Introduction & Basic
Concepts in Statistics
Statistics is the branch of mathematics that
deals with the theory and method of collecting,
organizing, presenting, analyzing and
interpreting data.
Two Main Divisions/Phases of Statistics
1.DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS - refers to the
summary statistic that quantitatively describes
or summarizes features from a collection of data
under investigation.
-The goal is to describe. Numerical measures are
used to tell about features of a set of data.
Exa ples:
The average, or measure of the center of a data set,
consisting of the mean, median, mode, or midrange
The spread of a data set, which can be measured with
the range or standard deviation
Overall descriptions of data such as the five number
summary
Measurements such as skewness and kurtosis
The exploration of relationships
and correlation between paired data
The presentation of statistical results
in graphical form
2. INFERENTIAL STATISTICS - statistical tools
that are used to examine the relationships
between variables within a sample and then
make generalizations or predictions about how
those variables will relate to a larger population.
Example
A confidence interval gives a range of values for an
unknown parameter of the population by measuring a
statistical sample. This is expressed in terms of an
interval and the degree of confidence that the
parameter is within the interval.
Tests of significance or hypothesis testing where
scientists make a claim about the population by
analyzing a statistical sample. By design, there is some
uncertainty in this process. This can be expressed in
terms of a level of significance
Two Branches of Statistics
Statistical Theory – is concerned with the
formulation of theories, principles, and formulas
which are used as bases in the solution of problems
related to Statistics.
Statistical Methods – is concerned with the
application of the theories, principles and formulas in
the solution of everyday problems.
OTHER STATISTICAL TERMS:
POPULATION – a set of data consisting of all
conceivable possible observations of a certain
phenomenon. It refers to the totality of the
observations. Population is denoted by capital N.
SAMPLE – a finite number of items selected from
a population possessing identical characteristics
with those of the population from which it was
taken. Sample is denoted by small letter n
VARIABLE – refers to a fundamental quantity
that changes in value from one observation to
another within a given domain and under a given
set of conditions. Variables may be represented
by the letters X, Y, etc.
CONSTANT – refers to fundamental quantities
that do not change in value.
PARAMETERS – are characteristics/measures
computed from the population
STATISTIC/S – are characteristics/measures
computed from the sample
Four levels of data measurement
Nominal – qualitative data, categorical data
(ex sex, gender, year level)
Ordinal – ranked data (1st, 2nd, 3rd ,etc)
Interval – data with arbitrary zero value (scores,
grades)
Ratio – data coming from measurements (height,
weight, etc)
STEPS IN A STATISTICAL INQUIRY OR
INVESTIGATION
1. Collection of data
2. Presentation of data
3. Analysis of data
4. Interpretation of data
Data Collection and Data Presentation
What are DATA?
Data are plain facts, usually raw numbers, words,
measurements, observations or just description
of things. Think of a spreadsheet full of numbers
with no meaningful description.  In order for
these numbers to become information, they must
be interpreted to have meaning.
TWO TYPES OF DATA
1. QUALITATIVE DATA is descriptive in nature
ex., color, shapes
2. QUANTITATIVE is numerical information ex.
weight, height
DATA COLLECTION-Data collection is
concerned with the accurate gathering of data;
although methods may differ depending on the
field, the emphasis on ensuring accuracy. The
primary goal of any data collection is to capture
quality data or evidence that easily translates to
rich data analysis that may lead to credible and
conclusive answers to questions that have been
posed.
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
1. THE INTERVIEW or DIRECT METHOD
The researcher or interviewer gets the needed
data from the respondent or interviewee
verbally and directly face-to-face contact.
2. THE QUESTIONNAIRE or INDIRECT METHOD
The questionnaire is a tool for data gathering
and research that consists of a set of questions in
a different form of question type that is used to
collect information from the respondents for the
purpose of either survey or statistical analysis
study.
3. REGISTRATION METHOD
This method is used by the government such as
the records of births at the Philippine Statistics
Authority (PSA), registration record at the
COMELEC
4. OBSERVATION
This method is a way of collecting data through
observing. The observer gains firsthand
knowledge by being in and around the social
setting that is being investigated.
5. EXPERIMENTATION
An experiment is a procedure carried out to
support, refute, or validate a hypothesis. An
experiment is a method that most clearly shows
cause-and-effect because it isolates and
manipulates a single variable, in order to clearly
show its effect.
DATA PRESENTATION
Once data has been collected, it has to be
classified and organized in such a way that it
becomes easily readable and interpretable, that
is, converted to information.
TYPES OF DATA PRESENTATION
1. TEXTUAL PRESENTATION
This type of presentation combines text and
figures in a statistical report.
Example: news item in the newspaper
2. TABULAR PRESENTATION
This type of presentation uses tables consisting
of vertical columns and horizontal rows with
headings describing these rows and columns.
The data are presented in more brief and orderly
manner.
Example: frequency table
3. GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION
It is a most effective means of presenting
statistical data because important relationships
are brought out more clearly in graphs.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF GRAPHS COMMONLY
USED IN DATA PRESENTATION
1. BAR GRAPH
A bar chart or bar graph is a chart or graph that
presents categorical data with rectangular bars
with heights or lengths proportional to the
values that they represent. The bars can be
plotted vertically or horizontally.
2.LINE GRAPH
A line graph is a graphical display of information
that changes continuously over time. A line
graph may also be referred to as a line chart.
Within a line graph, there are points connecting
the data to show a continuous change. The lines
in a line graph can descend and ascend based on
the data. We can use a line graph to compare
different events, situations, and information.
3.PIE GRAPH
- A pie chart is a circular chart divided into
wedge-like sectors, illustrating proportion. Each
wedge represents a proportionate part of the
whole, and the total value of the pie is always
100 percent.
-Pie charts can make the size of portions easy to
understand at a glance. They're widely used in
business presentations and education to show
the proportions among a large variety of
categories including expenses, segments of a
population, or answers to a survey.
5. PICTOGRAPH/PICTOGRAM
A pictograph is a chart or graph, which uses
pictures to represent data. A pictograph is one of
the simplest forms of data visualization.
SAMPLING
TWO TYPES OF SAMPLING
Probability sampling- Provides equal chances to
every single element of the population to be
included in the sampling.
Non-probability sampling- The samples are
selected in a process that does not give all the
individuals in the population equal chances of
being selected. Samples are selected don the
basis of their accessibility or by the purposive
personal judgement of the reasearcher
STEP 4: Select the respondents by random
sampling.
CLUSTER SAMPLING- Often called geographic
sampling. It is used in large scale surveys. The
population is divided into multiple groups called
clusters. The clusters are selected with simple
random or systematic sampling techniques for
data collection and data analysis.
NON-PROBABILITY-BASED SAMPLING
ACCIDENTAL OR CONVENIENCE SAMPLING -
Researches selects subjects that are more readily
accessible or available.
PURPOSIVE SAMPLING –Subjects are selected
based on the need of the study.
SNOWBALL SAMPLING – This type of sampling
start with known sources of information , who or
which will in turn give other sources of
information. As this goes on, data accumulates.
QUOTA SAMPLING – Researchers takes a sample
in proportion to some characteristics or trate of
the population.

Probability sampling
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
-Lottery Method
-Fish Bowl Method
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
STEP 1: Identify the population (N)
STEP 2: Identify the number of sample (n)
STEP 3: Divide N by n to find the nth Interval 
STRATIFIED SAMPLING- Used to ensure that
different groups in the population are
adequately in the sample

STEP 1: Identify the population and divide the

population into different groups or strata
according to criteria.
STEP 2: Decide on the sampling size or actual
percentage of the population to be considered a
sample.
STEP 3: Get a proportion of sample from each
group.