Anatomy & Physiology - Lecture

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET BS NURSING / FIRST YEAR

Session # 2

LESSON TITLE: CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR Materials:

FUNCTIONS
Book, pen and notebook
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
Upon completion of this lesson, you can:

1. Describe the cells involving human body and its main Reference: functions; VanPutte, C.,
Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2019).
2. Identify the structure of cell membrane; and, Seeley’s essentials of anatomy & physiology
3. Describe the structure and functions of different (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill
Education.
organelles.
4. Identify the major organelles contained in generalized cells;
5. Define the two types of movement through the cell membrane;
6. Define diffusion and concentration gradient;
7. Explain the role of osmosis;
8. Compare hypotonic, hypertonic, and isotonic solutions;
9. Describe the various carrier-mediated transport mechanisms;
10. Differentiate endocytosis and exocytosis;
11. Describe the cytoskeleton and whole activity of a cell;
12. Identify the process in gene expression;
13. Define cell cycle and its phases;
14. Enumerate the process occurring during mitosis;
15. Define differentiation and apoptosis; and,
16. List down the cellular aspects of aging.

LESSON REVIEW/PREVIEW
Before we start the new chapter, let us take a review first from the previous chapter. Kindly answer the
following items on your own, without looking at your notes. Enjoy!

Identification
1. This is the study of the processes and functions of the body. Answer: Physiology
2. The study of the structures of the body. Answer: Anatomy
3. The condition in which body functions, body fluids, and other factors of the internal environment
are maintained within a range of values suitable to support life. Answer: Homeostasis
4. Enumerate the 11 organ systems of the human body.
▪ Integumentary System
▪ Skeletal System
▪ Muscular System
▪ Nervous System
▪ Endocrine System
▪ Cardiovascular System
▪ Lymphatic System
▪ Respiratory System
▪ Digestive System

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 ▪ Urinary System
▪ Reproductive System

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MAIN LESSON
You must read & study the concepts and refer to figures/tables in Chapter 3 of the book.

Cells – the basic living unit of all organisms; each cell is a highly organized unit.
Organelles – specialized structures in cells that perform specific functions.
Cytoplasm – jelly-like substance that holds organelles and is enclosed by cell membrane (aka plasma
membrane).

Functions of the Cell:

1. Cell metabolism and energy use
2. Synthesis of molecules
3. Communication
4. Reproduction and inheritance

Cell Membrane / Plasma Membrane

▪ It is the outermost component of the cell that forms a selective barrier between intracellular
(materials inside the cell) and extracellular substances (materials outside the cells).

Molecular Structure:

Major Molecules Definition / Function(s)

Form a double layer that contains 2 regions:
Phospholipids 1. Polar Region – “heads”, exposed to H2O (hydrophilic)
2. Nonpolar Region – “tails”, away from H2O (hydrophobic)
▪ Float among the phospholipid molecules and in some, extend from inner to the
outer surface of cell membrane
Protein
▪ Function as membrane channels, carrier molecules, receptor molecules,
enzymes, or structural supports in membrane

Other Components Definition / Function(s)

▪ Provide added strength & stability by limiting the amount of movement of
Cholesterol
phospholipids.
Carbohydrates ▪ May be bound to some CHON molecules, modifying their functions.

Organelles and Their Functions:

Organelles Function(s)
▪ Contains genetic material of cell (DNA) and nucleoli
Nucleus
▪ Site of RNA synthesis & ribosomal subunit assembly
Ribosomes ▪ Site of protein synthesis
Rough Endoplasmic ▪ Has may ribosomes attached
Reticulum ▪ Site of protein synthesis

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 Smooth Endoplasmic ▪ Site of lipid synthesis
Reticulum ▪ Participates in detoxification
Golgi Apparatus ▪ Modifies CHON structure & packages CHON in secretory vesicles
▪ Contains materials produced in cell
Secretory Vesicle ▪ Formed by the Golgi Apparatus
▪ Secreted by exocytosis
Lysosome ▪ Contains enzymes that digest material taken into the cell
Peroxisome ▪ Breaks down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide
Mitochondria ▪ Site of aerobic respiration and the major site of ATP synthesis
▪ Supports cytoplasm
Microtubule
▪ Assists in cell division and forms components of cilia & flagella
Centrioles ▪ Facilitate the movement of chromosomes during cell division
Cilia ▪ Located on cell surface that move substances over surfaces of certain cells
Flagella ▪ Proper sperm cells
Microvilli ▪ Increase surface area of certain cells

You must read & study the concepts and refer to figures/tables in Chapter 3 of the book. Generalized
Cell (Refer to Figure 3.1, page 43)

Movement through the cell membrane may be passive or active.

▪ Passive Membrane Transport – does not require the cell to expend energy. This includes
diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
▪ Active Membrane Transport – does require the cell to expend energy, usually in the form of ATP.
This includes active transport, secondary active transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.

Diffusion is the movement of a solute from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration within a solvent. At equilibrium, the distribution of molecules is uniform.

Concentration gradient is the concentration of a solute at one point in a solvent minus the concentration
of that solute at another point in the solvent divided by the distance between the points.

Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Osmotic pressure is the
force required to prevent movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane. (Refer to Figure
3.7, page 49)

Facilitated Diffusion – this moves substances from a higher to lower concentration and does not require
energy in the form of ATP.

Carrier-Mediated Transport – the movement of a substance across a membrane by means of a carrier

molecule. The substances transported tend to be large, water-soluble molecules or ions.

Active Transport – moves substances from a lower to a higher concentration and requires ATP.

Secondary Active Transport uses the energy of one substance moving down its concentration gradient
to move another substance across the cell membrane. In co-transport, both substances move in the same
direction; in counter-transport, they move in opposite directions.

Endocytosis - movement of materials into cells by the formation of a vesicle.

▪ Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis – involves cell receptors attaching to molecules
▪ Phagocytosis – movement of solid material into cells (cell-eating)
▪ Pinocytosis – the materials ingested is much smaller and is in solution (cell-drinking)

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Exocytosis – the secretion of materials from cells by vesicle formation.

Cytoskeleton is a cell’s framework. This is vital for providing support, holding organelles in place and
enabling the cell to change shape.

Types of Cytoskeleton:
1. Microtubules – largest diameter; provide structural support, assist in cell division, forming
essential components of certain organelles (cilia and flagella)
2. Intermediate Filaments – medium diameter; maintain cell shape
3. Microfilaments – smallest diameter; determine cell shape and involved in cell movement

Whole-Cell Activity
A cell’s characteristics are ultimately determined by the type of proteins produced, which are determined
by the genetic information in the nucleus. Information in DNA provides the cell with a code for its cellular
processes.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) – a double helix nucleus, composed of nucleotides, and contains five

carbon sugars (deoxyribose), nitrogen base, & phosphate. ▪ !"#$%&’()*)+,-’&’( Nucleotide Pairs
▪ ./"0&’()*)12(’&’(

Gene Expression: A process in which the information in DNA directs protein synthesis. This has two
stages:

1. Transcription – process by which DNA is “read”

The sequence of nucleotides in DNA determines the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA; the
mRNA moves through the nuclear pores to ribosomes.
ex: thymine of DNA to adenine of RNA

2. Translation – process by mRNA is converted into amino acids (polypeptides)

The sequence of codons in mRNA is used at ribosomes to produce proteins. Anticodons of tRNA
bind to the codons of mRNA, and the amino acids carried by tRNA are joined to form protein. ex: UUU
codon of mRNA binds to AAA anticodon of tRNA.

Cell Cycle: This consists of a series of events that produce new cells for growth & tissue repair. This has
two phases:

1. Interphase – the non-dividing phase in which the DNA replicates.

2. Cell Division – the formation of two daughter cells from a single parent cell. Each cell contains 46
chromosomes (diploid), except sperm & egg cells which contain 23 chromosomes.
This process occurs through mitosis, which is divided into four stages: (PMAT)
a. Prophase: Each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined at the centromere.
b. Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the center of the cell.
c. Anaphase: Chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite poles.
d. Telophase: The two nuclei assume their normal structure, and cell division is completed,
producing two new daughter cells.

Differentiation – the process by which cells develop specialized structures and functions, results from the
selective activation and inactivation of DNA sections. Ex: the functioning of bone cells is different from the
muscle cells
Apoptosis – also known as programmed cell death, is a normal process by which cell numbers within
various tissues are adjusted and controlled.

Cellular Aspects of Aging: It is estimated that at least 35% of the factors affecting aging are genetic.
1. Cellular clock

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 2. Death genes
3. DNA damage
4. Free radicals
Mitochondrial damage

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING

You will answer and rationalize this by yourself. This will be recorded as your quiz. One (1) point will be
given to the correct answer and another one (1) point for the correct ratio. Superimpositions or erasures in
your answer/ratio is not allowed. You are given 20 minutes for this activity.

Multiple Choice

1. Which of the following organelles are incorrectly paired with their location within the cell?
a. nucleolus - within the nucleus d. microtubules - within the cytoplasm
b. cilia - on the cell surface e. smooth endoplasmic reticulum - within the
c. Golgi apparatus - on the cell surface cytoplasm of the cell
ANSWER: C.
RATIO: Golgi apparatus isn’t located on the cell surface, it is located/found close to the ER and
near the cell nucleus.

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2. The nucleolus:
a. is located in the cytoplasm.
b. Is the location for production of large and small ribosomal subunits.
c. Has its own distinct membrane.
d. Is important for the formation of Golgi apparatus.
e. has all of these characteristics
ANSWER: B.
RATIO: The nucleolus is a ribosome production factory, designed to fulfill the need for large-scale
production of rRNAs and assembly of the ribosomal subunits.

3. A cell that was producing large amounts of lipoproteins (proteins combined with lipids) for secretion
from the cell would have large numbers of:
a. Lysosomes. d. Membrane transporters.
b. Golgi apparatus. e. All of these structures.
c. Centrioles.
ANSWER: B.
RATIO: The Golgi apparatus, functions as a factory in which proteins received from the ER are
further processed and sorted for transport to their eventual destinations : lysosomes, the plasma
membrane, or secretion.

4. Which of these cells would most likely have the largest number of mitochondria?
a. bone cells d. blood cells
b. muscle cells e. skin cells c. fat cells
ANSWER: B.
RATIO: Muscle cells are associated with a large number of mitochondria as they require more ATP
(energy) to function than other cells.

5. Substances outside the cell membrane are called:

a. Intracellular substances.
b. Extracellular substances.
c. Intercellular substances.
d. Both extracellular material and intercellular material are correct names.
e. All of these are correct names.
ANSWER: B.
RATIO: Substance outside the cell membrane are called extracellular substance that are responsible for the
cohesion of microorganisms and adhesion of biofilms to surfaces, influencing spatial organization, allowing
interactions among microorganisms, and acting as adhesives between cells.

6. According to the fluid-mosaic model of the cell membrane:

a. Protein molecules that perform important cellular functions float in a lipid bilayer.
b. There is a double protein layer in the plasma membrane.
c. There are fats floating in the protein layer.
d. Carbohydrates function as membrane channels.
e. nonpolar ends of phospholipids are exposed to water inside and outside the cell
ANSWER: A.
RATIO: It states that proteins float in the lipid bilayer, some anchored, and others floating freely. Occasional
cholesterol molecules add extra fluidity. Because it is fluid, the membrane's shape may be altered.

7. _____________ is an example of a molecule that can directly pass through the phospholipid bilayer of
the plasma membrane.
a. Carbon dioxide d. Glucose
b. Potassium e. Calcium
c. Sodium
ANSWER: A.

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RATIO: Small gasses such as oxygen and carbon dioxide can easily pass through the
membrane. Lipid soluble substances can also pass through the phospholipids. Water soluble
(hydrophilic) substances such as glucose and charged molecules such as ions, however, are
unable to pass through the lipid bilayer.

8. Cell membranes are said to be selectively permeable because they:

a. Allow the free passage of some materials and restrict the passage of others.
b. Allow the passage of materials in one direction but not the other.
c. Permit the passage of most materials but not of water.
d. Cell membranes are NOT normally selectively permeable
ANSWER: A.
RATIO: The cell membrane is said to be selectively permeable because it lets certain substances
pass through while restricting the passage of others.

9. Which of the following statements is TRUE concerning the cell membrane? (Select all that apply)
a. Cholesterol within the membrane gives it added strength and flexibility.
b. Receptor molecules are embedded in the membrane for intercellular communication.
c. Carbohydrates bind to protein molecules thereby modifying the proteins function as a
membrane channel.
d. Receptor molecules embedded in the membrane are involved in cellular recognition.
ANSWER: A, B, C, and D.
RATIO: All of the choices are true concerning the cell membrane.

10. Which of the following would occur if all cell membranes were no longer selectively permeable? (Select
all that apply)
a. Action potentials would no longer be generated.
b. Cells would be hypertonic to their environment.
c. You would be subject to a higher rate of illness and disease.
d. Cells would not be able to get and keep enough glucose to function.
ANSWER: A, B, C, and D.
RATIO: All of the choices occurs if all cell membrane were no longer selectively permeable.

RATIONALIZATION ACTIVITY (THIS WILL BE DONE DURING THE FACE TO FACE INTERACTION)
The instructor will now rationalize the answers. You can now ask questions and debate among yourselves.
Write the correct answer and correct/additional ratio in the space provided.

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LESSON WRAP-UP

You will now mark (encircle) the session you have finished today in the tracker below. This is simply a
visual to help you track how much work you have accomplished and how much work there is left to do.

You are done with the session! Let’s track your progress.

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AL Activity: CAT: 3-2-1

This strategy provides a structure for you to record your own comprehension and summarize your learning.
Let us see your progress in this chapter!

Three things you learned:

1. I learned all about the structures and functions shared by all cells.
2. I learned and have understood that the activity of an organism depends on the collective activities of its
cells.
3. I learned that activities of cells are dictated by their structure which determines functions.

Two things that you’d like to learn more about:

1. I’d like to learn more about the functions of each cells, and get a thorough explanation about how it
functions.
2. I’d like to learn more about the cell membrane and how to identify the hydrophilic and the hydrophobic.

One question you still have:

1. Why do phospholipids organize into a bilayer, tail to tail, in a watery environment?

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