Semester III, Year 2

SUBJECT: FAMILY LAW

THE PATRIARCHAL NATURE OF PERSONAL RELIGIOUS LAWS IN THE INDIAN

SUBCONTINENT

INTRODUCTION
The human social organisation has evolved through a series of stages: animal-like sexual
promiscuity was followed by matriarchy (rule of the mother), which was in turn followed by
patriarchy (rule of the father), which continues to exploit, suppress and oppress women of all
ages.

The patriarchy has been a sick part of our society for centuries. Unfortunately, it pervades every
aspect of our daily lives, whether it be our personal or professional space. The idea of men being
more capable than women is firmly rooted in the minds of men. However, it is imperative that
the judiciary, which is responsible for our rights, including the right to equality, maintain the
dignity of women in the wrong notion of ancestry.

India is a land of many religions, with Hinduism being prominent. Indians were oppressed and
controlled by the Britishers and the Mughals, each exploiting loopholes in Indian culture for their
benefit.

At this time, the Hindu men looked up to the Vedas for spiritual instruction. These were regarded
as words handed down to teachers by the Gods themselves.
How a learned man of the upper class was to behave in society was mentioned in Manusmriti.
Like Sharia, which determined Islamic law among the Muslims, Manusmriti was the code of
conduct for the Hindus. It depicted women in a very poor light, granting men full control of their
lives.

WOMEN IN INDIAN SOCIETY

India is one of the countries where the female population is less than the proportion of the male
population. According to UNICEF India’s Report on Child Sex Ratio 1, the birth of female’s
children is declining steadily. Figures from 1991 showed that the sex ratio was 947 girls for
1,000 boys. Since 1991, 80% of all districts in India had recorded a declining sex ratio, with the
state of Punjab being the worst in leading the statistics. States like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Punjab,
Himachal Pradesh and Haryana have recorded more than a 50-point decline in the child sex ratio
in the same period. Kerala is the only one in India where the overall sex ratio is constantly in
favourable to women. However, the numbers today, have started to improve once again.

THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN INDIA

Women form about half of the population of the country, but their situation has been grim. For
centuries, they have been deliberately denied the opportunities for growth in the name of religion
and socio-cultural practices. At the social-political plain, women suffered from the denial of
freedom even in their homes, repression and unnatural indoctrination, an unequal and inferior
status, rigid caste hierarchy and even untouchability. Religious tradition and social institutions
have a deep bearing on the role and status of women.

Protest movements within the Hindu fold, like Buddhism, Jainism, Vaishnavism, Veera
Shaivism and Sikhism contributed to some improvement in the status of women. Particularly
regarding religious activities. However, they continued to regard women primarily as mothers
and wives, inferior to the men in the society. From the middle of 19th century, reform
movements like Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission, etc. championed the cause
of women, but nothing concrete could be achieved. It is also significant that upliftment of
women was an important item in the agenda of MK Gandhi.

1
UNICEF Report on Child’s Sex Ration India (1991).
REJECTIONS FACED IN VEDAS AND HOLY BOOKS
Right from her birth to her death, every breath of a woman’s life was pre-decided and written
down in a ruthless manner.

She was rejected even before birth — Female Infanticide

Atharva Veda.6.11.3

“ Let a female child be born somewhere else; here, let a male child be born.”

Taittirya Samhita VI.5.10.3

“ Hence they [ Aryans ] reject a female child when born, and take up a male.”

She was to be married off as a child — Child Marriage

Manu.IX.94

“ A man, aged thirty years, shall marry a maiden of twelve who pleases him, or a man of
twentyfour a girl of eight years of age; if (the performance of) his duties would otherwise be
impeded, he must marry sooner.”

She was of lower birth and unintelligent

ŚB 1.4.25

Women, Laborers, and the so-called educated classes cannot grasp the three Vedas. These fools
therefore certainly could not comprehend what was in their best interest, what they should strive
for. This is why the Muni [Vyāsa] compiled the Tale of Bhārata [Mahābhārata].

Bg 1.40

When irreligion is prominent in the family, O Kṛṣṇa, the women of the family become polluted,
and from the degradation of womanhood, O descendant of Vṛṣṇi, comes unwanted progeny.

This rejection inscribed in vedas further developed itself in legislation prerogative for women all
around the nation. Stigmatizing the gender and belittling its existence were a common part of
Indian practices from decades. Women in ancient and medieval period were not given hefty tasks
or were not empowered enough so to take/create/obligate such works as the notion of inferiority
was inscribed deeply within them.
Early Hinduism, too, is believed to be egalitarian. Chapter 10 of the Rig-Veda expounded the
idea of feminine energy behind the creation of the universe. Many believe that the advent of
Abrahamic religions led to the diminished status of women as far as the religious space is
concerned. However, that does not appear to be true.

For example, with the advent of Islam, women came to enjoy a kind of autonomy that was
unheard of in the pre-Islamic Arab. In pre-Islamic Arab women were viewed as objects and were
constantly humiliated. Karen Armstrong in her book Islam: A short History has pointed out that
‘the women of the first Ummah in Medina took full part in the public life’. It was probably
before men moulded the religion to suit their patriarchal leanings. It seems that eventually every
religion or organised belief-system was hijacked by vested interests to further their own
patriarchal agenda.

BENEVOLENT AND HOSTILE SEXISM

Benevolent sexism along with hostile sexism is a part of the ambivalent sexism framework as
developed by Glick and Fiske. Benevolent sexism is couched in the positive representation of
women in the form of being as feeble, pure caring, or warm, maternal or fragile entities that need
to be protected or guarded. Such attitudes prima facie are not questionable but when directed
towards a particular gender by way of a legislative framework it dampens the objective of gender
equality. Indian laws are embedded with instances where such benevolent sexism is apparently
visible. Most of them are highlighted when they are challenged before the Judicial wing of the
state In Hardev Singh v Harpreet Kaur2 the Apex court accepted that females do not have much
say in the marriage and hence need protection. The protection enumerated here was one provided
under the Protection of Child Marriage Act 20063 wherein only adult males could be
prosecuted for marrying an underage child and not an adult female. Court’s observation
perpetuated ideas of pity, vulnerability, weakness and helplessness nature of women and sought
to operationalise this benevolent sexism in Indian laws.

In 2016 a constitutional challenge was made against section 56 of the Code of Civil procedure
4
before the Bombay High Court. The section provided that “the court shall not order the arrest or
detention in the civil prison of a woman in execution of a decree for the payment of money”. The

2
Hardev Singh v Harpreet Kaur, Criminal Appeal No. 1331 of 2013.
3
Protection of Child Marriage Act, (2006).
4
Code of Civil Procedure, § 56 (1908).
court declined the challenge on the ground that section 56 would come under the ambit of
“special provision” enumerated in article 15(3) 5and thus goes beyond the judicial analysis. The
carte blanche protection provided to such provisions/legislation within the 15(3) turned the entire
objective of Article 15(3) on its head. From being intended to be used as a tool for protection of
women it was now being used to perpetuate the stereotypes and gender roles.

The Apex court in Joseph Shine v Union of India6 (Adultery judgment) had an opportunity to
comment on such paternalistic attitudes and observed that romantic paternalism cages women,
instead of protecting them. The court was pronouncing upon the constitutional validity of section
497 of the Indian Penal Code wherein in an extramarital affair only the men could be found
guilty of adultery. Prima facie the provision might ostensibly appear to be enacted for the benefit
and welfare of women and may be presumed to be covered under Article 15(3) of the
Constitution (approved by SC in Yusuf Abdul Aziz v State of Bombay7), however, it perpetuated
the stereotype that women can never be a seducer thus devoiding women of her sexual agency
and reducing them to a passive entity in a sexual relation.

LAWS THAT PERPETUATE PATRIARCHY IN INDIA

I. Marital rape in the Indian Penal Code 1860

It took a gruesome gang rape in the National City to amend India’s rape laws. While a lot of
important changes were brought about, the law makers of the Verma Committee chose to foresee
the criminalization of marital rape because the opposing counsel argued that criminalizing
marital rape could destroy marriages, hence affecting the sanctity of the institution of marriage.

II. The Family Law of Usage and Customs of Gentile Hindus of Goa

This law of polygamy is probably the most chauvinistic law to exist in India today. Under this
law, a man is allowed to have a legal, second marriage if his first wife is unable to have children
by the age of 25 or bear a male child by the age of 30. The issue caused by this law besides the
idea of polygamy, is the pressure it puts on women, both mentally and physically to bear a child
within a given time period, without letting her decide when she wishes to have a child. A man on

5
Constitution of India art. 15 § 3.
6
Joseph Shrine v. Union of India WP(Cr.) 194/2017.
7
Yusuf Aziz v. State of Bombay AIR 1951 Bom 470.
the other hand, could also misuse this power of polygamy without having to be liable for his
actions.

To make matters worse, Modi’s new government holds up the Goan Civil Code as the model in
enforcing a uniform civil law applicable to all Indians, irrespective of religion. If this order of
polygamy is instated to all other marriages in India, the freedom and choice of married women is
sure to be curbed.

III. Dowry Prohibition Act

The anti-dowry law8 has a number of loopholes and so far, it hasn’t been very effective in
preventing Indian families from demanding for dowries. Several terms in this law are vaguely
defined and can be interpreted in many ways. If a woman files a law suit under this act, the court
requires that it must be shown that gifts, property or any other material taken as dowry, has some
connection with the marriage. In cases where proving these connections become difficult,
women don’t see the light of justice. Dowries even today are a cause for domestic violence and
female infanticide. In a country where the sex ratio stands at 919 girls to every 1,000 boys,
against 976 in 1961, the law needs to be stricter and more women friendly in order to ensure
gender equality.

Till laws like these and various others favour the upper hand and superiority of men, women in
India will never have equal rights. The unfortunate truth is that any kind of reforms only take
place incase of alarming incidents or public outrage. To make situations better, we as citizens
should be more active in reporting crimes we see happening around us and support movements
of peace and equality.

IV. Hindu laws of inheritance:

Right now, different religions have different personal laws that regulate inheritance, marriage,
separation and guardianship in India. In the case of Hindus, the property of a woman who dies
without a will is handled differently from that of a man. In the absence of spouse and children,
the husband’s heirs inherit the woman’s estate.

8
The Dowry Prohibition Act, (1961).
“Even if the deceased woman was ill-treated in her marital home, her husband’s mother or father
will get her property instead of her own mother or father,” says Kirti Singh, the family and
property lawyer who authored the UN report.

V. Age of consent:

Sexual intercourse with a girl below the age of 18 is considered rape. But since child marriages
are not illegal, a man can legally have sex with his wife even if she is a minor, as long as she is
above the age of 15. Further, marital rape is not criminalised in India.

VI. Rape of a separated wife:

The rape of a separated wife carries lesser punishment than the rape of any other woman. Forced
sexual intercourse with the former is punishable with two to seven years of imprisonment. The
prison sentence for the rape of any other woman ranges from seven years to life.

VII. Marriageable age:

The minimum age for marriage for a boy is 21, but 18 for a girl. This is a legal extension of the
patriarchal mindset that believes that a wife should always be younger than the man.

VIII. Hindu Minority and Guardianship Act:

Women are still not equal guardians of their children. A father is considered the “natural
guardian” of a child, although the custody of offspring under the age of 5 will ordinarily be
awarded to the mother.

IX. The Goa Law on polygamy:

A law recognises the second marriage of a “Gentile Hindu” man of Goa if his previous wife does
not have any children before the age of 25 or if she does not have a male child by 30.

The new BJP government has promised a uniform civil law applicable to all Indians, irrespective
of religion. But it also holds up the Goan Civil Code as the model to be enforced all over the
country. This polygamy provision hardly makes it upstanding.

X. No right to marital property:

Upon separation or divorce, an Indian woman is entitled only to maintenance from her husband.
She has no right to the assets, such as house or commercial property, bought in her husband’s
name during the marriage. So if she leaves him or gets divorced, even years after the marriage,
she is potentially without assets. Indian government policies do not consider the work done at
home by a woman as having any economic value.

SEXUALITY AND POLITICS OF A GENDER

Kochurani Abraham, a feminist theologian, pointed out that, in all mainstream religions and
cultures, the politics of representation is at work mainly by casting humans in a gendered mold.
The definition of masculinity places men at an advantage while women, defined as weak,
sensitive and dependent, are highly disadvantaged. Ironically Pope Francis too is stuck in the
complementary gendered mindset, even though he talks about expanding the roles of women.
His otherwise progressive encyclicals refer to gendered roles for women, neglecting qualities
like intellectual agency, theological expertise, organizational abilities and leadership skills,
Abraham observed.

There is a need to break gender binaries as power is hegemonic and prescribes violence to
control, dominate and enforce a system of rule. The gendering of body and sexuality does great
violence to women and LGBTIQ persons. The male is considered the norm, and scriptures are
used to define women as defective, sinful, needing to be controlled, even by using violence.
LGBTIQ persons and their subjectivities are by and large excluded by authorized canons of
religions. The issue of LGBTIQ persons is still nascent in India. The person scheduled to talk to
us about this topic did not show up but they are included in the program for change.

In India, gender justice is manipulated for political gain. The government has created a
controversy over a Uniform Civil Code to divide people on religion and gender. In the name of
gender justice, it is fueling Muslim women to stand up against polygamy and the triple talaq as it
is practiced in India (where the man says "talaq" three times to divorce his wife). But women's
rights lawyer Flavia Agnes, who has taken up several cases of Muslim women's divorce in court,
finds that Muslim law can indeed give justice to women, especially to obtain alimony for them,
while women in other traditions continue to struggle for those rights. Second wives in the
Muslim tradition have full rights, while in other traditions they have no rights. Polygamy is more
prevalent in other religious traditions than in Islam. She emphasizes, "We need equality of rights
and not equality of the law."

INTERNATIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS
The United Nations Committee on Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)
recommended the Government of India to criminalize marital rape in 2013. The Justice JS
Verma Committee, set up after the Nirbhaya Case in 2012, also recommended the same. On the
other hand, the arguments put forwarded by the Government in RIT Foundation v Union of India
makes it clear that criminalization of marital rape has a long way to go. The Government argued
that criminalizing marital rape would destabilize the institution of marriage.

This argument apparently reveals the old concept of marriage which the government of the day
still believes in. The Government went to the extent saying that the idea of marital rape cannot be
suitably applied in the Indian context.

 The larger question thus becomes, what is the Indian context?

 Does it mean that the husband is the ruler and his wife is his slave?
 Or does it apply to the sheer infringement of dignity of a woman, particularly, married
woman?

The old notions of gender, applied by the state, are also reflected in the status of LGBTQ gender
in the country. The Supreme Court, in the celebrated judgment of Navtej Singh Johar 9case,
decriminalized sexual intercourse between two individuals of same genders. But the Supreme
Court was only faced with the question of Section 377 of IPC10.

The question of marriage was not dealt by the court. It is certainly out of the ambit of the powers
of the Judiciary to override the intention of the legislature. The Legislature has time to time
expressed its reservations against same-sex marriage. The Government, recently, argued in the
Delhi High Court that there exists a legitimate state interest in limiting the recognition of
marriage to persons of opposite sex.

9
Navtej Singh Johar & Ors. v Union of India thr. Secretary Ministry of Law and Justice AIR 2018 SC 4321.
10
Indian Penal Code § 377 (1860).
JUDICIAL INTERVENTION TO PREVENT PATERNITY OF PERSONAL LAWS
The nation-wide outrage over the brutal gang rape and subsequent death of Jyoti Singhin New
Delhi was the driving force behind the promulgation of the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act,
2013 (“Criminal Law Amendment Act“). The Criminal Law Amendment Act, 201311 that came
into force on February 3, 2013 amended as well as inserted new sections in the Indian Penal
Code with regard to sexual offences. Some of the new offences recognized by the Criminal Law
Amendment Act are acid attacks, voyeurism, stalking, intentional disrobing of women and
sexual harassment.

In 2013, India adopted its first legislation specifically addressing the issue of workplace sexual
harassment; the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and
Redressal) Act, 2013 (“POSH Act“) enacted by the Ministry of Women and Child Development,
India. Workplace sexual harassment is a form of gender discrimination which violates a
woman’s fundamental right to equality and right to life, guaranteed under Articles 1412, 15 13and
21 of the Constitution of India. The POSH Act had been enacted with the objective of preventing
and protecting women against workplace sexual harassment (which include creation of a hostile
work environment) and to address complaints of sexual harassment.

Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017 (“Maternity Amendment”)

2017 witnessed the bold amendment to the Maternity Benefit Act, 1961 (“Maternity Act“).The
Maternity Amendment extends paid maternity leave for women employees with less than two
surviving children, from the original twelve (12) weeks to twenty-six (26) weeks. A maximum of
eight (8) weeks can be taken before the expected delivery date and the remaining after childbirth.

Women expecting their third child were also provided with the right to take twelve(12) weeks of
paid maternity leave—six (6) weeks before childbirth and six after.

The Maternity Amendment provided for mothers adopting a child below three months of age, or
“commissioning mothers” to take twelve (12) weeks of maternity leave from the date of
receiving the child. The Maternity Amendment enables mothers to work from home after
completing twenty-six (26) weeks of leave subject to their work profiles and the employer’s

11
The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, (2013).
12
Constitution of India art.14.
13
Constitution of India art. 21.
consent. The Maternity Amendment also mandates establishments employing 50 or more
employees to have a creche which is required to have prescribed facilities and amenities. Women
employees have a right to visit the crèche four times a day, including during their rest interval.

Decriminalizing of Adultery

On September 27, 2018, a five-judge bench of the Supreme Court of India (“Supreme Court“)
struck down another colonial-era law, Section 497 of the Indian Penal Code that prescribed a
maximum imprisonment of five years to men for adultery.

Unlike India’s sexual assault laws, which are linked with consent of the woman, the 158-year-old
adultery law did not consider the woman’s will. Though women couldn’t be punished under the
provision, a husband could prosecute the man who had sexual relations with his wife, even if the
wife was a voluntary participant in the act.

Last August, Joseph Shine, a 41-year-old Indian businessman living in Italy, petitioned the
Supreme Court to strike down the law. He argued that it discriminated against men by only
holding them liable for extra-marital relationships, while treating women like objects. All five
Supreme Court judges hearing the case said the law was archaic, arbitrary and unconstitutional.
The Court however clarified that adultery will be a ground for divorce.

Dipak Misra, the then Chief Justice of India said that”It’s time to say that (a) husband is not the
master of (his) wife. Women should be treated with equality along with men”.Justice R F
Nariman who wrote a separate judgment to concur with the judgments of Chief Justice Dipak
Misra and Justice Khanwilkar, stated that Section 497 was an archaic provision which had lost its
rationale. “Ancient notion of man being the perpetrator and woman being victim of adultery no
longer holds good”, observed Justice Nariman.

Justice Chandrachud in his separate but concurring opinion said that Section 497 was destructive
to woman’s dignity and also emphasized that “Respect for sexual autonomy must be
emphasized”.”Section 497 perpetrates subordinate nature of woman in a marriage”, were his
concluding remarks. Justice Indu Malhotra noted in her judgement that the Section
institutionalized discrimination.
This was the second colonial-era law struck down by the Supreme Court after it struck down the
157-year-old law which criminalized gay sex in India.

Triple Talaq

Instant Talaq or “Triple Talaq” or “Talaq-e-Biddat” is an Islamic practice that allows men to
divorce their wives immediately by uttering the word “talaq” (divorce) three times.

The Supreme Court, once again in its recent landmark judgment of Sayarabano Vs. Union of
India pronounced on August 22, 2017, set aside the practice of “Triple Talaq”. The bench
declared Triple Talaqas unconstitutional by a 3:2 majority. The Judgment by the minority bench
also further directed the Government of Union of India to lay a proper legislation in order to
regularize the proceedings of divorce as per Shariat law.

Taking into consideration the views of the Supreme Court, the Muslim Women (Protection of
Rights on Marriage) Bill, 2018 (“Triple Talaq Bill“) was introduced in Lok Sabha by the
Minister of Law and Justice, inDecember, 2018. Better known as the Triple Talaq Bill, the bill
makes all declaration of talaq, including in written or electronic form, to be void (i.e. not
enforceable in law) and illegal. It defines talaq as talaq-e-biddat or any other similar form of
talaq pronounced by a Muslim man resulting in instant and irrevocable divorce.

The Triple Talaq Bill makes declaration of talaq a cognizable offence, attracting up to three
years’ imprisonment with a fine.The offence will be cognizable only if information relating to
the offence is given by: (i) the married woman (against whom talaq has been declared), or (ii)
any person related to her by blood or marriage.

The Triple Talaq Billis pending the nod of the Rajya Sabha. In the interim period, an ordinance
penalizing the act of triple talaq has been promulgated. The ordinance making the practice of
instant triple talaq, a penal offence has been issued for a third time in February 2019.

Sabrimala Issue

The Supreme Court on September 28, 2019, delivered one of the most keenly awaited judgment
in the Sabarimala case14. By a 4:1 majority, the Supreme Court permitted entry of women of all
age groups to the Sabarimala temple, holding that ‘devotion cannot be subjected to gender
14
Indian Young Lawyers Association & Ors v. State of Kerala & Ors, WRIT PETITION (CIVIL) NO. 373 OF
2006.
discrimination’. The lone woman in the bench, Justice Indu Malhotra, dissented. Then Chief
Justice Dipak Misra, Justice R F Nariman, Justice AM Khanwilkar and Justice DY Chandrachud
constituted the majority.

The judgment was delivered in a 2006 PIL filed by Indian Young Lawyers Association
challenging the centuries-old tradition of Sabrimala Temple banning entry of women of
menstruating age inside the temple.

“Woman is not lesser or inferior to man. Patriarchy of religion cannot be permitted to trump over
faith.Biological or physiological reasons cannot be accepted in freedom for faith”, said Chief
Justice Dipak Misra while reading out portions of the judgement written out for himself and
Justice AM Khanwilkar.

Justice Chandrachud in his separate but concurring opinion held that the idea behind the ban was
that presence of women will disturb celibacy, and that was placing burden of men’s celibacy on
women. This stigmatizes and stereotypes women, he analyzed.

Justice R F Nariman held that the customs and usages of Sabarimala temple must yield to the
fundamental right of women to worship in the temple.

Women’s Reservation Bill

Women’s Reservation Bill or the Constitution (108th Amendment) Bill, is a pending bill in India
which proposes to amend the Constitution of India to reserve 33 per cent of all seats in the Lower
House Lok Sabha, and in all state legislative assemblies for women. The seats to be reserved in
rotation will be determined by draw of lots in such a way that a seat shall be reserved only once
in three consecutive general elections. The Upper House, Rajya Sabha passed the bill on March
9, 2010.

As of today, the Lok Sabha has not yet voted on the bill and the bill still remains in limbo. If the
Lok Sabha were to approve the bill, it would then have to be passed by half of India’s state
legislatures and signed by the President.

CONCLUSION
There are a great many difficulties that many Indian women face, which include poverty, female
feticide, sexual harassment, lack of education, job skill training. India still ranks 108th among
149 countries in the World Economic Forum’s (WEF) Global Gender Gap Index, 2018. A lot
need to be done to ensure that Indian women have equal rights, and we see an India defined by
inclusive citizenship rather than exclusive. Marital Rape and Same-Sex Marriage, highlight the
need to make our laws gender neutral in a correct sense. The Government and the Courts should
adopt a more liberal way, as they have undoubtedly done is many instances, in these two issues
too. It is the need of the hour, to strengthen the foundation of our Constitution, which is based on
human dignity of every individual. All world religions are inherently patriarchal. The scriptures
offer justification for exploitation and the rituals keep the women subordinate in the structure.
But due to secularisation of religions and modernisation especially in judiciary, religion is
becoming more accommodating.

Submitted By- Yash Bhatnagar 

Second Year (Semester 3) Student, Section B (BA LL.B) 

Dr. Ram Manohar Lohiya National Law University 

Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 

Enrollment Number: 200101157

Submitted To- Prof. (Dr.) Samreen Hussain Ma’am

(Professor, Family Law I)

Dr. Ram Manohar Lohiya National Law University

Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I humbly submit that Index of Authorities, references, and links used for the purpose of research 
in the project are duly cited in OSCOLA (4th edn.) format. Furthermore, this project is for no
award or degree purpose in any other institution rather than Dr. Ram Manohar  Lohiya National
Law University, Lucknow and has been created for the sole purpose of academic check in the
session of 2020-21. I thank and acknowledge Prof. (Dr.) Samreen Hussain Ma’am for giving me
a chance to research on this topic and  to all the sources which turned out to be helpful and
informative in the course of project making. I am grateful to all the Web sources and books
referred by me to develop the knowledge index of this project and they all are duly recognised
under the bibliography section of the project file.
 BIBILIOGRAPHY

WEB SOURCES
https://www.achieveriasclasses.com/sociology/religion-and-patriarchy/

https://thelawculture.in/patriarchy-and-the-new-generation-of-freedom-of-religion-laws-in-india/

https://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-5043-law-and-patriarchy.html

https://www.webindia123.com/law/family_law/personal_laws.htm

https://velivada.com/2020/07/13/indian-patriarchy-an-intersection-of-caste-class-and-gender/
#:~:text=A%20distinctive%20form%20of%20patriarchy%20peculiar%20to%20Hinduism,power
%20over%20other%20castes%20through%20endogamous%20marriage%20system.

https://homegrown.co.in/article/11660/these-laws-perpetuate-patriarchy-in-india-they-need-to-
be-reformed/

https://medium.com/lessons-from-history/what-makes-india-the-patriarchal-society-it-is-
f2008ce7195

BOOKS
Modern Indian Family Law by Werner Menski

Shrimad Bhagvata Geeta

Domestic Violence, Family Law and School by M. Eriksson,L. Bruno,E. Näsman

Family Law (Bare Act)