KTU 2019 SCHEME

CET 201

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 2

MODULE 1

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 3

 REVIEW OF STATICS
Equilibrium conditions:

෍ Fx = 0

෍ Fy = 0

෍M = 0

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 4

Free-body diagrams:

− Representation of a body with the external forces and

reactions, acting on it

Centroid:
− Point at which the entire mass of a body is concentrated

− Represented as co-ordinates from reference axes

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 5

Moment of Inertia:
− Second moment of mass (or area) of a body
− Opposition that the body exhibits to having its speed of rotation
about an axis
− Represented as: (Area or Mass) x (distance from the axis of the
rotation)2
− Unit : kg m 2

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 6

 CONCEPT OF STRESS AND STRAIN
STRESS
−Force (P) per unit area (A)
−Units:
Pa = 1 N/m2
MPa = 1 N/mm2
GPa = 1 kN/mm2
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 7
TYPES OF STRESS
1. Tensile stress:
−Stress induced due to two equal and opposite pull
(Tensile force, T), that tends to increase its length
−Cross-sectional area of body is reduced

T T

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 8

2. Compressive stress:
−Stress induced due to two equal and opposite push
(Compressive force, C), that tends to decrease its length
−Cross-sectional area of body is increased

C C

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 9

STRAIN
−Deformation per unit length
−Unitless
−δl : change in length
−L : original length

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 10

TYPES OF STRAIN
1. Tensile strain:
−Deformation due to tensile stress (positive) per unit
length

2. Compressive strain:
−Deformation due to compressive stress (negative) per unit
length
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 11
 HOOKE’S LAW
“ When a material is loaded, within its elastic limit,

the stress is proportional to the strain.”

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 12

Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus (E)
−Numerically equal to the value of tensile stress, which
causes unit strain
−Material property
−Unit: N/mm2 or MPa

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 13

STRESS – STRAIN DIAGRAM
OA : Elastic region - where the body
obeys Hooke’s law

A : Elastic limit

B : Yield stress - stress at which

body starts yielding

BF : Plastic region - where body

undergoes permanent
deformation

E : Ultimate stress

F : Rupture (Breaking) stress -

stress at which the rod breaks

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 14

ELASTIC LIMIT (A):
−Stress corresponding to the limiting value of force, up to
which, deformation entirely disappears on removal of
force

ULTIMATE STRESS (E):

−Maximum stress attained by the specimen before it
ruptures or breaks
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 15
WORKING STRESS:
− Safe stress which is allowable to be undertaken by material in
design

FACTOR OF SAFETY:
− Ratio of elastic limit to working stress ( for gradually increasing
loads )
− Ratio of ultimate stress to working stress ( for sudden loads )

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 16

DEFORMATION OF AXIALLY LOADED BARS
WITH UNIFORM CROSS-SECTION
HOOKE’S LAW :

STRESS :

STRAIN :

DEFORMATION :

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 17

DEFORMATION DUE TO SELF WEIGHT
Length of bar :l
Area of C/s of bar :A
Young’s Modulus :E
Specific weight of bar :w
Hence,
Weight of bar for length ‘x’:

P = w.A.x

Deformation of bar of length ‘x’ under self weight:

Pl (wAx)dx (wx)dx
δl = AE
= AE
= E
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 18
 𝑙
(wx)dx
δl = න E
0

𝑤 𝑙
=
E
‫׬‬0 x. dx

𝑤 x2 𝑙
= E 2 0

𝑤𝑙2
=
2E

We have Total weight of the bar, W = wAl

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 19

DEFORMATION OF AXIALLY LOADED BARS
WITH VARYING AXIAL LOAD
PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION:
- Forces are split up to individual sections in the body and analysed

“The resulting deformation in the body, is equal to the algebraic sum of the
deformations of the individual sections”

Pl 1
δl = = (𝑷𝟏𝒍𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐𝒍𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑𝒍𝟑 + …)
𝑨𝑬 𝑨𝑬

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 20

DEFORMATION OF AXIALLY LOADED BARS
WITH VARYING CROSS-SECTION
TYPES OF BARS WITH VARYING SECTION:

1. Bars with uniform material and varying cross-section

2. Bars with different materials and varying cross-section

3. Bars with uniformly tapering sections

4. Bars of composite sections

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 21

1. DEFORMATION OF BAR OF UNIFORM MATERIAL AND VARYING SECTION

B C D
A
P A1 A2 A3 P

l1 l2 l3

δl = δl1 + δl2 + δl3

Pl1 Pl2 Pl3

=A +A +A
1E 2E 3E

P l l l
δl = 𝑬 𝐀1 + 𝐀2 + 𝐀3
1 2 3

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 22

2. DEFORMATION OF BAR OF DIFFERENT MATERIAL AND VARYING SECTION
B C D
A
P A1 A2 A3 P

l1 l2 l3

δl = δl1 + δl2 + δl3

Pl1 Pl2 Pl3

= + +
A1E1 A 2E 2 A3E3

l1 l2 l3
δl = P + +
𝐀1𝐄𝟏 𝐀2𝐄𝟐 𝐀3𝐄𝟑

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 23

3. DEFORMATION OF BAR OF TAPERING SECTION

a) Circular Tapering section:

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 24

b) Rectangular Tapering section:

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 25

 4. DEFORMATION OF BAR OF COMPOSITE SECTION

P1l1 P2l2
δl1 = δl2 =
A1E1 A2E2

For composite bars,

• Elongation will be same for all materials

δl = δl1 = δl2
• Total load P is shared by materials as P1 and P2

P = P1 + P2
= 𝜎1 𝐀1 + 𝜎2 𝐀2
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 26
We have,

P1l P2l
=
A1E1 A2E2

P1 P2
i.e., =
A1E1 A2E2

A1E1
i.e., P1 = P2 x
A2E2

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 27

Therefore,

A1E1
P = P2 + P2
A2E2

A1E1
= P2 1 +
A2E2

A2E2 + A1E1
= P2
A2E2

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 28

• Loads shared by the materials can be found as:

𝑨2𝑬2
P2 = P
𝑨2𝑬2 + 𝑨1𝑬1

𝑨1𝑬𝟏
P1 = P
𝑨2𝑬2 + 𝑨1𝑬1

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 29

• Stresses shared by the materials can be found as:

P1 P2
=
A1E1 A2E2

𝜎1 𝜎2
i.e., 𝐸1
= 𝐸2

E1
Therefore, 𝜎1 = x 𝜎2
E2
E2
𝜎2 = x 𝜎1
E1
E
Where, E1 is called modular ratio of the two materials, denoted by ‘m’
2
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 30
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS
− Systems that cannot be analyzed using the static equilibrium

conditions

− Deformation characteristics are also considered in forming

equations

− Such equations are called compatibility equations

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 31

TYPES:
1. Simple statically indeterminate structures
2. Indeterminate structures supporting a load
3. Composite structures of equal length
4. Composite structures of unequal length

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 32

 ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY
INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
UNDER AXIAL LOAD
ILLUSTRATIONS

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 33

 1. SIMPLE STATICALLY INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES

A circular steel bar ABCD, rigidly fixed at A and D is subjected to axial loads of 50kN
and 100kN at B and C, as shown. Find the loads shared by each part of the bars,
and the displacements at B and C. Take E of steel as 200GPa.

SOL:
Let, the load shared by AB be PAB ,
load shared by BC be PBC ,
load shared by CD be PCD
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 34
Areas of sections are:
𝜋 2
AAB = x 25
4

𝜋 2
ABC = x 50
4

𝜋 2
ACD = 4
x 75

Considering the equilibrium of joints,

PAB + PBC = 50kN … (i)

PCD - PBC = 100kN … (ii), ( as PBC is negative)

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 35

The deformations in the sections are,

PABlAB
δlAB = = 3.05 x 10-6 PAB mm …( due to tensile load )
𝐴ABE

P𝐵𝐶l𝐵𝐶
δlBC = = 1.02 x 10-6 PBC mm …( due to compressive load )
𝐴𝐵𝐶E

P𝐶𝐷l𝐶𝐷
δlCD = = 0.57 x 10-6 PCD mm …( due to compressive load )
𝐴𝐶𝐷E

Therefore,

δlAB = δlBC + δlCD

3.05 x 10-6 PAB = 1.02 x 10-6 PBC + 0.57 x 10-6 PCD …(iii)
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 36
Solving for the loads, using equations (i), (ii) and (iii),
Loads shared to the sections are:

PAB = 29.4 kN

PBC = 20.6 kN

PCD = 120.6 kN

Therefore, displacements at B and C are:

δlAB = 3.05 x 10-6 PAB = 0.90 mm

δlCD = 0.57 x 10-6 PCD = 0.07 mm

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 37

 2. INDETERMINATE STRUCTURE SUPPORTING LOAD

A load of 80kN is jointly supported by three rods of 20mm diameter as shown. The
rods are adjusted in such a way that, they share the load equally. If an additional load
of 50kN is added, find the final stresses in steel and copper. Take E for copper as 100
GPa and for steel as 200 GPa.

SOL:

Areas of rods are:

𝜋
AC = 2 x 4 x 202

𝜋 2
AS = 4
x 20

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 38

As the initial load of 80kN is shared equally among the three bars, the initial stress
in each rod is,
80,000
𝜎 = 942.477 = 84.9N/mm2

Now, considering the additional load of 50 kN, let the additional stresses induced
be, 𝜎c in copper and 𝜎s in steel rods.

𝜎c x lc
Therefore, δlc = = 0.04 𝜎c
𝐸c

𝜎s x ls
δls = = 0.015 𝜎s
𝐸s

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 39

As the deformations in the rods are equal,

0.04 𝜎c = 0.015 𝜎s

i.e., 𝜎c = 0.375 𝜎s …(i)

Also, we have P =𝜎sAs + 𝜎c Ac

50,000 N = 549.77 𝜎s

Therefore, 𝜎s = 90.9 MPa

𝜎c = 34.1 MPa

Hence, total stress in steel rod = 84.9 + 90.9 = 175.8 MPa

total stress in copper rod = 84.9 + 34.1 = 119.0 MPa

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 40
 3. COMPOSITE STRUCTURES OF EQUAL LENGTH

A rigid bar AB is hinged at A and supported by a copper rod 2m long and a steel rod
1m long. The bar carries a load of 20 kN at D as shown. If the cross-sectional areas
of steel and copper rods are 200mm2 and 400mm2 respectively, find the stresses
developed in each rod. Take the values of E for steel and copper as 200 GPa and 100
GPa respectively

SOL:
Let the loads shared by the steel and copper rods
be Ps and Pc respectively.
To find these loads, let us take their moments
about A and equate,
Ps x 1 + Pc x 3 = 20 x 4

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 41

 i.e., Ps + 3Pc = 80 …(i)

Deformation of rods due to their corresponding loads are:

Pclc Pc x 2000
δlc = = 400 x 100 x 1000 = 0.05 x 10-3 Pc
𝐴cEc

Psls Ps x 1000
δls = = = 0.025 x 10-3 Ps
𝐴sE𝑠 200 x 200 x 1000

As per the geometry of elongation,

δlc δls
=
3 1

i.e., δlc = 3 δls

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 42
Therefore, 0.05 x 10-3 Pc = 3 x 0.025 x 10-3 Ps

Pc = 1.5 Ps …(ii)

Substituting (ii) in (i):

Ps + 3 x 1.5 Ps = 80

Ps = 14.5 kN

Pc = 21.75 kN

Ps
Therefore, 𝜎s = = 72.5 MPa
𝐴s

Pc
𝜎c = = 54.4 MPa
𝐴c
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 43
 4. COMPOSITE STRUCTURES OF UNEQUAL LENGTH

A solid steel bar 500mm long and 50mm diameter is placed inside an aluminium
tube 75mm inside diameter and 100mm outside diameter. The aluminium tube is
0.5mm longer than the steel bar. An axial load of 600kN is applied to the bar and
the cylinder through rigid plates as shown. Find the stresses developed in the steel
bar and aluminium tube. Take E for steel and aluminium as 200GPa and 70GPa
respectively.
SOL:
𝜋
AA = x ( 1002 – 752)
4

𝜋
AS = 4 x 502

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 44

The aluminium cylinder is 0.5mm longer than the steel bar. Hence the cylinder has to
undergo 0.5mm decrease in length, only after which the bars will start deforming
when comes in contact with the rigid plates

Therefore, the initial amount of load required to make 0.5mm decrease in length of
aluminium cylinder is:
P1 lA P1x 500.5
0.5 = = = 2.06 x 10-6 P1 mm
𝐴AEA 3436 x 70 x 1000
P1 = 240kN
P1
Hence, stress, 𝜎1 = = 69.8 MPa
𝐴A
The remaining load to be shared by aluminium tube and steel bar
P = 600 – 240 kN = 360kN

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 45

We have,
E
𝜎s = 𝐸 S x 𝜎A
A

200
= x 𝜎A
70

𝜎s = 2.86 x 𝜎A …(i)

Hence,

P = 𝜎S AS + 𝜎A AA …(ii)

Substituting (i) in (ii), we get:

𝜎A = 39.8 MPa and 𝜎S = 113.8MPa

Also total stress in aluminium tube = 𝜎A + 𝜎1 = 39.8 + 69.8 = 109.6 MPa

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 46

MODULE 2

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 47

 THERMAL EFFECT
− Change in temperature causes body to expand or contract

− If body is allowed to expand / contract, no stresses are induced

− When the deformation is prevented, thermal stresses are induced

− This deformation due to thermal stress is called thermal strain

− Relative to the coefficient of linear expansion of the material

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 48
 THERMAL STRESS AND STRAIN
Deformation due to thermal stress,
l : Original length of the body
δl = l.α.T
α : Coefficient of linear expansion in /0C
Thermal strain,
T : Change in temperature
δl
𝜀 = l = α.T

Thermal stress,

𝜎t = E. 𝜀 = E.α.T

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 49

When supports yield by an amount of Δ,
Deformation,

δl = l.α.T - Δ

Thermal strain,

δl Δ
𝜀 = = α.T -
l l
Thermal stress,

Δ
𝜎t = E. 𝜀 = E α.T − l

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 50

 THERMAL STRESS IN COMPOSITE BARS
- Different materials tend to expand/contract differently, in a
composite section

- Due to their rigid bonding with each other, their tendency to expand
is restricted, depending on their coefficients of linear expansion

- This restriction induces stress:

- Compressive in material that tends to expand more

- Tensile in material that tends to expand less.

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 51

Compressive load induced in the material with high α (say Brass)

= Tensile load induced in the material with low α (say steel)

i.e., 𝜎1A1 = 𝜎2A2

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 52
- The actual strain of composite bar (𝜀)
- will be lower than that of the material that strains more, 𝜀1 (say brass), and

- will be higher than that of the material that strains less 𝜀2 (say steel)

i.e., 𝜀2 < 𝜀 < 𝜀1

Where,
𝜀1 = α1.T – 𝜀
𝜀2 = 𝜀 – α2.T
Therefore,
𝜀1 + 𝜀2 = T (α1 - α2) ….for α1 > α2

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 53

 LATERAL STRAIN
− Change in length (linear strain) results in change in cross-sectional

dimensions of a body

− Increase in length results in decrease in lateral dimensions (perpendicular

to direction of force) and vice versa

− This change in lateral dimensions, relative to the linear strain taking place

along the direction of applied force, is secondary / lateral strain

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 54
 POISSON’S RATIO
- If a body is stressed within it’s elastic limit, the lateral strain bears a
constant ratio to the linear strain.

- This constant of proportionality is Poisson’s ratio

- Mathematically,

1 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Poisson’s Ratio, μ or 𝑚 =
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Lateral strain = μ𝜀 and Lateral deformation = μ𝜀 x Lateral length

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 55

 VOLUMETRIC STRAIN
- Ratio of change in volume to the original volume

- Mathematically,

𝜹𝑽
𝜀v =
𝑽
Where,

δ𝑉 = Change in volume

𝑉 = Original volume
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 56
1. VOLUMETRIC STRAIN OF RECTANGULAR BODY UNDER AXIAL FORCE

t
P E, μ P

b
l

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 57

We have, linear deformation and strain:

𝑷𝒍 𝑷𝒍 𝑷
𝜹𝒍 = = and 𝜀l =
𝑨𝑬 (𝒃.𝒕) 𝑬 (𝒃.𝒕) 𝑬 …(i)

Lateral deformations:

𝑷 𝑷
𝜹𝒃 = 𝝁 xb =𝝁
(𝒃.𝒕) 𝑬 𝒕.𝑬 …(ii)

𝑷 𝑷
And, 𝜹𝒕 = 𝝁 xt =𝝁 …(iii)
(𝒃.𝒕) 𝑬 𝒃.𝑬

We have,
…(iv)
𝜀b = 𝝁 𝜀l and 𝜀t = 𝝁 𝜀l
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 58
Hence, the final lengths after deformation are:

L = l + 𝛿𝑙

B = b - 𝛿𝑏

T = t - 𝛿𝑡

Original volume, V = l.b.t

Final volume = L.B.T = (l + 𝛿𝑙)(b - 𝛿𝑏)(t - 𝛿𝑡)

On expanding and ignoring negligible terms,

δl δb δt
Final Volume = lbt 𝟏 + l − − t
b

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 59

Therefore,

Change in volume, 𝛿𝑉 = Final volume – Original volume

δl δb δt
= 𝑙𝑏𝑡 1 + − −
l b t - 𝑙𝑏𝑡

δl δb δt
= l − − t 𝑙𝑏𝑡
b

Substituting the expansions in (i), (ii) (iii) and (iv),

𝛿𝑉 = 𝑉 𝜀l − 𝜀b − 𝜀t

𝜹𝑽
Volumetric Strain: = 𝜀l 𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁
𝑽
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 60
2. VOLUMETRIC STRAIN OF CIRCULAR BODY UNDER AXIAL FORCE

Linear strain,
P P
𝜹𝑙
𝜀l =
𝑙

Lateral strain,

𝜹𝐷
𝜀D =
𝐷

= μ 𝜀1
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 61
Original volume:
𝜋𝐷2𝑙
V=
4
Final volume:
𝜋 𝐷−𝜹𝐷 2 (𝑙+𝜹𝑙) 𝜋𝐷2𝑙 𝜹𝐷 𝜹𝑙
V’ = = 1−2 +
4 4 𝐷 𝑙
Change in volume,
𝜋𝐷2𝑙 𝜹𝑙 𝜹𝐷 𝜋𝐷2𝑙
𝜹V = −2 = 𝜀l − 2𝜀D
4 𝑙 𝐷 4

𝜹𝑽
Volumetric strain of cylinder, = 𝜀l ( 1 - 2 μ )
𝑽

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 62

 3. VOLUMETRIC STRAIN OF A SPHERE

Original volume of a sphere

4
V = 𝜋𝑟 3
3

As there is only a single dimension, change in volume can be obtained

by taking a derivative of V with respect to radius, r.

i.e., 𝜹V = 4𝜋𝑟 2 . 𝜹𝑟

𝜹𝑽 𝜹𝒓
Volumetric strain of sphere, =3
𝑽 𝒓

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 63

 4. VOLUMETRIC STRAIN OF RECTANGULAR BODY UNDER THREE
MUTUALLY PERPENDICULAR FORCES
Y
Z

X X
E, μ

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 64

Stresses in each direction are : 𝜎x , 𝜎y , 𝜎z

Hence, Strain in each direction due to their corresponding stresses

alone:
𝜎x
𝜀x =
𝑬
𝜎y
𝜀y =
𝑬
𝜎z
𝜀z =
𝑬

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 65

- The resultant strain in each direction due to all three stresses may be

found by applying the principle of superposition

i.e., Resultant strain

= Linear strain in x – Lateral strain in y - Lateral strain in z

- The linear strain is tensile and lateral strain is compressive

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 66

Therefore, resultant strains are:
𝜎x 𝜎y 𝜎z
𝜀’x = -μ +
𝑬 𝑬 𝑬

𝜎y 𝜎x 𝜎z
𝜀’y = -μ +
𝑬 𝑬 𝑬

𝜎z 𝜎y 𝜎x
𝜀’z = -μ +
𝑬 𝑬 𝑬

𝜹𝑽
𝑽
= 𝜀’x + 𝜀’y + 𝜀’z

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 67

 ELASTIC CONSTANTS
- Parameters used to describe the behavior of a material’s stress and
strain relationship
1. Young’s Modulus (E)
2. Bulk Modulus (K)

3. Shear Modulus / Modulus of Rigidity (C, G or N)

4. Poisson’s ratio (μ)

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 68

 BULK MODULUS
- When a body is subjected to 3 mutually perpendicular stress, of equal
intensity, the ratio of direct stress to the volumetric strain is called
Bulk modulus (K)

- Mathematically,
𝑫𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝝈
K = = 𝜹𝑽
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑽

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 69

 SHEAR MODULUS
- Constant of proportionality equal to the ratio of shear stress to shear
strain

- Also known as Modulus of rigidity

- Mathematically,

𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝛕
C or G or N = =
𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝛟

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 70

 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELASTIC CONSTANTS
1. Young’s Modulus (E) and Bulk Modulus (K)

Consider a cube of side l and Young’s Modulus E, with it’s faces

subjected to mutually perpendicular tensile stresses of 𝜎

Equal and opposite tensile stress on two opposite faces of a cube

induces:
𝜎
- A tensile strain on these two faces, 𝜀 = 𝐸

𝜎
- Lateral strains on the other two pairs of faces = μ 𝜀 = μ
𝐸
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 71
Net tensile strain,
𝜹𝒍 𝜎
= 𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁
𝒍 𝑬

Original volume,

V = l3
To obtain the change in volume, differentiate original volume with l,
𝛿𝑉
= 3l2
𝛿𝑙

𝛿𝑉 = 3l2 𝛿𝑙

3 𝛿𝑙
= 3l
𝑙
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 72
 𝜎
Therefore, 𝜹𝑽 = 3l3 𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁
𝑬

Hence, volumetric strain,

𝜹𝑽 𝜎
=3 𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁
𝑽 𝑬

Bulk Modulus,
𝝈 𝝈
K = 𝜹𝑽 = 𝜎
𝑽
3𝑬 𝟏 −𝟐𝝁

𝑬 = 𝟑𝑲 𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 73
2. Young’s Modulus (E) and Shear Modulus (C)

Consider a cube of length l, subjected to a shear stress of τ .

This stress induces distortion in body, such as:

- Diagonal BD elongated to BD1

- Diagonal AC shortened to AC1

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 74
 𝐵𝐷1 −𝐵𝐷
Strain of BD =
𝐵𝐷

𝐷1 𝐷2
=
𝐵𝐷

𝐷𝐷1 cos 450

=
𝐴𝐷 2

𝐷𝐷1
=
2𝐴𝐷

tan 𝜙 𝝓 𝝉
= ≈ = …(i)
2 𝟐 𝟐𝑪

Hence the linear (tensile) strain of BD is half of shear strain

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 75
Also, the shear stress along the sides, induce tensile stress in the diagonals
BD and compressive stress in AC.

Hence,
𝜏
Tensile strain due to this tensile stress in BD =
𝐸

𝜏
Tensile strain in BD due to compressive stress on AC = 𝜇
𝐸

𝝉
Therefore, resultant strain in BD = 𝟏+𝝁 ….(ii)
𝑬

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 76

Equating equations (i) and (ii),
𝜏 𝜏
= 1+𝜇
2𝐶 𝐸

i.e., 𝑬 = 𝟐𝑪 𝟏 + 𝝁

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 77

COMBINED EQUATION:
To obtained the relationship between all three modulii, let us equate
the two relations of E, derived with K and C.

i.e., 𝑬 = 𝟑𝑲 𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁 ….(iii)

and 𝑬 = 𝟐𝑪 𝟏 + 𝝁 …..(iv)

Therefore, 𝟑𝑲 𝟏 − 𝟐𝝁 = 𝟐𝑪 𝟏 + 𝝁

3K−2𝐶
From this, value of 𝜇 can be obtained as : 𝜇 =
2C+6𝐾

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 78

Substituting the equation of 𝜇 in either (iii) or (iv),

3K−2𝐶
𝐸 = 2𝐶 1 +
2𝐶+6𝐾

Therefore,

𝟗𝑲𝑪
𝑬=
𝐂+𝟑𝑲

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 79

 SHEAR STRESS (𝝉)
- The stress induced in a body,

due to two equal and opposite

forces, acting tangentially across

the resisting section, as a result

of which the body shears off

across the section

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 80
PRINCIPLE OF SHEAR STRESS:

“A shear stress
across a plane, is always
accompanied by a
balancing shear stress
across the plane and
normal to it.”

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 81

 SHEAR STRAIN
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Shear strain =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝐶𝐶1
=
𝑙

= tan 𝜙

≈𝜙

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 82

PUNCHING SHEAR STRESS
- Type of failure that occurs on
slabs due to high localized
loads.

- Occurs at the columns supports

due to concentrated dead and
live loads
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 83
 STRAIN ENERGY
- Energy absorbed by a body, strained within its elastic limit

- Strain energy is capable of doing work

Strain energy = Work done (N-mm)

RESILIENCE: Total strain energy stored

PROOF RESILIENCE: Maximum strain energy that can be stored in a body

MODULUS OF RESILIENCE: Proof resilience per unit volume of a material

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 84

STRAIN ENERGY IN A BODY UNDER AXIAL LOAD:
Stress induced in the bar due to axial load P
𝑃
𝜎=𝐴

Strain energy = work done

= Area under Force-deformation curve

1
= 2
𝑃. 𝛿𝑙

1
= 𝜎𝐴𝜀𝑙
2

1
U = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
2
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 85
Therefore,

𝝈𝟐
Strain energy, U = 𝑽 …( Volume V = A.l)
𝟐𝑬

𝝈𝟐
Modulus of resilience =
𝟐𝑬

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 86

STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO SHEAR STRESS
Assuming the tangential force P is applied gradually,

Work done = Area under the force-deformation curve

1
= 2
𝑃. 𝐷𝐷1

1 𝐷𝐷1
= 2 𝑃. 𝐴𝐷. 𝜙 …as 𝜙 = 𝐴𝐷

1 𝑃
= (𝜏. 𝐷𝐶. 𝑙). 𝐴𝐷. 𝜙 …as 𝜏 =
2 𝐷𝐶⋅𝑙

𝝉𝟐
U= 𝑽
𝟐𝑵

𝝉𝟐
Modulus of Resilience =
𝟐𝑵
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 87
MODULE 3

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 88

TYPES OF BEAMS

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 89

TYPES OF LOADS

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 90

SUPPORT REACTIONS

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 91

 SHEAR FORCE
- It is the unbalanced vertical force to the left or right of a section
considered at the cross-section of the beam

- It tends a portion of the beam to slide upward or downward with

respect to the other portion.

SIGN CONVENTION:
- Positive : Left portion tends to slide up
- Negative SF : Right portion tends to slide up

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 92

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 93
 BENDING MOMENT
- It is the algebraic sum of moments of the forces, to the left or right of
a section considered at the cross-section of the beam

SIGN CONVENTION:
- Positive BM : Sagging moment – concavity at top of beam
- Negative BM : Hogging moment – convexity at top of beam
OR
- Positive BM : Acts clockwise to left of section
- Negative BM : Acts anti-clockwise to left of section

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 94

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 95
 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
LOAD, SHEAR FORCE & BENDING MOMENT

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 96

Considering the force equilibrium of dx,

𝐹 − 𝑤. d𝑥 − 𝐹 + ⅆ𝐹 = 0

ⅆ𝐹
i.e., = −𝑤
ⅆ𝑥

Therefore, the rate of change of shear force (F) is equal to the load

intensity (w)

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 97

Consider the moment equilibrium of dx, about section 2-2,

ⅆ𝑥
𝑀 − 𝜔 d𝑥 ⋅ + 𝐹 d𝑥 − 𝑀 + d𝑀 = 0
2

Neglecting higher power terms,

ⅆ𝑀
=𝐹
ⅆ𝑥

Therefore, the rate of change of moment (M) is equal to the shear force
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 98
 STEPS TO DRAW SFD & BMD

1. Find the support reactions

2. Draw the beam with loads and support reactions

3. Identify the points of action of each load along the beam.

4. Find the net SF and BM at each point, starting from any one end

5. Draw the SF and BM lines as per the values obtained, their sign and
rules
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 99
 RULES TO DRAW SFD & BMD
- No loads between two points:

- No change in SF (Horizontal SF line)

- Linearly varying BM (Inclined BM line)

- Point load at a section:

- Sudden change in SF with no change in BM

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 100

- Uniformly distributed load (UDL) between two points:

- Linearly varying SF (Inclined SF line)

- Parabolically varying BM

- Uniformly varying load (UVL) between two points:

- Parabolically varying SF

- Cubically varying BM

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 101

SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 102

Concentrated
Load

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 103

 Multiple
Concentrated
Loads

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 104

Uniformly
Distributed
Load

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 105

Uniformly
Varying
Load

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 106

A Typical
case of
UVL:

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 107

Moment

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 108

CANTILEVER BEAM

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 109

Concentrated
Load

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 110

Uniformly
Distributed
Load

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 111

Uniformly
Varying
Load

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 112

 OVERHANGING BEAM

CANTILEVER + SIMPLY SUPPORTED + CANTILEVER

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 113

MODULE 4

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 114

 THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING
ASSUMPTIONS:

- Beam material is homogeneous and isotropic

- Material stressed within elastic limit (hence, obeys Hooke’s law)

- Transverse section remains plane before and after bending

- Each layer in beam is free to expand/contract, irrespective of adjacent layers

- Value of E remains same in tension and compression

- Beam remains in equilibrium (i.e., no resultant force)

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 115

THEORY:
If a beam is subjected to a
bending moment M, the bending
induced in the beam, as shown,
causes:
- the top layers above the axis of
beam (NN, called the Neutral axis) to
suffer compression,
- the layer along the axis to remain
unchanged and
- the bottom layers below neutral
axis to suffer tension.

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 116

BENDING STRESS EQUATION:
Consider a small portion of a beam of length 𝛿x between AB and CD
sections, subjected to a bending moment of M.

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 117

Before bending,
AC = NN = BD = 𝛿𝑥

After bending, as per simple bending theory,

AC shortens to A’C’
NN = N’N’ = 𝛿𝑥 = R x 𝜃 …(i)
BD elongates to B’D’

Consider a layer EF at y distance below the neutral axis NN,

which elongates to E’F’ under tension.
Therefore, E’F’ = (R+y) x 𝜃 and EF = 𝛿𝑥 …(ii)

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 118

Change in length of layer EF:
E’F’ – EF = (R+y)x 𝜃 – R x 𝜃 = y x 𝜃

yx𝜃
Strain in layer EF =
Rx𝜃
y
𝜀= …(iii)
R
Bending stress,

E
𝜎𝑏 = 𝜀 x E = y …(iv)
R

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 119

Bending stress equation is:

𝜎𝑏 𝐸
=
𝑦 𝑅

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 120

POSITION OF NEUTRAL AXIS:

If the area of the layer EF is 𝛿𝑎, then the total force across this
layer will be,

F = 𝜎𝑏 x 𝛿𝑎

E
= y x 𝛿𝑎
R
Therefore, total force along the whole section will be,

𝐸
𝛴𝐹 = 𝛴𝑦 ⋅ 𝛿𝑎 …(v)
𝑅
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 121
As we have assumed the section to be in equilibrium, net force will be zero,

i.e., 𝛴𝑦 ⋅ 𝛿𝑎 = 0 (as E and R are constants)

This means, the moment of the entire area of section about the
neutral axis is zero.

Also, we know, the moment of an area about an axis passing through

the centroidal axis is zero.

Hence, neutral axis is the centroidal axis drawn normal to the plane
of bending
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 122
MOMENT OF RESISTANCE:
We have the total force in layer EF as,
E
F = R y x 𝛿𝑎

Moment of this force about the neutral axis is,

E 2
Fxy= y x 𝛿𝑎 …(vi)
R
Hence, for the whole section,
E
M = 𝛴y2 x 𝛿𝑎
R
where, 𝛴y2 x 𝛿𝑎 represents the moment of inertia, I of the section.

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 123

Therefore,
Moment of resistance,
E
M = I
R

Hence, as per theory of simple bending,

𝝈𝒃 𝑬 𝑴
FLEXURE FORMULA : = =
𝒚 𝑹 𝑰

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 124

DISTRIBUTION OF BENDING
STRESS ACROSS A SECTION:
From equation (iv),

𝜎𝑏 ∝ y

Hence,

- Maximum tensile stress will be at

the bottom most layer

- Neutral axis will have no stress

- Maximum compressive stress will

be at top most layer

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 125

SECTION MODULUS (Z)
From the flexure formula, for the extreme layer of the beam
𝜎𝑏 𝑀
=
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐼

𝜎𝑏
i.e., 𝑀= I
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐼
= 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎𝑏

𝑰
Here, the section modulus, Z =
𝒚𝒎𝒂𝒙

Therefore, if M = Z x 𝜎, then 𝜎 denoted the maximum stress.

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 126

 SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS
Consider a portion ABCD of length 𝛿𝑥, of a beam, M M + 𝛿𝑀

With,
Shear force, F at AB
Shear force, (F + 𝛿𝐹) at CD
Bending moment M at AB
Bending moment (M + 𝛿𝑀) at CD
Hence,
𝑀
Bending Stress at AB, 𝜎 = 𝑦
𝐼
𝑀+𝛿𝑀
Bending stress at CD, 𝜎 + 𝛿𝜎 = 𝑦
𝐼

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 127

Therefore, if the area of the small section is ‘a’,

𝑀
Force acting along AB, FAB = 𝜎 × 𝑎 = 𝑦 ×𝑎
𝐼

𝑀+𝛿𝑀
Force acting along CD, FCD = 𝜎 + 𝛿𝜎 𝑎 = ⊥ഥ
𝑦𝑎

The net unbalance force across the section will be,

𝛿𝑀
FCD – FAB = 𝑦 ×𝑎
𝐼

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 128

Total unbalance force across the beam will be,

𝑑
2 𝛿𝑀
F=න 𝑦𝑎. d𝑦
𝐼
0

𝑑
𝛿𝑀 2
= ‫𝑦𝑎 ׬‬. d𝑦
𝐼 0

𝛿𝑀
= A𝑦ത
𝐼

Where, A is the area of the portion of beam under the neutral axis and, 𝑦ത is the
distance between the CG of this area and the neutral axis
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 129
Hence,
𝐹
Shear stress, 𝜏 =
𝛿𝑥⋅𝑏

𝛿𝑀
𝐴𝑦ത
𝐼
=
𝛿𝑥⋅𝑏

𝛿𝑀 𝐴𝑦ത
= ×
𝛿𝑥 𝐼𝑏
We have seen that, rate of change of moment is force.
Therefore,
𝑨ഥ
𝒚
Shear stress, 𝝉 = 𝑭 × 𝑰𝒃

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 130

SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 131

RECTANGULAR SECTION
𝐴𝑦ത
Shear stress, 𝜏 = 𝐹 × 𝐼𝑏

Consider a strip ABEF, where,

𝑑
A=𝑏 −𝑦
2

1 𝑑 1 𝑑
𝑦ത = 𝑦 + 2 2
−𝑦 = 2
𝑦+ 2

Therefore,

𝐹 𝑑2
𝜏= − 𝑦2 …(i)
2𝐼 4

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 132

As per equation (i), y decreases as shear stress increase.

Hence, the boundary conditions are:

𝑑
𝜏 = 0, when 𝑦 = …(at extreme layers)
2

𝜏 = 𝜏max , when 𝑦 = 0 …(at neutral axis)

Therefore, on substituting 𝑦 = 0, we get maximum shear stress as:

𝟑𝑭 𝐹
𝝉𝐦𝐚𝐱 = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝝉𝒂𝒗 …(Since 𝜏𝑎𝑣 = )
𝟐𝒃𝒅 𝑏𝑑

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 133

TRIANGULAR SECTION
𝐴𝑦ത
Shear stress, 𝜏 = 𝐹 × 𝐼𝑏

Consider a strip CEF, where,

1 1 𝑏𝑥 𝑏 ℎ
A = 2 𝐸𝐹 × 𝑥 = 2 𝑛
×𝑥 …( 𝐸𝐹
=𝑥)

2ℎ 2𝑥 2
𝑦ത = − = ℎ−𝑥
3 3 3

Therefore,
𝐹
𝜏= ℎ𝑥 − 𝑥 2 …(ii)
3𝐼

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 134

Here, it can be seen that shear stress varies parabolically with 𝑥.

Therefore, the boundary conditions are,

𝜏 = 0, when 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = h

2ℎ
At neutral axis, 𝑥 = ,
3

𝟖𝑭
𝝉 = 𝟑𝒃𝒉 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑𝝉𝒂𝒗

To find the point at which maximum shear stress occur, let us differentiate 𝝉 with
respect to 𝑥, and equate to zero

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 135

 ⅆ 𝐹
ℎ𝑥 − 𝑥 2 =0
ⅆ𝑥 3𝐼

We get ,

ℎ
𝑥=
2

ℎ
Therefore, maximum shear stress is attained at 𝑥 = 2

𝟑𝑭
𝝉𝐦𝐚𝐱 = = 𝟑𝝉𝒂𝒗
𝒃𝒉

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 136

CIRCULAR SECTION
𝐴𝑦ത
Shear stress, 𝜏 = 𝐹 ×
𝐼𝑏

Consider a strip EF of height dy, with

A = 2 𝑟 2 − 𝑦 2 . d𝑦

Hence, moment of area, 𝐴𝑦ത is,

𝑟
𝐴𝑦ത = ධ 2𝑦 𝑟 2 − 𝑦 2 d𝑦
𝑦

𝑟
= ‫ 𝑦׬‬b. y. d𝑦

….since, b = 2 𝑟 2 − 𝑦 2
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 137
We know the width of the strip is,

b = 2 𝑟2 − 𝑦2

i.e., b2 = 4(𝑟 2 − 𝑦 2)

Differentiating both sides,

2b . db = 4 ( -2 𝑦 ). d𝑦
1
i.e., 𝑦 . d𝑦 = − 4 b . db

Therefore,

1 𝑟 2 𝑏3
𝐴𝑦ത = − ‫ 𝑏 𝑦׬‬. d𝑏 =
4 12

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 138

Hence, the shear stress,
𝑟 2 −𝑦 2
𝜏= 𝐹 3𝐼
It can be seen that shear stress decreases with increasing y.
The boundary conditions are:
𝜏 = 0, when 𝑦 = 𝑟
𝜏 = 𝜏max , when 𝑦 = 0
Therefore, maximum shear stress is
𝑟2 4𝐹 𝑑 𝜋
𝜏max = 𝐹 3𝐼 = 𝜋 ….( Since r = 2 and I = 64 ⅆ4 )
3× ×𝑑 2
4

𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 1.33 𝝉𝒂𝒗

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 139
 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO
BENDING
Consider a portion of length ds in a beam,
subjected to a moment M, causing a bending
with radius of curvature R and small angle of
rotation d𝜃
ⅆ𝑠 𝑀 𝐸 𝑀
Therefore, d𝜃 = = ⅆ𝑠 …( = )
𝑅 𝐸𝐼 𝑅 𝐼

Strain energy = Work done by moment

to rotate by angle d𝜃

1 𝑀2
dU = 𝑀 d𝜃 = 2𝐸𝐼 ⅆ𝑠
2
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 140
Therefore, total strain energy in the whole beam of length L is,

𝑳
𝑴𝟐
𝑼=න 𝟐𝑬𝑰
ⅆ𝒔
𝟎

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 141

STRAIN ENERGY IN CANTILEVER BEAM

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 142

a) BEAM UNDER POINT LOAD:
𝑀𝑥 = 𝑊𝑥

𝐿
𝑀2
𝑈 =න d𝑥
2𝐸𝐼
0

1 𝐿 2
= ‫׬‬ 𝑊𝑥 d𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 0

𝑾𝟐 𝑳𝟑
𝑼 = 𝟔𝑬𝑰

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 143

b) BEAM UNDER UDL:
𝑤𝑥 2
𝑀𝑥 = 2

𝐿
𝑀2
𝑈 =න 2𝐸𝐼
d𝑥
0

𝐿 2
1 𝑤𝑥 2
= න d𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 2
0

𝒘𝟐 𝑳𝟓
𝑼 = 𝟒𝟎𝑬𝑰
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 144
STRAIN ENERGY IN SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 145

a) BEAM UNDER POINT LOAD:
𝑊𝑥
𝑀𝑥 =
2
𝐿
𝑀2
𝑈 =න d𝑥
2𝐸𝐼
0

𝐿
1 𝑊𝑥 2
= න d𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 2
0

𝑾𝟐 𝑳𝟑
𝑼 =
𝟐𝟒𝑬𝑰
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 146
b) BEAM UNDER UDL:
𝑤𝐿𝑥 𝑤𝑥2
𝑀𝑥 = 2
- 2

𝐿
𝑀2
𝑈 =න d𝑥
2𝐸𝐼
0

𝐿
1 𝑤𝐿𝑥 𝑤𝑥2 2
= න − d𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 2 2
0

𝒘𝟐 𝑳𝟓
𝑼 =
𝟐𝟒𝟎𝑬𝑰
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 147
 UNIFORM STRENGTH
- Towards the centre of beam:
- Maximum bending moment and maximum bending stress

- Towards the supports:

- Bending moment decreases
- Bending stress is much below permissible limits

- Cross sectional area required at the centre is no needed towards the

supports

- Wastage of material is considerable in large span beams

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 148

- Such beams are designed with reduced cross-sectional area towards
supports

- Hence, maximum bending stress at supports = allowable stress (as

done at the centre)

Beams with constant bending stress, equal to the allowable

stress, through out the section is called beams of uniform strength

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 149

- Beams of uniform strength may be designed by:
1. Keeping width uniform and varying depth

2. Keeping depth uniform and varying width

3. Varying both width and depth

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 150

MOMENT-CURVATURE RELATION
We have the relation,
𝑀 𝐸
=
𝐼 𝑅

Therefore,

𝟏 𝑀
=
𝑅 𝑬𝐼
This means, the radius of curvature of beam (R)
remains constant if the beam is subjected to a
constant bending moment.
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 151
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION FOR DEFLECTION OF BEAM
We have,

ⅆ𝑆
𝑅= ...(i)
ⅆ𝜓

From the triangle formed by the tangent to P and the

coordinates of P,
ⅆ𝑦 ⅆ𝑦 ⅆ𝑥
tan 𝜓 = , sin 𝜓 = , cos 𝜓 =
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑠 ⅆ𝑠

Dividing numerator and denominator of (i) by d𝑥,

𝑑𝑠 1
𝑑𝑥 cos 𝜓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜓
𝑅= 𝑑𝜓 = 𝑑𝜓 = 𝑑𝜓 ...(ii)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 152

Differentiating equation for tan 𝜓 w.r.t 𝑥, we get,

2 ⅆ𝜓 ⅆ2 𝑦
sec 𝛹 =
ⅆ𝑥 ⅆ𝑥 2

ⅆ2 𝑦
ⅆ𝜓 ⅆ𝑥2
i.e., ⅆ𝑥
= sec2 𝜓
…(iii)

Substituting (iii) in (ii),

sec3 𝛹
𝑅= ⅆ2 𝑦
ⅆ𝑥2

ⅆ2 𝑦 ⅆ2 𝑦
1 ⅆ𝑥2 3 ⅆ𝑥2 3
i.e., = =
𝑅 sec2 𝜓 2
1+tan2 𝜓 2

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 153

In practical case of a beam, slope tan 𝜓 is very small and hence tan2 𝜓
can be neglected.

1 ⅆ2 𝑦
Therefore, =
𝑅 ⅆ𝑥 2

From moment – curvature relation,

𝑀 ⅆ2 𝑦
=
𝑬𝐼 ⅆ𝑥 2

ⅆ𝟐 𝒚
or, M = EI …(iv)
ⅆ𝒙𝟐

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 154

MODULE 5

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 155

 PRINCIPAL STRESS & PLANE
PRINCIPAL PLANE:

- The 3 mutually perpendicular planes, in a strained material, subjected to direct

stress only and no shear stress, are called principal planes

- One of these planes will have maximum stress, the other will have minimum
stress and the third one with intermediate stress

PRINCIPAL STRESS:

- The magnitude of direct stress across a principal plane is called principal stress

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 156

DETERMINATION OF PRINCIPAL STRESSES ON AN INCLINED PLANE:
1. Analytical method

2. Graphical method
CASES – Body subjected to:
a) Uniaxial direct stress

b) Biaxial direct stress

c) Simple shear
d) Uniaxial direct stress with a simple shear

e) Biaxial direct stresses with a simple shear

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 157
 ANALYTICAL METHOD
SIGN CONVENTIONS:

1. Tensile stresses and strain are positive, whereas, compressive stresses

and strain are negative

2. Shear stress that tends the body to rotate in clockwise direction is

positive, whereas, that which tends to rotate body in anticlockwise

direction is negative
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 158
a) Stress on inclined plane of a body under uniaxial stress

If 𝜎 is the stress induced in section EF due to the tensile force P,

P = 𝜎 x 𝐸𝐹 × 1 …(Assuming unit thickness)

Resolving the force to normal and tangential components,

Pn = P cos𝜃 and 𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃 sin 𝜃

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 159
Hence the normal stresses on FG is:

𝑃𝑛 𝜎.𝐸𝐹 cos 𝜃
𝜎𝑛 = = 𝐸𝐹
𝐹𝐺
cos 𝜃

= 𝜎 cos 2 𝜃

𝝈
𝝈𝒏 = 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽
𝟐

At 𝜃 = 900 , EF will carry maximum direct stress.

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 160

And, tangential or shear stress along FG is:

𝑃𝑡 𝜎𝐸𝐹 sin 𝜃
𝜎𝑡 = = 𝐸𝐹
𝐹𝐺
cos 𝜃

= 𝜎 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝝈
𝝈𝒕 𝐨𝐫 𝝉 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽
𝟐

At 𝜃 = 450 and 1350 , EF will carry maximum shear stress equal to half
the tensile stress.

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 161

PRINCIPAL STRESS & STRAIN:
Principal plane occur at 𝜃, where shear stress is zero.
Therefore,
𝜎
𝜏 = sin 2𝜃 = 0
2
Hence,
Principal planes occur at 𝜽 = 0 and 900
Minimum principal stress, 𝝈𝟏 = 𝟎, 𝒂𝒕 𝜽 = 𝟎
Maximum principal stress, 𝝈𝟐 = 𝝈, 𝒂𝒕 𝜽 = 900
𝝈
Principal strain, 𝜺 =
𝑬

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 162

b) Stress on inclined plane of a body under biaxial stresses
𝜎𝑦 Px

Px
𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑥
Px
Px 𝜎𝑥
Py
Py
𝜎𝑦 Py 𝜎𝑦 Py

If 𝜎𝑥 and 𝜎𝑦 are the two tensile stresses due to tensile forces PX and PY ,

𝑃𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 . 𝐵𝐶 𝑥 1 𝑎𝑛ⅆ 𝑃𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 . (𝐵𝐹 𝑥 1)

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 163

Hence, the tangential or shear component of resultant force,

𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑥 sin 𝜃 − 𝑃𝑦 cos 𝜃

= 𝜎𝑥 𝐵𝐶 sin 𝜃 − 𝜎𝑦 𝐵𝐹 cos 𝜃

And, the normal tensile component of resultant force,

𝑃𝑛 = 𝑃𝑥 cos 𝜃 + 𝑃𝑦 sin 𝜃

= 𝜎𝑥 𝐵𝐶 cos 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦 𝐵𝐹 sin 𝜃

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 164

The normal stress,
𝑃𝑛 𝜎𝑥 𝐵𝐶 cos 𝜃+𝜎𝑦 𝐵𝐹 sin 𝜃
𝜎𝑛 = =
𝐹𝐶×1 𝐹𝐶×1
We have
𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐹
= cos 𝜃 and = sin 𝜃
𝐹𝐶 𝐹𝐶
Therefore,
𝜎𝑛 = 𝜎𝑥 cos 2𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦 sin 2𝜃
1+cos 2𝜃 1−cos 2𝜃
= 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
2 2
𝝈𝒙 +𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒙 −𝝈𝒚
𝝈𝒏 = + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽
𝟐 𝟐
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 165
The shear or tangential stress,
𝑃𝑡 𝜎𝑥 𝐵𝐶 sin 𝜃−𝜎𝑦 𝐵𝐹 cos 𝜃
𝜎𝑡 = =
𝐹𝐶×1 𝐹𝐶×1

Therefore,

𝜎𝑡 = 𝜎𝑥 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − 𝜎𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

𝝈𝒙 −𝝈𝒚
𝝈𝒕 𝐨𝐫 𝝉 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽
𝟐

At 𝜃 = 450 and 1350 , EF will carry maximum shear stress

𝝈𝒙 −𝝈𝒚
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟐
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 166
PRINCIPAL STRESS & STRAIN:
Principal plane occur at 𝜃, where shear stress is zero.
Therefore,
𝝈𝒙 −𝝈𝒚
𝜏= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽 = 0
𝟐
Hence,
Principal planes occur at 𝜽 = 0 and 900
Principal stress, 𝝈𝟏 = 𝜎𝑥 , 𝒂𝒕 𝜽 = 𝟎
Principal stress, 𝝈𝟐 = 𝜎𝒚 , 𝒂𝒕 𝜽 = 900
𝝈𝒙 𝝈𝒚
Principal strains, 𝜺𝟏 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜺𝟐 =
𝑬 𝑬

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 167

RESULTANT STRESS

𝝈𝑹 = 𝟐
𝝈𝒏 + 𝝉𝟐

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 168

c) Pure shear:
Shear force at BC
Q1 = 𝜏 × 𝐵𝐶 × 1
Shear Force at FB
Q2 = 𝜏 × 𝐹𝐵 × 1
Total normal force on FC
Pn = 𝑄1 sin 𝜃 + 𝑄2 cos 𝜃
= 𝜏 × 𝐵𝐶 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏 × 𝐹𝐵 cos 𝜃
Total tangential force on FC
Pt = 𝑄2 sin 𝜃 − 𝑄1 cos 𝜃
= 𝜏 × 𝐹𝐵 sin 𝜃 − 𝜏 × 𝐵𝐶 cos 𝜃

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 169

Hence, normal stress on FC,
𝑃𝑛 𝜏𝐵𝐶 sin 𝜃+𝜏𝐹𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝜎𝑛 = =
𝐹𝐶×1 𝐹𝐶
= 2𝜏 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝝈𝒏 = 𝝉 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝜽

And, tangential stress on FC,

𝑃𝑡 𝜏𝐹𝐵 sin 𝜃−𝜏𝐵𝐶 cos 𝜃
𝜎𝑡 = =
𝐹𝐶×1 𝐹𝐶
2 2
= 𝜏 sin 𝜃 − 𝜏 cos 𝜃
𝝈𝒕 = −𝝉 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 170

PRINCIPAL STRESS & STRAIN:
Principal plane occur at 𝜃, where shear stress (𝜎𝑡 ) is zero.
Therefore,
𝝈𝒕 = −𝝉 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽 = 0
Hence,
Principal planes occur at 𝜽 = 450 and 1350
𝜏
Principal stress, 𝝈𝟏 = , 𝒂𝒕 𝜽 = 450
2
Principal stress, 𝝈𝟐 = −𝜏, 𝒂𝒕 𝜽 = 1350
𝜏 −𝜏
Principal strains, 𝜺𝟏 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜺𝟐 =
𝐸 2 𝑬

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 171

d) Combined biaxial and shear stress:

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 172

• Normal stress on FC
𝝈𝒙 +𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒙 −𝝈𝒚
𝝈𝒏 = + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝜽 + 𝛕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝛉
𝟐 𝟐
• Shear or tangential stress on FC
𝝈𝒙 −𝝈𝒚
𝝉= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽 −𝛕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝛉
𝟐
• Principal stresses:
𝝈𝒙 +𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒙 −𝝈𝒚 2
𝝈𝟏,𝟐 = ± + 𝝉𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 173

• Principal plane :
2𝝉
tan2𝜽’ = …..where 𝜽’ is the angle of inclination of the
𝝈𝒙 −𝝈𝒚
principal plane

• Maximum shear stress:

𝟏 2
𝝉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝈𝒙 − 𝝈𝒚 + 𝟒𝝉𝟐
𝟐

• Planes of maximum shear = (𝜽’ +45) and (𝜽’ +135)

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 174

 GRAPHICAL METHOD: MOHR’S CIRCLE

SIGN CONVENTION:

1. Angle taken w.r.t x axis.

- traced anticlockwise to x axis is negative and vice versa.

- unless and until mentioned, 𝜃 is taken positive and drawn clockwise

2. Measurements above x axis and right to y axis is positive, and those below x
axis and left of y axis is negative

3. Variation in results obtained from graphical method w.r.t analytical is

permissible up to the first decimal point.
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 175
 COLUMNS
- Compressive force carrying members are called struts

- Vertical struts are called columns

- Fails either by crushing or by buckling

- Load corresponding to crushing stress is crushing load

- Load at which column jus buckles is buckling/critical/crippling load

- Long columns have low value of buckling load compared to its crushing load

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 176

KERN OF COLUMN SECTION:

- It is the region or point of column section at which a compressive load may

be applied without inducing any tensile stresses.

STRESS INDUCED IN SHORT COLUMN:

𝑙
- Short column : Slenderness ratio ( ) < 12
𝑑

- Eccentric loads induce direct and bending stresses:

𝑃
- Direct stress, 𝜎 = 𝐴

𝑀 𝑀
- Bending stress, 𝜎𝑏 = 𝐼
𝑦 = 𝑧

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 177

• Maximum stress:
𝜎max = 𝜎0 + 𝜎𝑏
𝑃 𝑀
= +
𝐴 𝑧
𝑷 𝟔ⅇ
𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏+
𝑨 𝒃

• Minimum stress:
𝜎min = 𝜎0 − 𝜎𝑏
𝑃 𝑀
= −
𝐴 𝑧
𝑷 𝟔ⅇ
𝝈𝐦𝒊𝒏 = 𝟏−
𝑨 𝒃

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 178

EULER’S COLUMN THEORY:
- For long / slender columns only

- Statement:

“Direct stress induced is negligible, compared to bending stress”

- Assumptions:
1. Initially, column is straight and load applied is perfectly axial
2. Column cross-section is uniform throughout the length
3. Material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic (thus, obeys Hooke’s Law)
4. Column is slender
5. Shortening of column due to direct compression is neglected
6. Failure of columns occur due to buckling alone
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 179
- Sign convention:

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 180

EULER’S FORMULA FOR CRIPPLING LOAD:

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝐸 = 2
𝐿𝑒
Where,

Le = effective length, which is the length of an equivalent column of same

material and cross-section, with both ends hinged and having the value of crippling
load equal to that of the given column.

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 181

ONE END FREE & BOTH ENDS HINGED ONE END HINGED & BOTH ENDS FIXED
OTHER FIXED OTHER FIXED
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰
𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰 𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰 𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰 𝑷=
𝒍𝟐
𝑷= 𝑷= 𝟐 𝑷=
𝟒𝒍𝟐 𝒍 𝒍𝟐
𝒍
𝑳𝒆 = 𝟐𝒍 𝑳𝒆 = 𝒍 𝒍 𝑳𝒆 =
𝑳𝒆 = 𝟐
𝟐
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 182
SLENDERNESS RATIO:
- Ratio of equivalent / unsupported length of column to the least radius of gyration
of section

- Substituting I = Ak2 in the equation for crippling load,

𝜋2 𝐸 𝐴𝑘 2
𝑃𝐸 = 𝐿2𝑒
𝜋2 𝐸𝐴
= 𝐿𝑒 2
𝑘
𝑳𝒆
- = slenderness ratio
𝒌
𝑰
- 𝒌= 𝑨

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 183

LIMITATION OF EULER’S FORMULA:
- Neglects direct compressive stress

- The formula can be applied only to long columns

Justification:

- Crippling stress for a column must be less than its crushing stress

- When slenderness ratio decrease, crippling stress increase to a limiting value

equal to the crushing stress.

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 184

RANKINE’S FORMULA
- Empirical formula for both short and long column

1 1 1
= +
𝑃𝑅 𝑃𝐶𝑆 𝑃𝐸

- PR : Rankine’s crippling load

- PCS : Ultimate crushing load for column = 𝜎𝐶𝑆 × 𝐴
- PE : Euler’s crippling load
𝑷𝒄𝒔
𝑷𝑹 = 𝟐
𝑳
𝟏+𝒂 𝒆
𝒌
𝜎𝐶
Where, ‘a’ is the Rankine’s constant =
𝜋2 𝐸

𝜎𝐶 is the crushing stress

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 185

 TORSION

- Twisting of body under an applied torque

TORQUE

- Product of the tangential force applied at the end of shaft and the radius of

the shaft

- This torque induces some shear stress in the shaft

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 186
 ASSUMPTIONS TO FIND SHEAR STRESS
DUE TO TORSION IN CIRCULAR SHAFTS

1. Material of shaft is uniform throughout

2. Twist along the shaft is uniform

3. Normal cross-section of the shaft remain plane and circular before and after the

twist

4. All diameters of normal cross-section remain straight and unchanged before

and after the twist.

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 187
 SHEAR STRESS DUE TO TORSION IN CIRCULAR SHAFTS

- Consider a circular shaft fixed at end AA and free at BB.

- CD is a line considered over the outer surface of the shaft

- A clockwise torque of T is applied at BB end

- Hence point D moves to D’ producing shear strain, 𝜙 = ∠𝐷𝐶𝐷′

- The shear stress induced is 𝜏

- Angle of twist, 𝜃 = ∠𝐷𝑂𝐷′

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 188
Shear strain at outer surface

𝐷𝐷′ 𝐷𝐷′
𝜙= =
𝐶𝐷 𝐿

Angle of twist,

𝐷𝐷′
𝜃=
𝑅

i.e., DD’ = R 𝜃

Therefore,

R𝜃
𝜙=
𝐿
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 189
Modulus of Rigidity,
𝜏 𝜏
C= = 𝑅𝜃
𝜙
𝐿
𝝉 𝑪𝜽
=
𝑹 𝑳
i.e., 𝜏 𝛼 𝑅
If q is the shear stress at radius of r within the shaft,
𝝉 𝒒
=
𝑹 𝒓

𝝉 𝑪𝜽 𝒒
∴ 𝑹
= 𝑳
= 𝒓
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 190
 TORSION OF SOLID CIRCULAR SHAFT
Consider a solid circular shaft of radius R, subjected to a torque T, inducing a
maximum shear stress of 𝜏.

Let q be the shear stress at radius r. Then the elemental area of the circular ring of
thickness dr at this radius will be

dA = 2𝝅r.dr

The shear stress,

𝒓
q=𝝉
𝑹

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 191

∴ Turning force inducing this shear stress

= q x dA
𝑟
= 𝜏 x (2𝜋r . dr)
𝑅

∴ Torque due to the turning force, on the ring

𝑟
dT = 𝜏 x (2𝜋r . dr) x r
𝑅

𝜏
= x 2𝜋r3 . dr
𝑅

Total Torque on the solid circular shaft

𝜏 𝑅
T = x 2𝜋 ‫׬‬0 𝑟 3 ⋅ d𝑟
𝑅
𝝅
T= 𝝉𝑫𝟑
𝟏𝟔

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 192

 TORSION OF HOLLOW CIRCULAR SHAFT
Consider a hollow circular shaft of internal radius Ri and external radius Ro,
subjected to a torque T, inducing a maximum shear stress of 𝜏.

Let q be the shear stress at radius r. Then the elemental area of the circular ring of
thickness dr at this radius will be

dA = 2𝝅r . dr

The shear stress,

𝒓
q=𝝉
𝑹𝒐

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 193

∴ Turning force inducing this shear stress

= q x dA
𝑟
=𝜏 x (2𝜋r . dr)
𝑅𝑜

∴ Torque due to the turning force, on the ring

𝑟
dT = 𝜏 x (2𝜋r . dr) x r
𝑅𝑜

𝜏
= x 2𝜋r3 . dr
𝑅𝑜

Total Torque on the hollow circular shaft

𝜏 𝑅
T= x 2𝜋 ‫ 𝑅׬‬0 𝑟 3 ⋅ d𝑟
𝑅𝑜 𝑖

𝝅 𝑫𝟒𝟎 −𝑫𝟒𝒊
T= 𝝉
𝟏𝟔 𝑫𝟎
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 194
 POWER TRANSMITTED

Power transmitted by a shaft with a mean torque of T and N rotations

per minute, at an angular speed of 𝜔, is:

𝟐𝝅𝑵𝑻
Power = 𝝎 × 𝑻 = Watt
𝟔𝟎

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 195

 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO TORSION
Consider a ring of thickness dr at a radius of r in a solid circular shaft of radius R and
length l, subjected to a torsion induced shear stress of 𝜏

We have the strain energy due to shear stress as:

𝜏2
𝑈= 𝑉
2𝐶

Where, shear stress for this elemental ring,

𝑟
𝜏𝑥 = 𝑅 𝜏

And, volume of the ring, V = dA x l

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 196
∴ Strain energy due to the torsion induced shear is,
𝑅
𝑟 2
𝜏
𝑅
𝑈=඲ × ⅆ𝐴 ⋅ 𝑙
2𝐶
0
𝜏2 𝑙 𝑅 2
= ‫𝑟 ׬‬ ⋅ d𝐴
2𝐶𝑅 2 0
Here,
𝑅 2
‫׬‬0 𝑟 ⋅ d𝐴 = J , Polar moment of inertia of the circular shaft

𝝉𝟐 𝒍
∴ 𝑼= J
𝟐𝑪𝑹𝟐
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 197
POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA (J)
𝜋
- Solid circular shaft : 𝐷4
32

𝜋
- Hollow circular shaft : 𝐷04 − 𝐷𝑖4
32

POLAR MODULUS (ZP):

- Ratio of polar moment of inertia to the radius of the shaft

𝑱
𝒁𝑷 =
𝑹
Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 198
TORSIONAL FORMULA:

𝑻 𝝉 𝑪𝜽
= =
𝑱 𝑹 𝒍

TORSIONAL RIGIDITY
- Stiffness of the circular shaft

- Torque required to produce a twist of one radian per unit length of shaft.

𝑻×𝒍
𝑪×𝑱 =
𝜽

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 199

ALL THE BEST

Prof. Joan Mary Jojo, MCET 200