A self-contained photoelectric sensor contains the optics, along with the electronics. It requires only a power source.

The sensor performs its own modulation, demodulation, amplification, and output switching. Some self-contained sensors provide such options as built-in control timers or counters. Because of technological progress, self-contained photoelectric sensors have become increasingly smaller. Remote photoelectric sensors used for remote sensing contain only the optical components of a sensor. The circuitry for power input, amplification, and output switching are located elsewhere, typically in a control panel. This allows the sensor, itself, to be very small. Also, the controls for the sensor are more accessible, since they may be bigger. When space is restricted or the environment too hostile even for remote sensors, fiber optics may be used. Fiber optics are passive mechanical sensing components. They may be used with either remote or self-contained sensors. They have no electrical circuitry and no moving parts, and can safely pipe light into and out of hostile environments.[1]

REED SENSOR
[edit] Sensing Modes
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Reed relay and reed switches

Showing the contacts clearly The reed switch is an electrical switch operated by an applied magnetic field. It was invented at Bell Telephone Laboratories in 1936 by W. B. Ellwood. It consists of a pair of contacts on ferrous metal reeds in a hermetically sealed glass envelope. The contacts may be normally open, closing when a magnetic field is present, or normally closed and opening when a magnetic field is applied. The switch may be actuated by a coil, making a reed relay,[1] or by bringing a magnet

near to the switch. Once the magnet is pulled away from the switch, the reed switch will go back to its original position. An example of a reed switch's application is to detect the opening of a door, when used as a proximity switch for a burglar alarm.

Uses
In addition to their use in reed relays, reed switches are widely used for electrical circuit control, particularly in the communications field. Reed switches actuated by magnets are commonly used in mechanical systems as proximity switches as well as in door and window sensors in burglar alarm systems and tamperproofing methods; however they can be disabled by a strong, external magnetic field. Reed switches were formerly used in the keyboards for computer terminals, where each key had a magnet and a reed switch actuated by depressing the key; cheaper switches are now used. Speed sensors on bicycle wheels use a reed switch to actuate briefly each time a magnet on the wheel passes the sensor. Electric and electronic pedal keyboards used by pipe organ and Hammond organ players often use reed switches, where the glass enclosure of the contacts protects them from dirt, dust, and other particles. Reed switches are used in modern laptops which puts the laptop on sleep/hibernation mode when the lid is closed.

LDR SENSOR
A Light Sensor generates an output signal indicating the intensity of light by measuring the radiant energy that exists in a very narrow range of frequencies basically called "light", and which ranges in frequency from "Infrared" to "Visible" up to "Ultraviolet" light spectrum. The light sensor is a passive devices that convert this "light energy" whether visible or in the infrared parts of the spectrum into an electrical signal output. Light sensors are more commonly known as "Photoelectric Devices" or "Photo

This basic light sensor circuit is of a relay output light activated switch. A potential divider circuit is formed between the photoresistor, LDR and the resistor R1. When no light is present ie in darkness, the

resistance of the LDR is very high in the Megaohms range so zero base bias is applied to the transistor TR1 and the relay is de-energised or "OFF".

As the light level increases the resistance of the LDR starts to decrease causing the base bias voltage at V1 to rise. At some point determined by the potential divider network formed with resistor R1, the base bias voltage is high enough to t urn the transistor TR1 "ON" and thus activate the relay whi

INFRARED SENSORS
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

s 2 stages of the operational amplifiers and it about 1600 times amplifies the signal which was detected with the infrared sensor. Each stage does about 40 times of amplification. When saying correctly, the 1st stage is (1+R12/R11)=41 times because it is the noninverting gain amplification and the 2nd stage is (R22/R21)=40 times because it is the inverting gain amplification. To make detect only the move of the person or the animal as much as possible, it is making the amplifier have the band pass filter (BPF) function which used the resistor and the capacitor. As for the operation of the band pass filter by the operational amplifier, refer to "The band pass filter which used the operational amplifier". The band pass filter is the filter to make pass the frequency which is put between the low cut-off frequency (foL) and the high cut-off frequency (foH).

LIQUID LEVEL SENSOR

LM1830 is a monolithic integrated circuit that can be used in liquid level indicator / control systems. Manufactured by National Semiconductors, the LM1830 can detect the presence or absence of polar fluids . Circuits based on this IC requires minimum number of external components and AC signal is passed through the sensing probe immersed in the fluid. Usage of AC signal for detection prevents

electrolysis and this makes the probes long lasting. The IC is capable of driving a LED, high impedance tweeter or a low power relay at its output. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM The circuit of a low liquid level indicator with LED is shown above. Capacitor Ct sets the frequency of the internal oscillator. With the give value of C1 the frequency will be around 6KHz. Capacitor Cb couples the oscillator output to the probe and it ensures that no DC signal is applied to the probe. The circuit detects the fluid level by comparing the probe to ground resistance with the internal reference resistor Rref.

TEMPERATURE SENSORS (THERMOMETER)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM Physical principles of thermometry

Thermometers may be described as empirical or absolute. Absolute thermometers are calibrated numerically by the thermodynamic absolute temperature scale. Empirical thermometers are not in general necessarily in exact agreement with absolute thermometers as to their numerical scale readings, but to qualify as thermometers at all they must agree with absolute thermometers and with each other in the following way: given any two bodies isolated in their separate respective thermodynamic equilibrium states, all thermometers agree as to which of the two has the higher temperature, or that the two have equal temperatures. For any two empirical thermometers, this does not require that the relation between their numerical scale readings be linear, but it does require that relation to be strictly monotonic. This is a fundamental character of temperature and thermometers.[14][15][16] As it is customarily stated in textbooks, taken alone, the so-called 'zeroth law of thermodynamics' fails to deliver this information.

There are several principles on which empirical thermometers are built, as listed in the section above entitled 'Primary and secondary thermometers'. Several such principles are essentially based on the constitutive relation between the state of a suitably selected particular material and its temperature. Only some materials are suitable for this purpose, and they may be considered as 'thermometric materials'. Radiometric thermometry, in contrast, can be only very slightly dependent on the constitutive relations of materials. In a sense then, radiometric thermometry might be thought of as

'universal'. This is because it rests mainly on a universality character of thermodynamic equilibrium, that it has the universal property of producing blackbody radiation