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Building Technology 5 Modern Methods USE FOR Designing

BS Architecture (De La Salle University – Dasmariñas)

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DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY – DASMARIÑAS

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ARCHITECTURE, AND
TECHNOLOGY
ARCHITECTURE DEPARTMENT

“BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 5 : MODERN METHODS USE FOR

DESIGNING”

September 20, 2019

A.Y. 2019-2020
ARC41

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A WALL PANEL is single piece of material, usually flat and cut

into a rectangular shape, that serves as the visible and exposed
covering for a wall. Wall panels are functional as well as
decorative, providing insulation and soundproofing, combined
with uniformity of appearance, along with some measure of
durability or ease of replacement.

• Comprehensive panelized wall construction system

• Factory material application
PRECEDENTS OF WALL PANEL SYSTEM • Indoor wall panel manufacturing
• Pre-assembled panelized walls
MASONRY WALL
• Lightweight panelized walls
• Air barrier and secondary water barrier standard in all wall
panel styles
• Continuous EIFS insulation
• Wide variety of panelized wall finishing options
• Components work in flexible panelized wall combinations
• Wall panels are tested and code recognized
• Walls contain dual seal panelized construction technology

. HOLLOW BLOCKS CONCRETE REINFORCED CONCRET

. DRY WALL

WOOD CONSTRUCTION

• Increased speed, quality and

value
• Enhanced exterior wall
finishing quality control
• Work schedules uninterrupted by weather
• Fast on-site installation reduced cost
• Easier installation and lower structural requirements than precast
• Energy efficient and highly durable Trust and confidence in systems and materials
• protects against water intrusion Two layers of weather protection provide security and confidence
• Enhances energy efficiency and minimizes thermal bridging
• Virtually unlimited opportunities for unique building wall aesthetics
• Wall components customized to climate and design considerations

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PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
• Functional consideration
• Erection considerations
• Aesthetic considerations
• Weight
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
• Wind loading
• Seismic design criteria
• Deflection criteria
• Air infiltration criteria
Foam
• Water test performance criteria
• Panel flatness criteria
• Panel tolerance criteria
• Thermal movement criteria
• Performance testing criteria
• Fire resistance ratings, if required
• Sound transmission criteria
• Insulation criteria
• Performance criteria for air and moisture barrier or rain screen
Framing support Skin

FLAT TYPE WALL SYSTEM is a factory - insulated wall system with concealed fasteners for a smooth monolithic
appearance.
FEATURES AND BENEFITS
1. Special interlocking joint design allows panels to easily lock into for faster installation. 2. Can be combined with other Butler
wall systems, or bricks, glass and other conventional materials. 3. 16’’ panel width, combined with the side “return leg”, enables
application of almost any conventional finish on the interior of the wall system. 4. Factory- installed rigid insulation board for
enhanced energy efficiency. 5. Available in several visually appealing colors.

APPLICATIONS (ARCHITECTURAL)
• Low and Mid-Rid Offices
• Convention Centers
• Performing Arts Centers
• Arenas
• Airport Terminal Buildings
• Schools and Universities
• Hospitals

COMMERCIAL & INDUSTRIAL

• Retail buildings • Hangars

• Prison Facilities
• Equipment Maintenance Buildings
• Manufacturing Facilities
• Warehouses
• Distribution Centers
• Self storage complexes
• Utility Buildings
RIBBED TYPE
Panel Rib is the most economical
wall system, durable and design for
easy installation.
FEATURES
Available in 26,24 or 22 gauge, 36” wide panel with 1 – ¼” high ribs 12” on center, Available up to
41’ in length, Variety of color options with KXL finish and a 25 year paint warranty, Installed with
self-drilling color- matched fasteners, and Optional crimped base feature.

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BENEFITS • • Convention Centers

• Variety of gauge thickness to meet most codes and • • •
specifications • • •
• Engineered for durability and aesthetic pleasing • • •
• Long panel lengths minimize end laps for optimum • • •
wall integrity
• •
• Superior paint finishes reduces maintenance costs •
• Eliminates the need for base trim and accelerates
installation
• Economical panel for most building applications

APPALOOSA LIBRARY

WALL TYPE
A curtain wall system consisting of performed metal cut stone, precast panelized brick
wall units, which may be preglazed or glazed after concrete or installation. The framing
is attached to the building structure and does not carry the floor or roof loads of the
building. The wind and gravity loads of the curtain wall are transferred to the building
structure, typically at the floor line.

BENEFITS
• Lightweight
• Economical
• Easy installation
• Faster
• Wide range of product
design
• Comprehensive wall panel

A – Steel Frame
B– Glass Mat Gypsum Sheathing
C–Waterproof Air Barrier Membrane
D –Continuous Insulation
E –XTM (type IV XPS insulation board)
F – Z-Clip Furring
G – Slip Sheet
H –Mat (embedded )
I –Adhesive K –Joint Treatment
L –Coat (wraps around to back of panel)
M – Metal Lath
N – Semi-Rigid Mineral or Stone Wool
O –Mesh
P – Metal Perimeter Channel
Q –Base Coat (wrap base coat & mesh to back of panel)
R–Cast Bed Reinforced
S –Prime
T –Approved Thin Set Adhesive
V–Textured Finish
W–Coat (on areas receiving sealant)
X – Thin Brick & Grout
KEY FEATURES(compliance with ASTM C 1177)
• Factory assembled
• Typical units are five to six feet wide.
• Fast and easy installation process
• Comprehensive construction system
• Components work in flexible combination

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WINDOW TYPE WALL PANEL

ARCHITECTURAL PANELS WITH WINDOW OPENINGS

• vertically for two or three floors

architectural vocabulary of
• provide a significant design feature for
building
• offers quality and cost-effective

Right

Summe

•
•
•

TILT-UP WALL PANEL SYSTEM

IT IS A TECHNIQUE OF SITE CASTING CONCRETE WALLS OR ELEMENTS,
TYPICALLY DONE ON A HORIZONTAL SURFACE AND ONCE CURED, IT IS
TILTED VERTICALLY INTO PLACE USING A MOBILE TEMPORARILLY BRACED
INTO ITS FINAL STANDING POSITION AND IS TIED INTO THE BUILDING’S ROOF
AND FLOORING SYSTEM.

METHODS OF CONSTRUCTION

AT THE CONSTRUCTION SITE, WORKERS BUILD A FRAME FOR THE WALL. THIS IS
USUALLY BUILT ON THE FLOOR OF THE BUILDING BEING BUILT. DOORS,
WINDOWS AND OTHER OPENINGS ARE FRAMED IN.

WAITING PERIOD IS A WEEK TO 10

DAYS WHILE
THE CONCRETE ATTAINS
SUFFICIENT STRENGTH
FOR LIFTING. THE FRAME IS
REMOVED. WORKERS READY THE WALL
FOR LIFTING. THESE TYPES OF WALLS
CAN WEIGH UP TO 100,000 POUNDS.

RIGGING IS ATTACHED. A CRANE IS

USED TO LIFT THE WALL
CAREFULLY. WORKERS USE LARGE
BRACES TO STEADY THE WALL AS IT
IS RAISED.

After the panels are poured

and lifted into place, each
panel must be temporarily
braced to safely hold it in a
vertical position.

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Home Interior | Wall Panelling | Types of Wall Panelling

We use makeup on ourselves, to hide blemishes and to look better. Similarly, when you start beautifying your wall, you
went to create a decorative background. When you decorate a wall, you select a plain surface without any wires, openings
or defects.
As the word suggests, one will panel a wall surface to cover the
blemishes. Wall paneling is a covering element for walls that we choose
for better aesthetics or decoration. Wall panelling can be functional or
serving technical services.
Nowadays, using wall panelling, wallpapers or painting a texture on
the wall is trending. Wall panelling is better than painting or
wallpapering the wall as it provides better durability and hygiene. One
can also hide the speakers or electrical cables behind the panelling that
kills the show of your room, while it is not feasible with wallpapers and
painting.

Wall panelling for a home is majorly for a better décor. Designers can
create a different ambiance and feel of space by playing with wall
surfaces. They can easily break up the monotonous wall surface to create
inspiring feeling in a room.

Wall Panel
There are two systems of panelling. One is a simple way to screw the
panels or boards on the wall. This system is applicable for a straight wall
surface or lightweight panels.

The other system is widely in use, where the systems have a grid of
frame. The grid size can vary according to the sizes and patterns of the
panels. The material of the frame can be of metal or wood depending on
the material and weight of the panels.

The grid system is more effective as it helps to rectify a deflecting wall.

Moreover, it provides a uniform plane to the panels. After the grid is
ready, one can easily screw or hang the panels on the grid. One can add
insulation material like Rock wool in between the cavity for insulating
the room.
Panel System with Aluminium Frames
The fixing method for every panel varies depending on the factors like
the height of the wall, the deflect in the wall, type of the material, type of
panelling, available frame materials, etc.

Here are a few types of Wall panelling available according to the

surface finishes they offer:

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01. Decorative Wall Panelling

Panelling done to improvise the aesthetics of room are decorative wall panelling. Well, some may also use these to
protect the wall surfaces from the damage. These decorative elements are available in different materials and sizes.

Wainscoting is a traditional way to panel the wall by wood. Generally, it covers the lower half of the wall where abrasion
of the wall occurs or damage occurs due to non-existent of damp-proof courses. Efflorescence on wall is one of the most
trribly damage occurs due to non-existent of damp-proof courses. Know the various tips to remove white salty powder
from the wall. A designer can derive obviously many versions of panelling. There are other materials available for
panelling a wall surface like gypsum board, pre-fabricated boards, metals, PVC sheets, fabric, laminate, etc. It is
preferably applicable in residential areas, commercial, institutional, religious, industrial, etc.

Decorative Panel
02. Tile Board Panelling
Tile board is MDF board (medium density fiberboard) with a layer
of melamine on top, which looks like an ordinary ceramic tile.
These have grooves to mimic the tile joint

These are much easier and quicker to install, as there is no civil

work involved. So, conceptually, smaller the size of the panel, more
will be the numbers of the frame and hence it will be more
cumbersome. Therefore, this system is beneficial to fix the larger
size of panels.

It is preferably applicable in the kitchens, toilets, bathtubs, pantry,

cafe, etc.
Tile Board
03. Utility Paneling

In the utility panel, one uses the panels to hang or hold things. The
panels are perforated hardboard that has rows of small holes to
hold nails and pegs. One can use the entire surface as a utility panel
or just a part of the wall as a utility panel.

They are available in variable colour finishes and wood texture

finishes. Any carpenter can modify the panel design as per our
requirement.

It is preferably applicable in the kitchens, garages, commercial,

etc.

Peg Board
04. Acoustics Paneling
The raw surface of the wall can reflect sound back and may create
an echo in a room. To improve the acoustical properties of a room,
one needs a sound absorbing surface on the walls of a room.
Acoustical panels do the job by absorbing the noise and thus
provides a proper sound effect in the room. The acoustics panelling
helps in controlling the noise levels in space and avoids the noise
transfer through the wall. Nevertheless, the acoustics of a room
depends upon the size of panelling, the location of panelling, size
of the room, the location of speakers, etc.

These are available in different materials like fabric, foam sheets, perforated board panels, etc. These are very common
and available in varied colour shades and textures. It is preferably applicable in the home theaters, classrooms, cinema
theaters, schools, auditoriums, etc.

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Fabric Panel
05. External Paneling

Generally, we have different covering panels for external wall

surfaces, which are exterior panels. The exteriors panels are of
varied materials like pre-cast concrete, wood, bricks, tiles, PVC,
cement fiber boards, etc. They aim to protect the wall surfaces
from the harsh atmospheric effect.

Within the system, there are Structural panels, which replaces the
wall and the exterior panel. The system compiles of sheets of rigid
foam insulation sandwiched between layers of fiberboard or other
exterior material. These are useful in creating temporary structures
or in industries.

Exterior Pre-Cast Concrete Panels

Pros of Wall Paneling
• It gives an opportunity to create an elegant interior for space.
There are many options available to create a plain, textured or a
3D wall surface.
• Since we add a layer to the wall surface, the cavity helps to
insulate the room thermally and acoustically.
• It also offers to hide the flaws of the wall surface.
• It helps to hide the unpleasant wires or cables running on the
wall surfaces. It can conceal such wires and speaker units too.
• The panels are replaceable, so it becomes easy to change the decor or maintain the services hidden behind the panelling.
Cons of Wall Paneling
• Depending on the materials and designs, there should be open joints or holes in panelling, or it can be a home for insects.
• Panelling is the final finish one is going to see, so good workmanship is a must or else the panelled surface can deflect,
crack or breakdown.
It is very tempting to panel a wall when panelling offers such great opportunities. My client had a badly painted wall
which every year got in the same condition. Thank god, to the concept of wall panelling. It has not only covered the
blemishes of the wall but also has become a design element for the room.

I am sure you might have such a wall at your home or workplace that demands a panel. Share me your problems and I
can suggest you some panelling ideas.

Prestressed Concrete: A Fundamental Approach,

ACI 318‐11 Code Philosophy & Stresses Limitations
1.Introduction
Prestressing can be defined as the imposition of internal stresses into a structure that are of opposite character to those
that will be caused by the service or working loads. A common method used to describe prestressing is shown in Figure
1, where a row of books has been squeezed together by a person’s hands. The resulting “beam” can carry a downward
load as long as the compressive stress from squeezing at the bottom of the “beam” is greater than the tensile stress there
from the moment produced by the weight of the books and the superimposed loads. Such a beam has no tensile strength
and, thus, no moment resistance until it is squeezed together or prestressed. You might very logically now expand your
thoughts to a beam consisting of a row of concrete blocks squeezed together and then to a plain concrete beam with its
negligible tensile strength similarly prestressed.

The theory of prestressing is quite simple and has been used for many years in various kinds of structures. For instance,
wooden barrels have long been made by putting tightened metal bands around them, thus compressing the staves
together and making a tight container with resistance to the outward pressures of the enclosed liquids. For concrete
beams, prestressing is primarily used to counteract tension stresses caused by the weight of the members and the
superimposed loads. Should these loads cause a positive moment in a beam, it is possible by prestressing to introduce a
negative moment that can counteract part or all of the positive moment. An ordinary beam has to have sufficient strength

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to support itself as well as the other loads, but it is possible with prestressing to produce a negative loading that will
eliminate the effect of the beam’s weight, thus producing a “weightless beam.”

From the preceding discussion, it is easy to see why prestressing has captured the imagination of so many persons and
why it has all sorts of possibilities now and in the future. In the earlier chapters of this book, only a portion of the
concrete cross sections of members in bending could be considered effective in resisting loads because a large part of
those cross sections were in tension, and thus the concrete cracked. If, however, concrete flexural members can be
prestressed so that their entire cross sections are kept in compression, then the properties of the entire sections are
available to resist the applied forces.

Figure 1: Prestressing process.

Figure2 gives more detailed illustration of prestressing. It is assumed that the following steps have been taken with
regard to this beam:
1. Steel strands (represented by the dashed lines) were placed in the lower part of the beam form.
2. The strands were tensioned to a very high stress.
3. The concrete was placed in the form and allowed to gain sufficient strength for the prestressed
strands to be cut.
4. The strands were cut.

The cut strands tend to resume their original length, thus compressing the lower part of the beam and causing a negative
bending moment. The positive moment caused by the beam weight and any superimposed gravity loads is directly
opposed by the negative moment. Another way of explaining this is to say that a compression stress has been produced
in the bottom of the beam opposite in character to the tensile stress that is caused there by the working loads.

Figure 2: Sequence showing effect of prestressing force at different stages.

2.Advantages and Disadvantages of Prestressed Concrete
2.1 Advantages It is possible with prestressing to utilize the entire cross sections of members to resist loads. Thus,
smaller members can be used to support the same loads, or the same‐size members can be used for longer spans. This
is a particularly important advantage because member weights make up a substantial part of the total design loads of
concrete structures.

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Prestressed members are crack‐free under working loads and, as a result, look better and are more watertight,
providing better corrosion protection for the steel. Furthermore, crack free prestressed members require less
maintenance and last longer than cracked reinforced concrete members. Therefore, for a large number of structures,
prestressed concrete provides the lowest first‐cost solution, and when its reduced maintenance is considered,
prestressed concrete provides the lowest overall cost for many additional cases.
The negative moments caused by prestressing produce camber in the members, with the result that total deflections are
reduced. Other advantages of prestressed concrete include the following: reduction in diagonal tension stresses,
sections with greater stiffnesses under working loads, and increased fatigue and impact resistance compared to
ordinary reinforced concrete.

2.2 Disadvantages
Prestressed concrete requires the use of higher‐strength concretes and steels and the use of more complicated
formwork, with resulting higher labor costs. Other disadvantages include the following:
1) Closer quality control required in manufacture.
2) Losses in the initial prestressing forces. When the compressive forces from prestressing are applied to the concrete,
it will shorten somewhat, partially relaxing the cables. The result is some reduction in cable tension with a resulting
loss in prestressing forces. Shrinkage and creep of the concrete add to this effect.
3) Additional stress conditions must be checked in design, such as the stresses occurring when prestress forces are first
applied and then after prestress losses have taken place, as well as the stresses occurring for different loading
conditions.
4) Cost of end anchorage devices and end‐beam plates that may be required.

3.Pretensioning and Posttensioning

The two general methods of prestressing are pretensioning and posttensioning. Pretensioning was illustrated in the
introduction, where the prestress tendons were tensioned before the concrete was placed. After the concrete had
hardened sufficiently, the tendons were cut and the prestress force was transmitted to the concrete by bond. This
method is particularly well suited for mass production because the casting beds can be constructed several hundred
feet long. The tendons can be run for the entire bed lengths and used for casting several beams in a line at the same
time, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Prestress bed.

In posttensioned construction (Figure 4), the tendons are stressed after the concrete is placed and has gained the desired
strength. Plastic or metal tubes, conduits, sleeves, or similar devices with unstressed tendons inside (or later inserted)
are located in the form and the concrete is placed. After the concrete has sufficiently hardened, the tendons are stretched
and mechanically attached to end anchorage devices to keep the tendons in their stretched positions. Thus, by
posttensioning, the prestress forces are transferred to the concrete not by bond but by end bearing.

Figure 4: Posttensioned Beam.

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It is actually possible in posttensioning to have either bonded or unbonded tendons. If bonded, the conduits are often
made of aluminum, steel, or other metal sheathing. In addition, it is possible to use steel tubing or rods or rubber cores
that are cast in the concrete and removed a few hours after the concrete is placed. After the steel is tensioned, cement
grout is injected into the duct for bonding. The grout is also useful in protecting the steel from corrosion. If the tendons
are to be unbonded, they should be greased to facilitate tensioning and to protect them from corrosion.

4.Materials Used for Prestressed Concrete

The materials ordinarily used for prestressed concrete are concrete and high‐strength steels. The concrete used is
normally of a higher strength than that used for reinforced concrete members, for several reasons, including the
following:
1) The modulus of elasticity of such concretes is higher, with the result that the elastic strains in the concrete are smaller
when the tendons are cut. Thus, the relaxations or losses in the tendon stresses are smaller.
2) In prestressed concrete, the entire members are kept in compression, and thus all the concrete is effective in resisting
forces. Hence, it is reasonable to pay for a more expensive but stronger concrete if all of it is going to be used. (In
ordinary reinforced concrete beams, more than half of the cross sections are in tension and, thus, assumed to be cracked.
As a result, more than half of a higher‐strength concrete used there would be wasted.)
3) Most prestressed work in the United States is of the precast, pretensioned type done at the prestress yard, where the
work can be carefully controlled. Consequently, dependable higher‐strength concrete can readily be obtained.
4) For pretensioned work, the higher‐strength concretes permit the use of higher bond stresses between the cables and
the concrete.

High‐strength steels are necessary to produce and keep satisfactory prestress forces in members. The strains that occur
in these steels during stressing are much greater than those that can be obtained with ordinary reinforcing steels. As a
result, when the concrete elastically shortens in compression and also shortens because of creep and shrinkage, the losses
in strain in the steel (and thus stress) represent a smaller percentage of the total stress. Another reason for using high‐
strength steels is that a large prestress force can be developed in a small area.

5.Stress Calculations
For a consideration of stresses in a prestressed rectangular beam, refer to Figure 5. For this example, the
prestress tendons are assumed to be straight, although it will later be shown that a curved shape is more
practical for most beams. The tendons are assumed to be located an eccentric distance, e, below the centroidal
axis of the beam. As a result, the beam is subjected to a combination of direct compression and a moment
because of the eccentricity of the prestress. In addition, there will be a moment from the external load,
including the beam’s own weight. The resulting stress at any point in the beam caused by these 7 | Page three
factors can be written as follows, where P is the prestressing force

In this expression, P is the prestress force, e is the eccentricity of the prestress force with respect to the centroid
of the cross section, c is the distance from the centroidal axis to the extreme fiber (top or bottom depending on
where the stresses are being determined), M is the applied moment from unfactored loads at the stage at which
stresses are being calculated, A is the uncracked concrete cross‐sectional area, and I is the moment of inertia of
the gross concrete cross section. In Figure 5, a stress diagram is drawn for each of these three items, and all
three are combined to give the final stress diagram.

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Figure 5 Concrete stress distribution from eccentric prestress force and superimposed loads.

The usual practice is to base the stress calculations in the elastic range on the properties of the gross concrete section.
The gross section 8 | Page consists of the concrete external dimensions with no additions made for the transformed area
of the steel tendons or subtractions made for the duct areas in posttensioning. This method is considered to give
satisfactory results because the changes in stresses obtained if net or transformed properties are used are usually not
significant.

COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION METHOD

It is a modern building method that is based in the combination of steel cross sections and reinforced concrete elements
and is aimed at the maximum possible utilization of their properties to the benefit of the structure.

2. Composite Construction Composite construction provides a method of using two materials together so as to utilize
each material to its best advantage. Some of the construction problems associated with the normal steel- concrete
composite beams are examined, including the placing sequence of deck concrete and the monitoring of deflections to
insure proper slab thickness. New approaches to steel-concrete composite construction include a beam and column
system and a box girder utilizing the void space as an air conditioning duct. Other types of composite construction are
mentioned, including the timber-concrete slab bridge, a timber-steel composite truss utilizing high-strength bridge strand
as the lower chord, a wood-steel open web joist which provides nailable chords, and light gage metal decking with a
concrete slab.

3. WHY COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION IS GOOD? The reason why composite construction is often so good
can be expressed in one simple way - concrete is good in compression and steel is good in tension. By joining the two
materials together structurally these strengths can be exploited to result in a highly efficient and lightweight design. The
reduced self weight of composite elements has a knock-on effect by reducing the forces in those elements supporting
them, including the foundations. Composite systems also offer benefits in terms of speed of construction. The floor
depth reductions that can be achieved using composite construction can also provide significant benefits in terms of the
costs of services and the building envelope.

4. Benefits of Composite Construction The benefits of composite construction include speed of construction,
performance and value. Steel framing for a structure can be erected quickly and the pre-fabricated steel floor decks can
be put in place immediately. When cured, the concrete provides additional stiffness to the structure. Additionally, the
concrete encasement protects the steel from buckling, corrosion and fire. Service integration within the channels on the
composite decks is another advantage to composite construction. Building quality standards can be adhered to easily
by the use of pre-fabricated decks. Excessive deflections can be controlled by cambering the beams or by shoring the
metal decks to limit deflection when concrete is poured.

5. The Principle of Composite Action The principle of Composite Action underpins the use of composite materials
in construction. It relates to the interaction of two or more separate elements acting together and contributing together
rather than separately. By physically connecting them, the strength of the beams and the resistance to bending, shear
and torsion are significantly increased.

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6. Types of Composite Slabs The most common composite slab consists of the profiled steel decking and concrete
cast in-situ. Once cured the concrete and decking act compositely Pre-cast concrete slabs can also be used to form a
composite floor deck system. The slabs must be designed specifically so that they can interact with the beam system in
place. The composite action in this case can be achieved by welded shear studs and transverse reinforcement across the
floor deck. By utilizing pre-cast concrete decks, hollow core slabs can be used. These can reduce the weight of the whole
building whilst offering similar performance to solid slabs. Pre-Cast slabs are usually covered by a layer of concrete
after installation to produce a more finished and aesthetic result.

7. Examples of Hollow-Core Slabs The final type of composite floor

slab is the Slim Floor. This consists of the supporting steel beam being
encased in the concrete with the lower flange of the beam supporting the
floor. Diagrams depicting the various composite slab types in use today
are shown below.

8. Composite Beams A composite beam can be structurally described

as a T-Beam, with the top flange composed of concrete in compression
and the steel section in tension. Forces between the two materials are
transferred by shear connectors. The principle of composite action with
regards to beams leads to increased strength and stiffness of the system
whilst using a smaller steel section.

9. Shear Connectors Shear connectors are an essential element of

composite construction if it is to perform adequately. The main purpose of the shear connector is to provide longitudinal
shear resistance between the materials so that they act compositely and to facilitate the interaction between the different
materials and to allow them to act as one. (MCRMA, 2003) The shear connection between steel beams and concrete
slabs is typically achieved by headed steel studs, welded to the top flange of the steel beam and subsequently encased
in concrete. The performance of the studs depends on their dimensions and the spacing along the flange of the beam.
Near supports, where the shear forces are greatest, the spacing is reduced. Shear studs can be welded through steel
decking.

10. Types of Shear Connectors Headed Studs The most common form of connecting materials compositely is
with the use of headed shear studs. The behaviour of headed studs does not vary significantly when concrete properties
are changed. Resistance to shear depends on the number of studs used and performance is less that that achieved by
more modern shear connectors such as the Perfobondstrip or a welded T-Section. (Zingoni, 2001) The advantages of
stud connectors is that the welding process is quick and simple, the placement of the studs does not interfere with the
placement of reinforcement within the slab and they provide uniform resistance to shear in all directions normal to the
axis of the stud. (Johnson, 2004)

11. Oscillating Perfobondstrip The curved form of an oscillating perfobondstrip

provides better force transfer between steel and concrete than a continuous strip. The load
capacity of this connector is larger than a headed stud or welded T-Section. This form of
connector is most suited to light weight concrete or high strength normal weight concrete.
Problems with this form of connection are difficulties in welding the section to the steel
beam. (Zingoni, 2001)

12. T-RIB CONNECTOR Welded T-Section connectors perform very well in

comparison to headed studs and achieve the same load resistance as oscillating
perfobondstrip. Load capacity increases when Light Weight Concrete or high strength
concrete is used.

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13. WAVEFORM STRIPS The objective of the curved form is to improve the transfer
of force between the steel and the surrounding concrete as opposed to a straight connector.

14. T-CONNECTORS This connector is a section of a standard T-section welded to

the H or I section with two fillet welds (Figure 7).T-connectors evolved from the
observation by Oguejiofor (1997) that a large part of the bearing capacity of a perfobond
strip was the result of the direct bearing of the concrete at the front end of the
(discontinuous) perfobond strip.

15. CHANNEL CONNECTOR Channel connectors might not need inspection

procedures, such as bending test of headed studs, due to strength of most specimens is
lower than their monotonic strength by about 10 to 23%.

Cable or Tensile
Structures
Historically inspired by some of the first man-made
shelters—such as the black tents first developed using camel
leather by the nomads of the Sahara Desert, Saudi Arabia,
and Iran, as well as the structures used by Native American
tribes—tensile structures offer a range of positive benefits
compared to other structural models.
Tensile structure is the term usually used to refer to the
construction of roofs using a membrane held in place on
Munich Olympic Stadium / Behnisch and Partners & Frei Otto. steel cables. Their main characteristics are the way in which they
Image © Jorge Royan via Wikimedia work under stress tensile, their ease of pre-fabrication, their ability
to cover large spans, and their malleability. This structural system calls for a small amount of material thanks to the use
of thin canvases, which when stretched using steel cables, create surfaces capable of overcoming the forces imposed
upon them.

Predominantly used in coverings of sports center, of arenas, and industrial and agro-industrial constructions, tensile
structures are based on the old systems used during the Roman Empire. However, from the Roman period until the mid-
20th century, due to the low demand, usability, and lack of manufacturers of cables, canvasses, and connections capable
of resisting the forces generated, there were few technological advances. It was only after the Industrial Revolution and
the triggering of the era of Fordism that new developments were able to meet the intrinsic needs of this construction
system. The low cost of mass production and the demand for
systems capable of adapting to the most varied terrains with large
spans, such as circus tents for example, encouraged the
development of the technique.

The instability caused in previous models by the application of

interlaced cables and very light covers, resulting in structural
deficiencies, was solved during the middle of the last century. This
was done thanks to a system of steel cables and fiber membranes
with a high degree of strength, together with layers of waterproof
coatings, giving protection against ultraviolet rays, fungus, fire,
and allowing greater or less translucency and reflectivity.

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Such progress was only possible thanks to the physical-structural studies initiated by German architect and
engineer Frei Otto, who since the 1950s conducted the first scientific studies and the first works of roofing using
tensioned steel cables combined with membranes.

As a student, Otto visited the office of Fred Severud, where he saw the Raleigh Arena in North Carolina and was
impressed by the bold aesthetics and propitious comfort of the project. Back in Germany, he began to explore small-
scale physical models, empirically generating several surfaces, by means of chains, pulled cables, and elastic
membranes.

Convinced by the usefulness of tensioned roofs, he developed the first

large-scale project using the system, which later enabled projects
including Olympic stadiums, clubs, zoo, and pavilions. In 1957 he
founded the Center for the Development of Light Construction in
Berlin. Seven years later, in 1964 he created the Institute of Light
Structures in Berlin at the University of Stuttgart, Germany.

Author of notable projects passed by experiments and technical

refinement, such as the German Pavilion for the 1967 Expo in
Montreal and the Munich Olympic Stadium in 1972, the architect is
renowned for his intense research work and was honored with the
Raleigh Arena / Fred Severud. Image © Fæ via Wikimedia

RIBA Royal Gold Medal in 2006 and the 2015 Pritzker Prize. Frei Otto is still responsible for the first comprehensive
book on tensile structures—"Das Hangende Dach" (1958)—and intensified the idea of reinventing material rationality,
prefabrication, flexibility and luminosity over internal space, and even sustainability, when the term was not yet used in
architecture.
There are three different main classifications in the field of tensile construction systems: membrane tensioned structures,
mesh tensioned, and pneumatic structures. The first relates to structures in which a membrane is held by cables, allowing
the distribution of the tensile stresses through its own form. The second case corresponds to structures in which a mesh
of cables carries the intrinsic forces, transmitting them to separate elements, for example, sheets of glass or wood. In the
third case, a protective membrane is supported by means of air pressure.

Structurally, the system is formalized by combining three elements: membranes, rigid structures such as pole and masts,
and cables. The membranes of PVC-coated polyester fibers have greater ease in factory production and installation;
lower cost; and medium durability—around 10 years.

Munich Olympic Stadium / Behnisch and Partners & Frei Otto.

Image © 準建築人手札網站 Forgemind ArchiMedia via
Flickr License CC BY 2.0
PTFE-coated glass fiber membranes have superior durability—
around 30 years; and greater resistance to the elements (sun,
rain, and winds); however, they require skilled labor.

National Stadium of Brasilia "Mané Garrincha" / Castro

Mello Architects. Image © Bento Viana
In this system, there are two types of support: direct and
indirect. The direct supports are those in which the

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construction is arranged directly on the rest of the building structure, while the second case is arranged from a raised
point such as a mast.

The cables, which are responsible for the distribution of the tensile stresses and the hardening of the canvasses, are
classified in one of two ways according to the action which they perform: load-bearing and stabilizing. Both types of
cable cross orthogonally, ensuring strength in two directions and avoiding deformations. The load-bearing cables are
those that directly receive the external loads, fixed at the highest points. On the other hand, the stabilizing cables are
responsible for strengthening the load-bearing cables and cross the load-bearing cables orthogonally. It is possible to
avoid attaching the stabilizing cables to the ground by using a peripheral fixation cable. Further, some nomenclatures
for different cables are generated according to their position: a ridge-line cable refers to the uppermost cable; while
valley cables are fixed below all other cables; radial cables are stabilizer cables in the form of a ring. Ridge-line cables
support gravitational loads while valley cables support wind loads.

Here are some projects already published on Archdaily using tensile

structures

Munich Olympic Stadium / Frei Otto + Gunther Behnisch

Munich Olympic Stadium / Behnisch and Partners & Frei Otto.
Image © Christian Scheja via Flickr License CC BY 2.0

Nomenclatures of the cables (translations from Portuguese: "Cabo Periférico"=Peripheral Cable; "Cabo de Crista"=Ridge-Line Cable; "Cabos
de Vale"=Valley Cables; "Cabos Estabilizantes"=Stabilizing Cables). Image © Matheus Pereira

German Pavilion at Expo 67 / Frei Otto + Rolf Gutbrod

German Pavilion at Expo 67 / Rolf Gutbrod. Image © McGill
Library via Flickr License Public Domain Mark 1.0

Millennium Dome / Richard Rogers (RSHP)

Millennium Dome / Richard Rogers (RSHP). Image ©
James Jin via Flickr License CC BY-SA 2.0

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Denver Union Station / SOM Estação Denver Union /

SOM. Image © Robert Polidori

St. Christopher's Pavilion / Sérgio Bernardes

Pavilhão de São Cristovão / Sérgio Bernardes. Image Cortesia de Bernardes Arquitetura
Maracanã Stadium Roof Structure / schlaich bergermann
partner
Cobertura do Estádio Maracanã / schlaich bergermann
partner. Image © Marcus Bredt cortesia de schlaich
bergermann partner

Brasilia National Stadium / gmp Architekten + schlaich

bergermann partner + Castro Mello Arquitetos
National Stadium of Brasilia "Mané Garrincha" / Castro
Mello Architects. Image © Bento Viana

Shell structures
What is a shell?
Structures can be classified in many ways according to their
shape, their function and the materials from which they are
made [Adriaenssens et al., 2014].

The most obvious definition of a shell might be through its

geometry. A structure or structural element may be a fully
three-dimensional solid object, or it might have some
dimensions notable smaller than others. A beam is straight and
it is relatively long in comparison to its cross-section. Thus it
is defined by a straight line. An arch is defined by a curved line
and a plate by a plane.A shell is a structure defined by a curved
surface. It is thin in the Figure 1: Giant clam shell direction
perpendicular to the surface, but there is no absolute rule as to
how thin it has to be. It might be curved in two directions, like

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Figure 2: Chapel Lomas de Cuernavaca by Felix Candela Figure 3: Palazzetto dello Sport by Pier Luigi Nervi
a dome or a cooling tower, or it may be cylindrical and
curve only in one direction.

This definition would clearly include birds’ eggs, sea shells (figure1)
and concrete shells, such as Felix Candela’s Chapel Lomas de
Cuernavaca (figure2) and Nervi’s Palazzetto dello Sport (figure 3). It
would also include ships, monocoque car bodies and aircraft fuselages
(coque is one of the French words for a shell), drinks cans, glasses
cases (figure 4), all sorts of objects.
But this definition would also include tension structures like sails,
balloons and car tires. If one wanted to exclude tension structures,
one might stipulate that shells have to work in both tension and
compression, but that would exclude masonry vaults that can only
work in compression [Block, 2009, Heyman, 1995]. Most people would
describe masonry vaults such as the hotel de ville in Arles (figure 6) orˆ the fan vaulting of Bath Abbey (figure 5) as
shell structures.

However the word ‘shell’ has the implication of something relatively rigid, and this article is about such structures. We
therefore need to Figure 4: Glasses case have a separate category of tension structures to include sails and balloons
as well as piano strings and fishing nets. Then we have six possible types of structure:
Figure 5: Fan vaulting of Bath Abbey. Photo: Adrian Pingstone

Figure 6: L’hotel de ville d’Arles. Photo:

Jacqueline Poggiˆ

Figure 7: Colander

Figure 8: Sieve
1. Tension structures: strings, nets and fabric
structures
2. Straight line elements: beams, columns
3. Curved line elements: arches, rings
4. Plates: slabs, walls
5. Shells: timber, concrete, metal or masonry
6. Fully three dimensional lumps of material

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A colander (figure 7) is a curved surface structure. It contains holes

for draining food, but these holes do not stop it being shell. It is a
continuous surface with a relatively small area removed. A sieve
(figure 8) is very similar, except that the surface is made from a
large number of initially straight wires which are woven into a flat
sheet and then bent into a hemisphere. It is a also a shell, a
gridshell see section 5. This is very much like assembling lots of
straight line elements to form trussed arch such as that of
the Viaduc de Garabit (figure 9).

Figure 9: Viaduc de Garabit, Gustave Eiffel, Maurice Koechlin, Leon´Boyer. Photo: J. Thurion (Belgavox)

Clearly there is some similarity between a sieve and a spider web they
are both lattice-like and are intended to catch things. The spider web
is essentially flat and made up of straight elements and when the wind
blows it bows outwards like a sail and becomes curved. It therefore
adjusts its shape to the loading, which is the characteristic of tension
structures. The sieve may be in tension, compression or a mixture of
the two. Where it is in compression deflections lead to the structure
becoming less able to carry the load, possibly leading to buckling.
Columns carry loads via axial forces, but bending stiffness is required
to stop buckling, and so it is with shells, although with shells buckling
is resisted by a combination of bending and in-plane action.
Figure 10: Spiderweb
How do shells work?
Shells use all the modes of structural action available to beams, struts, arches, cables and plates, plus another mode that
we might call ‘shell action’, which we will now try and pin down.
Structural elements that approximate to lines (beams, arches and cables) or to surfaces (plates and shells) all share the
same property: they are much easier to bend than to stretch. We use the word ‘stretch’ to mean change in length, possibly
getting shorter, a ‘negative stretch’.

Clearly a cable will stretch when we apply a tension to it. A column will undergo a negative stretch when we apply a
compression to it. But if we apply more load it will buckle and it will get shorter through bending, rather than axial
strain.
A parabolic arch or cable can carry a uniform vertical load per unit horizontal length using only axial compression or
tension. The component of load perpendicular to the cable is balanced by the axial force multiplied by the curvature.
Thus load in KN/m is balanced by a force in KN multiplied by the curvature in 1/metres. Note that curvature is defined
as 1/(radius of curvature). Other loads will cause bending moment in the arch or deflection of the cable. The arch bending
moment is the product of the thrust and its eccentricity from the axis.

Flat plates and plane stress

In order to understand curved arches, we first learn about straight beams. Similarly to understand shells we first need to
think about something simpler. We could start with arches and go from curved lines to curved surfaces. Or we could
start with plates and go from flat surfaces to curved surfaces. Both approaches can be helpful, but let us start with plates.
A flat plate can be loaded by forces in its own plane, figure 11, or out of plane, figure 12, in which forces are shown in
blue and bending and twisting moments are shown in red. The term plane stress is used for in plane loading and it
appears in all sorts of situations, for example the bending of an I-beam. Clearly the beam is loaded perpendicular to its
axis, but most of the stress in the web and flanges are in the plane or the steel plates. Out of plane loading of a plate or
slab produces plate bending, and as we have already noted it is much easier to bend a plate than
to stretch it.
Construction Materials
Five Main Categories
◼ Concrete, Wood, Metal, Masonry, and Glass

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Concrete is used in almost every type of construction One of the most Important STRENGTH.
Concrete Ingredients
• Cement Paste- Made of Portland cement and water
• Aggregate- Fine sand mixed with stones
• Chemical reaction between water and cement hardens (sets the
concrete)
Concrete Properties
• Strong- Reinforced with rebar
• Watertight
• Workable Working with Concrete
• Preparing-Forms are prepared
• Placing-Pouring near its final location
• Finishing-Using a straightedge to level off
• Curing-Done in moist conditions
Wood Materials
• Boards-sheathing, siding, paneling
• Dimension Stock-Form wood frame of house
• Timber- Posts and beams
Other Wood Materials
• Plywood- subfloors, roof decks
• Laminated Timbers- Lumber that is glued
together (arches, poles and beams)
• Oriented Strand Board- Chipboard
• Pressure Treated Wood- Chemicals
forced into wood to preserve
Metal Materials
• Steel- Used for framing
• Aluminum- Siding, roofing
• Copper- Plumbing pipes and roofing
Masonry Materials
• Clay Masonry- Consists of brick and tile
• Concrete Masonry- Brick and Block form
Building Masonry Projects
• Laying out- Laying out materials in planned
positions- Then space and cut
• Laying up corners- Build corners (leads)
• Laying between corners-Filling in walls between
corners
• Tooling-Compacting and shaping the
mortar
Glass

• All glass buildings, doors, windows, etc.

• Flat glass-Clear, tinted, or opaque
• Tempered glass- Heat treated
• Insulated glass- Two
• layers of glass with dry
• air in between

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REFERENCES :

➢ American Concrete Institute, 2011, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318‐11),
Farmington Hills, Michigan.
➢ Nawy, E.G., 2006, Prestressed Concrete: A Fundamental Approach, 5th ed., (Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice‐Hall), p.38.
➢ Alguidano, M., 2018, Composite Construction Methods for Engineering and Architecture; retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/MimiAlguidano/composite-construction-method-for-engineering-and-
architecture
➢ ARCOLINI, Tatiana; BARRADAS, Paula. Coberturas tensionadas são soluções eficientes e econômicas.
Available at: <https://www.aecweb.com.br/cont/m/rev/coberturas-tensionadas-sao-solucoes-eficientes-e-
economicas_7990_10_0>. Acessed on 24 Dec 2017.
➢ Tensoestruturas: Cabos e Membranas. Available at: http://wwwo.metalica.com.br/tensoestruturas-cabos-e-
membranas. Acessed on: 24 Dec 2017.
Tensoestruturas: Cobertura de Estruturas de Membrana Tensionada. Available at:
<http://wwwo.metalica.com.br/tensoestrutura-cobertura-de-estruturas-de-membrana-tensionada>. Acessed on
24 Dec 2017
➢ Williams, C.J.K., (2018) Shell Structures, retrieved from
https://people.bath.ac.uk/abscjkw/LectureNotes/what-is-a-shell.pdf
➢ (2010)Wall Panel Design Manual, EnConDesign,LLC, retrieved from
http://www.enconunited.com/wp-content/uploads/2f016/01/WPM001_Wall-Panel-Design-Manual.pd
➢ Pure, Athrun, 2010, Wall Panel Systems, retrieved from
https://www.scribd.com/presentation/327040172/Wall-Panel-Systems

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