selection: SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

• JOHN RAY provided the first definition of the concept of species and genus (groups of interbreeding
organisms and related such groups).

• CAROLUS LINNAEUS developed a system, of classification and laid the basis for taxonomy and
bionomial nomenclature used today. System Naturae (1758).

• COMTE DE BUFFON stressed the importance of change in the universe and recognized the
environment as an agent of change.

• JEAN BAPTISTE LAMARCK was the first scientist to produce an explanation for the evolutionary process
(1744-1829). If one trait/characteristics are always used, it will be preserved and/or evolve; if the trait is
not used, it will disappear. (Theory of Use and Disuse)

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• GEORGES CUVIER introduced the concept of extinction and the theory of catastrophism.

The view that the earth’s geological landscape is the result of violent cataclysmic events.

Extinctions mark some of the great transition in life, when new groups of species got the opportunity to
take over the niches of old one.

*Human experienced so many extincition , the first level of extinction happens during the permian
period before the dinosaurs. Permian period called great dying because 95% percent of living species
died, it was causes by the rising pangea.

*Antropocene epoch means age of month.

• CHARLES LYELL developed the theory of uniformitarianism (1797-1875)

The theory that the earth’s features are the results of long term processes that continue to operate in the
present as they did in the past.

• Thomas Malthus wrote about relationship between food supply and population increase (1766-1834).

The growth of a population will always outrun its ability to feed itself.

His essay on the Principle of Population led both Darwin and Wallace to the principle of natural
selection.

• CHARLES DARWIN ideas were formed while serving as a naturalist on the voyage of the HMS beagle.

73
Darwin saw the importance of biological variation within a species. Recognized the importance of sexual
reproduction in increasing variation by 1844, Origin of Species is completed.

• ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE a naturalist who worked in South America and Southeast Asia

Theory of Geological Change- suggested species descended from other species and new species were
influenced by the environmental factors.

*Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace have a same concept and theory but Charles Darwin’s work is
more recognized because he is the first one to finish and published the work. Hence, Charles Darwin is
the one who got the titled of “Father of Evolution.”

UNIT IV: SYSTEMATICS BASED ON EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS

Lesson 1: INTRODUCTION TO SYSTEMATICS, TAXONOMY AND PHYLOGENY

SYSTEMATICS- The scientific study of diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationships.

TWO BRANCHES OF SYSTEMATICS

TAXONOMY PHYLOGENY

- Systemized naming describing, and -Study of evolutionary relationships

classifying organisms. among species or populations.

• Phenetic Approach • Cladistic Approach

-classifying species using many -classifying species base from their

characteristics as possible and shared characteristics relatively
arranges them by similarity regardless connected on common ancestor.
of any evolutionary relationships.
*Evidences to prove that they are
*If they have similarities they are related
belong in a same group
*Validation

(?) WHY CLASSIFY LIVING ORGANISM?

• To study living organisms

• To identify organism

• Reveals the relationship among various groups

• To integrate of characteristics of a group

• Indicating evolutionary relationship (ancestor)

74
(?) HOW LIVING ORGANISMS ARE CLASSIFIED?

Identifying:

1. Identify their similar characteristics

2. Identify if they are evolutionary related

THREE (3) DOMAINS OF LIFE

1. BACTERIA

2. ARCHAEA

3. EUKARYA

MODERN DAY EIGHT (8) DOMAINS

1. DOMAIN 5. ORDER

2. KINGDOM 6. FAMILY

3. PHYLUM 7. GENUS

4. CLASS 8. SPECIES

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 DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONCEPT

• ARISTOTLE (B.C.E)

-The greatest philosopher of ancient time

-The first guy who made a first study base on plant and animals only because there is no microscope
during that time.

-Primarily their habitat

-Land, air and water dwellers

• CAROLUS LINNAEUS (81th Century)

-The first scientists who made a logical way of classifying organisms

-According to similarities

-Developed Binomial nomenclature that also known as scientific name

-Two part name (Genus & Species)

-Latin names were used because Latin considered as “dead language”

-Scientific names

-Animal and Plant Kingdom

-Developed 7 Classifications

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 SEVEN (7) CLASSIFICATIONS

• ERNST HAECKEL (1866)

-Some organisms can conduct photosynthesis but move like an animal.

-Euglena (capacities to move on its own; behave like plants but move like animal)

-Kingdom PROTISTA Microscopic autotrophs and heterotrophs

• HERBERT F. COPELAND (1938)

-Kingdom MONERA Microscopic bacteria (all of the kingdoms belong to)

• ROBERT H. WHITTAKER (1969)

-Kingdom FUNGI Plant – like organisms

• CARL WOESE (1977)

-Separates Kingdom MONERA into 2 – Kingdom EUBACTERIA and ARCHAEBACTERIA

*They are separated because of peptidoglycan, which EUBACTERIA possessed and does not possessed of
ARCHAEABACTERIA.

SIX (6) KINGDOMS OF LIFE

[1] KINGDOM EUBACTERIA

-Eubacteria has cell wall made of peptidoglycan which no other kingdom has.

Cell Type: Prokaryote

Body Form: Unicellular

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Nutririon: Autotroph, Chemotroph, and Heterotroph

Habitat: Everywhere, even inside of the human body

Examples: Clostridium botulinum, E.Coli, Bacillus anthracis

[2] KINGDOM ARCHAEBACTERIA

-Unlike eubacteria archaebacteria doesn’t have peptidoglycan in it’s cell walls.

Cell Type: Prokaryote

Body Form: Unicellular

Cell Structure: Plasma membranes and cell walls made of poysaccharides and proteins but no
peptidoglycan

Nutririon: Autotroph, Chemotroph, and Heterotroph

Habitat: Oxygen-free environments

Examples: Halanaerobium praevalens, Gillisia limnaea, Joostella marina

[3] KINGDOM PROTISTS

-Protists are either animal-like or plant-like. All cells have a nucleus which makes them different from
bacteria.

Cell Type: Eukaryote

Body Form: Mostly unicellular

Cell Structure: Some have cell walls made of cellulose in addition to cell membranes

Nutririon: Autotroph and Heterotroph

Habitat: Most protists live in moist or damp environments

Examples: Paramecium, Euglena, Ameoba

[4] KINGDOM FUNGI

-Fungi do not make their own food unlike plants. They also don’t have the ability to move around like
animals.

Cell Type: Eukaryote

Body Form: Multicellular

Cell Structure: Have cell walls made of chitin in addition to cell membranes

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Nutririon: Heterotroph

Habitat: Live of dead decaying matter and on plants, they act as parasites on living organisms

Examples: Chytridium, Scarcoscypha Coccinea, Pilobolus

[5] KINGDOM PLANTAE

-Plants make their own food using chloroplasts. Plant cell walls are made of cellulose and they do not
move.

Cell Type: Eukaryote

Body Form: Multicellular

Cell Structure: Have cell walls made with cellulose

Nutririon: Autotroph

Habitat: Water or land environments which provides sufficient sunlight and water

Examples: Rafflesia Arnoldis, Venus Fly Trap, Victoria Amazonica

[6] KINGDOM ANIMALIA

-The Kingdom Animalia is set apart from plants because it has no cell wall. It is different from protist
because the organisms are multicellular

Cell Type: Eukaryote

Body Form: Multicellular

Cell Structure: Cell membranes with no cell walls

Nutririon: Heterotroph

Habitat: Oxygen filled environments with foods

Examples: Komondor Dog, Three-toed Sloth, Dumbo Octopus

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80
 PLANT AND ANIMAL REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
• Animals can be grouped into those which give birth to living offspring (VIVIPAROUS) and those which
lay eggs that eventually hatched into offspring (OVIPAROUS). Other animals do both – lay eggs but stays
inside the mother and goes out to the womb after it hatched inside (OVOVIVIPAROUS).

*11 organ system in the human body

*Human also considered as viviparous

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

• Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that DOES NOT INVOLVE THE FUSION OF GAMETES or
CHANGE IN THE NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES. The offspring that arise by asexual reproduction, are
either from a single cell or from a multicellular organism and inherits the genes of their single parent.

A. PARTHENOGENESIS - Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction where GROWTH and

DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYOS OCCUR WITHOUT FERTILIZATION. (Examples: Aphid, Hammerhead Shark,
Komodo Dragon)

B. BUDDING - Organisms reproduce by having new individuals split off from existing ones, which results
in GENETICALLY IDENITCAL PARENT and DAUGHTER organisms. The bud may stay attached or break free
from the parent. (Examples: Hydra, Anemone)

*Budding is one of the natural cloning process

-Binary Fission: Unicellular organism and example is bacteria

-Multicellular- hydra, anemone

C. FRAGMENTATION - Part of the organism’s body BREAKS INTO SEVERAL FRAGMENTS which later will
DEVELOP INTRO COMPLETE ORGANISMS. (Examples: Planaria, Sea Star)

-Regeneration

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

• Sexual reproduction starts with the combination of a sperm and an egg in a process called fertilization.

• Coitus – Technical term meaning sexual intercourse

• Zygote – First diploid cell

TYPES OF FERTILIZATION

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INTERNAL FERTILIZATION

• This occurs most often in terrestrial animals, although some aquatic animals also use this method.
Internal fertilization may occur by the MALE DIRECTLY DEPOSITING SPERM IN THE FEMALE DURING
MATING or SEXUAL INTERCOURSE.

• Perform by terrestrial animals (animals’ lives on the land)

• Inside the fallopian tube

EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION

• External fertilization usually occurs in aquatic environments where both EGGS AND SPERM ARE
RELEASED INTO WATER. After the sperm reaches the egg, fertilization takes place. Most external
fertilization happens during the process of SPAWNING where one or several females release their eggs
and the male(s) release sperm in the same area, at the same time. The spawning may be triggered by
ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNALS, such as WATER TEMPERATURE or the LENGHTH OF DAYLIGHTH. Nearly all
fish spawn, as do crustaceans (such as crabs and shrimp), mollusks (such as oysters), squid, and
echinoderms (such as sea urchins and sea cucumbers).

• Perform by aquatic animals

• Spawning – releasing eggs (ex. fish)

• Survivability is not high that why aquatic animals release many eggs

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

SEQUENTIAL HERMAPHRODITES

• These are animals that reverses its sex during its life. PROTOGYNOUS if it shift from FEMALE TO MALE
and PROTANDROUS if it shift from MALE TO FEMALE.

GESTATION and PARTURITION in HUMAN BEING

GESTATION

-Medical term of pregnancy

-Human (9 months or 36-40 weeks)

-Stages of development is divided into 3 trimesters

-First trimester is the crucial part among the three because it is the formation of the fetus.

PARTURITION

-Medical term of childbirth or giving birth

STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

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*Germinal and Embryonic – under first trimester

*Fetal – the longest

*Zygote also known as conceptus

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*100 cells called Blastula

*Blastula – entire structure

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*BLATOCOEL

-THROPHOBLAST- forms placenta

-INNER CELL MASS that also known as embryo blast – forms embryo that will become fetus

*Blastocyst will call Gastrula after the implantation

GASTRULA FORMATION (formation of organ system)

•The typical blastula is a ball of cells. The next stage in embryonic development is the formation of the
body plan. The cells in the blastula rearrange themselves spatially to form three layers of cells. This
process is called GASTRULATION. It happens 15 days after fertilization. During gastrulation, the
blastocyst folds upon itself to form the three layers of cells. Each of these layers is called a germ layer
and each germ layer differentiates into different organ.

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*Three layer of cells: Endoderm, Mesoderm, and Ectoderm

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 FIRST TRIMESTER (BODY CREATION)

• During the first two to four weeks of the first trimester, nutrition and waste are handled by the
endometrial lining through diffusion. As the trimester progresses, the outer layer of the embryo begins
to merge with the endometrium, and the placenta forms. This organ takes over the nutrient and waste
requirements of the embryo and fetus, with the mother’s blood passing nutrients to the placenta and
removing waste from it. Chemicals from the fetus, such as bilirubin, are processed by the mother’s liver
for elimination. Some of the mother’s immunoglobulins will pass through the placenta, providing passive
immunity against some potential infections.

• Internal organs and body structures begin to develop during the first trimester. By five weeks, limb
buds, eyes, the heart, and liver have been basically formed. By eight weeks, the term fetus applies, and
the body is essentially formed. The individual is about five centimeters (two inches) in length and many
of the organs, such as the lungs and liver, are not yet functioning. Exposure to any toxins is especially
dangerous during the first trimester, as all of the body’s organs and structures are going through initial
development. Anything that affects that development can have a severe effect on the fetus’ survival,
thus this is the most crucial part of pregnancy.. The process of organ building during this period is called
ORGANOGENESIS

Figure 1. In this week old human embryo, sometime the length are along the body.

Figure 2. Fetal development is shown at nine weeks gestation.

SECOND TRIMESTER (MOM LOOKS PREGNANT, THE BABY BUMP)

• During the second trimester, the fetus grows to about 30 cm (12 inches). It becomes active and the
mother usually feels the first movements. The mother will look pregnant because the baby bump starts
to appear. All organs and structures continue to develop. The placenta has taken over the functions of
nutrition and waste and the production of estrogen and progesterone from the corpus luteum, which
has degenerated. The placenta will continue functioning up through the delivery of the baby.

THIRD TRIMESTER (GROW MORE AND HE/SHE’S OUT)

• During the third trimester, the fetus grows to 3 to 4 kg (6. -8. lbs.) and about 50 cm (19-20 inches)
long. This is the period of the most rapid growth during the pregnancy. Organ development continues to
birth (and some systems, such as the nervous system and liver, continue to develop after birth). The
mother will be at her most uncomfortable during this trimester. She will feel more of the baby’s

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movement. She may urinate frequently due to pressure on the bladder from the fetus. There may also
be intestinal blockage and circulatory problems, especially in her legs. Clots may form in her legs due to
pressure from the fetus on returning veins as they enter the abdominal cavity. This is the last trimester
of the fetus’ journey until he/she goes out of his/her mother’s womb.

Figure 3. There is a rapid fetal growth during third trimester

BIRTH or PARTURITION

• STAGE 1: Dilation

- Amniotic sac (panubigan) ruptures releasing the fluid, the first signal of labor.

• STAGE 2: Expulsion or transition

- Simultaneous uterine contractions (labor), cervix are widened to let the baby pass through.

• STAGE 3: Placenta discharge

- Placenta (inunan) and other pregnancy debris is removed.

TYPES OF BIRTH OR DELIVERY

NORMAL OR VAGINAL DELIVERY SURGICAL OR CESAREAN SECTION

Baby goes out to the birth canal via labor Baby goes out to the cut made by the physician
Cheaper Expensive
Recovery time is short Recovery time is long
Painful during delivery Painless during delivery

• SURGICAL OR CESAREAN SECTION

-Five (5) layers will be cut

-Recovery of 3 years minimum

-Two types of anesthesia: General Anesthesia (put you to sleep) and EPIDURAL Anesthesia ((anesthesia
is injected to epidural space) or Spinal Block (anesthesia is injected into the dural sac that contains
cerebrospinal fluid).

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 MODES OF NUTRITION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

NUTRITION

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION HETOTROPHIC NUTRITION

Auto: Self Auto: Different

Troph: Food Troph: Food

-Green plants and certain bacteria -Food (organic substances) obtained

manufacture their own food (organic by feeding on other organisms.
substances) from inorganic
substances (CO2 and H2O) using
sunlight energy.

-Not only plants but also other

organism that can photosynthesize or
create their own food.

TYPES OF NUTRITION

AUTOTROPHS HETEROTROPHS

Auto: Self -Obtains energy through intake and

digestion of organic substances
Trophos: Feed (animal/plant tissue)
-Use simple inorganic substances and
either light energy (photosynthesis) or
chemical energy (chemosynthesis) to
synthesise food.

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 PLANT NUTRITION

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

PHOTOTROPHIC/ PHOTOAUTOTROPHIC CHEMOTROPHIC/ CHEMOAUTOTROPHIC

NUTRITION NUTRITION

Mode of nutrition in which organisms make their Mode of nutrition in which organisms like some
own food using sunlight, water and carbon dioxide algae, purple bacteria uses chemical energy instead
by the process of photosynthesis. of sunlight energy to make their food

-Process of photosynthesis -Source: Chemical available on the environment

-Source: Sunlight

ANIMAL NUTRITION

TYPES OF HETETOTROPHIC NUTRITION

SAPROTROPHIC NUTRITION PARASITIC NUTRITION HOLOZOIC NUTRITION

-Feed in dead & decaying matter.
Include bacteria & fungi which
digest the food externally before
the nutrients are absorbed.
Example:
Fungi, Bread moulds
-Obtains nutrients from living
organisms. The parasite obtains
nutrients by living on or in the
body of the host.
Example:
Cuscuta, Tapeworm
-The organism feed by ingesting
solid organic matter which is
then digested and absorbed into
their bodies
Example:
Human beings, Animals

• Carnivore- Meat

• Herbivore- Plants

• Omnivore- Animals (meat) and

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Plants
• The one absorbed nutrients

• Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestines, Large Intestines, Rectum, and Anus

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 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

DIGESTIVE TRACT ACCESSORY ORGAN

-Also known as Alimentary Canal • Teeth
• Mouth • Tongue
• Esophagus • Salivary Glands
• Stomach • Liver
• Small Intestines • Pancreas
• Large Intestines • Gallbladder
• Rectum

• Anus

UPPER DIGESTIVE TRACT LOWER DIGESTIVE TRACT

• Located in mouth to chest • Located in stomach to

lower abdomen

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92
• Motility means movement

• Bolus- chewed food; digestive food from the mouth

• Peristalsis- muscular that pulverized the food

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• Rugae- it is the wall of the stomach

• Esophageal and Pyloric Sphincter- act as valve

• Liquefication- process where the consistency of the food became porridge (chyme)

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SMALL INSTESTINES -20 feet

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• Millions of villi called plicae
• Villi responsible for absorption

LARGE INTESTINES – Absorption of water

• Rectum- storage room

• Rectal Peristalsis – waste

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• Chewing is also known as mastication

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98
 • Largest organ –skin

•Largest gland – liver

• Lipase – digestion of fats

• Amylase – Carbohydrates

• Trypsin – Proteins

LOW BLOOD SUGAR

-Pancreas produces glucagon which trigger breaking down of stored sugar in the liver

HIGH BLOOD SUGAR

-Pancreas produces insulin which trigger excess of sugar in the blood which will be stored in the liver

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 GAS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM- responsible for gas exchange
-End of the bronchioles is alveoli, which the cite and responsible for gas exchange.
• LARYNX- known as the voice box

• PHARYNX- both passage way of air and food

- Oropharynx (Passage of air and food)

• ESOPHAGUS- known as food pipe

• TRACHEA- known as wind pipe

•DIAPHRAGM- a thin skeletal muscles that contracts and relaxes during breathing

• ALVEOLI- cite of gas exchange in most animals including humans

*SPIRACLE- part of the insects and the system tube where gas exchange occurs

• NASAL CAVITY- the region where air are warmth and moisturizes; trapping the dirt before it enters the
lungs

• ARTERY - carries oxygenated blood and carry blood away from the heart

• VEIN- Deoxygenated blood.

• PULMUNARY VEIN- A blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood towards the heart for blood
circulation. This is the only exempted vein in the human body that delivers and carry out oxygenated
blood towards the heart. It connected to the heart and lungs.

• PULMUNARY ARTERY- only blood vessel and artery that carries deoxygenated blood towards the lungs

*All organs have capillaries

(?) WHY THE RIGHT LUNGS IS BIGGER THAN THE LEFT?

= Because the left lung is the space and contains the heart

• PLEURA- the visceral membrane that covers and protects the lungs; not only the lungs but protects the
entire respiratory system

• PERITONEUM- found in abdomen section that protects the digestive system; not only digestive
system but organs located in abdomen

• PERICARDIUM- protects the heart

MECHANICS OF BREATHING (PULMUNARY VENTILATION)

(a) INHALATION (b) EXHALATION

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(?) WHY THE RIBS NEAR THE CHEST BONE IS NOT OSSIFIED (HARDENED)

= Because for the expansion of the lungs

PROCESS OF RESPIRATION

PULMUNARY VENTILATION

-Movement of air in and out of the lungs

-First step in respiration system

EXTERNAL RESPIRATION

-Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide on blood and lungs

INTERNAL RESPIRATION

-Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide on blood and tissues (organ)

GAS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS

GAS EXCHANGE IN DIFFERENT ANIMALS

• Respiration is carried by all living things

• Animals need oxygen to carry out aerobic respiration and get rid other waste product like carbon
dioxide

• GAS EXCHANGE- Swapping one gas for another

*Animals have evolved different mechanisms for carrying out gaseous exchange.

*All mammals have lungs

>Polar bear- Lungs; exchange gases between blood and atmosphere

>Shark- fish have internal gills to get oxygen out of the water as they swim along

>Mexican Salamander- have external gills

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>Locust- use system of tube called trachea for exchanges of gases

>Amphibians such as poisonous dart frog- have lung like mammals but can some oxygen through their
moist permeable skin

• The most important thing is to create a large surface area, the bigger the surface area the faster
diffusion of the gases can occur. Secondly they all have a good blood supply. You want to get oxygen
into the blood and carbon dioxide out as quickly as possible so the blood travels very close to the
exchange surface to once again maximize diffusion.

GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS

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 UNIT 1: ORGANISMAL BIOLOGY (COMPARATIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY)

TRANSPOORT SYSTEM OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS

ANIMAL TRANSPORT SYSTEM

•Lungs and Body- 2 circuits; 2 loops (human & animals)

•PULMUNARY CIRCULATION- blood flows from the heart towards the lungs for
the gas exchange

•SYSTEMATIC CIRCULATION- blood flows from the heart towards the organ
system.

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 •Aorta- largest artery

•Artery- main blood vessel

•Arteriole (smaller to artery)

•Capillaries (smaller to arteriole)- meeting point

•Artery is thicker because of the pressure and allows

faster blood flow

•Vein is slow and have low pressure. Vein have a

thinner walls that prevent deoxygenated blood from
flowing backwards

(?) GUIDE QUESTIONS:

1. What is the main protein transporter of gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide?

= hemoglobin (main protein)

2. What are the 2 types of circulation circuit (system)?

= Pulmonary Circuit and Systematic Circuit

3. What arte the 3 major blood vessels in the circulatory system?

= Artery, Veins, and Capillaries

TYPES OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Animals that have a circulatory system have one of two kinds:

• Open circulatory system: fluid is circulated through an open body chamber.

• Closed circulatory system: fluid is circulated through blood vessels like humans.

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 OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

•Majority of invertebrates (no backbones) have open

circulatory system

•Arthropods and most mollusks have an open

circulatory system

•Hemolymph is contained in a body cavity, the

hemocoel. A series of hearts circulated the fluid.

>Hemocoel- cavity

>Hemolymph- contained the body cavity

*Hemorrhage- if the blood goes out of the blood vessels

CLOSE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

•Vertebrates, annelid worms, and a few mollusks have

a closed circulatory system.

•Blood is moved through blood vessels by the heart’s

action. It does not come in direct contact with body
organs.

CHAMBERED HEART OF THE VERTEBRATES

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 HEART ANATOMY

HOW THE HEART WORKS? LEFT ATRIUM

-Receives oxygenated
blood.
RIGHT ATRIUM

-Receives deoxygenated
blood.

RIGHT VENTRICLE
LEFT VENTRICLE
-Pumps out deoxygenated
blood towards the lungs. -Pumps out oxygenated
blood towards the body.

-Largest chamber and the

only chamber that pumps
out oxygenated blood
towards the body.

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 (?) WHAT MAKE HEART BEATS?

Makes the atria contract.

Makes the ventricles contract.

Makes the whole cardiac muscle to

contract.

• The sinoatrial (SA) node is nervous tissue that times heart beats.

• The SA node causes atria to contract, and sends the signal to the atrioventricular (AV) node to signal
the ventricles to contract.

BLOOD PRESSURE

SYSTOLIC PRESSURE DIASTOLIC PRESSURE

-Pressure when heart -Pressure between
contracts. heart beats.
-Heart contracts to -Heart relaxes to refill,
push blood into your blood pressure is at its
arteries, your blood lowest point.
pressure is at its highest
point.

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 PATHWAY OF BLOOD FLOW IN HUMAN HEART

PULMUNARY ARTERY
AORTA

LEFT ATRIUM

RIGHT ATRIUM

LEFT VENTRICLE

RIGHT VENTRICLE

BLOOD VESSELS

• Only the blood can travel • Artery and Vein- Largest blood vessels

• ARTERIES- Arteries are thick-walled, and lined with

smooth muscle. Arteries expand with each heartbeat, and
contract afterwards, helping to move blood.

• Arterioles (branch off of arteries)- Arterioles can

constrict to direct and control blood flow. They may, for
example increase blood supply to the skin to allow more
heat to dissipate, or constrict during stress to redirect
blood to the heart and muscles.

• Veins- Contraction of skeletal muscles helps move blood

up the limbs and back to the heart.

• Venules (branch off of veins)- are thin-walled collectors

of blood.
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• Capillaries (smallest blood vessels)
 THE BLOOD

Blood: A mixture of solids (RBC, WBC, and Platelets) in large amount of

liquid called plasma.

• Red Blood Cells (RBC)- delivers oxygen and nutrients; collects waste.

• White Blood Cells (WBC)- help fight disease and infection by attacking
germs that enter the body.

• Platelets- help blood form a clot at the site of a wound. A clot seals a
cut and prevents excessive blood loss.

FORMATION OF BLOOD CELLS

BLOOD PROFILE

BLOOD CELL FUNCTION

Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) Transport oxygen and nutrients, collects waste
and carbon dioxide.
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes) Defense and immunity.
Granular Leukocytes
Basophil Inflammatory response; defense mechanism of
the body
Eosinophil Kills parasite
Neutrophil Fight bacterial infections
Agranular Leukocytes

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 Lymphocyte Tumor and viral infection
Monocyte Fight bacterial infections
Platelets (Thrombocytes) Blood clotting

BLOOD CIRCULATION

PULMONARY CIRCULATION- Deoxygenated blood circulates

from the heart to lungs (HEART LUNGS HEART)

SYSTEMATIC CIRCULATION- Oxygenated blood circulates from

heart to different organ system (HEART ORGANS HEART)

SYSTEMATIC CIRCULATION

Coronary Arteries

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CORONARY CIRCULATION

-Blood vessels that supply heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products. This
happens to the heart itself.

FETAL CIRCULATION

-Blood route through fetus before birth. Modifications

required for fetus to efficiently secure oxygen and

nutrients from the maternal blood.

VASCULAR TISSUE

• Transport water, minerals, and sugars to different parts of the plant.

• The xylem and phloem always lie adjacent to each other in a vascular bundle (stem) and vascular
cylinder (roots).

XYLEM PHLOEM
FUNCTION Transport water and nutrients from Transport organic compounds from
the roots to different parts of the the site of photosynthesis to other
plant. parts of the plant.
CELL COMPOSITION Vessel Element and Tracheids Sieve tube cells and Companion cells

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EVALUATION:

All animals need to (1) TRANSPORT materials around to the different parts of their body. This is the
job the (2) CIRCULATORY system. The circulatory sytem consists of a liquid susbtance calle (3) BLOOD, a
pump called the (4) HEART and a series of vessels call (5) ARTERIES and (6) VEINS.

One things must be transported around is gas called (7) OXYGEN. Oxygen enters the blood through
the (8) LUNGS. It is then pumped through the heart and around the (9) BODY SYSTEM where it is used
along with food to make (10) ENERGY. The body produces another gas called carbon dioxide, which is a
waste product. This gas is carried back to the atmosphere.

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