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Ezr Acelar

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This was used for Lit 209 (Afro-Asian

Literature).
This presentation is divided into 4 parts
(Israel, Hebrew Literature, The Bible and
some Biblical pieces).
Also includes some notes within the
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! Israel and Hebrew Literature

1. ISRAEL and HEBREW LITERATURE
2. Capital: Jerusalem (disputed) Financial Center: Tel
Aviv Currency: Israeli new shekel Anthem: “Hatikvah”
(The Hope) Demonym: Israeli Religion: Monotheistic
(Jehovah) Date of Establishment: May 14, 1948 Type of
Government: Unitary Parliamentary Republic Head of
Government Prime Minister Legislative Body: Knesset
Total Land Area: 8,019 / 8, 522 sq. miles Fast Facts on
The State of Israel (Medinat Yisrael)
3. The Map of Israel
4. History of the Name Israel - New name of Jacob a!er
he wrestled with an angel Memeptah stele - First record
of the name “Israel” - It said “Israel is laid waste. His
seed is no more”.
5. The Flag Blue stripes – symbolizes the stripes on the
tallit (prayer shawl) Star of David (Magen David or
Shield of David) – symbol of the Jewish people and of
Judaism Color white – Chesed (divine benevolence)
Blue – Gevurah (God’s severity), God’ glory and purity
6. The Tallit (Prayer shawl)
7. Some Tourist Spots
8. The Wailing Wall or Western Wall, Jerusalem
9. Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem
10. Open Doors, Rishon Lezion Memorial Park
11. Interesting Fact Most powerful army in the world
(#11)
12. Some Key Figures in Hebrew History
13. Abraham Isaac (son of Abraham) Jacob (Israel, son
of Isaac) The Patriarchs
14. Sarah (wife of Abraham) Rebekah (wife of Isaac)
Leah and Rachel (wives of Jacob) The Matriarchs
15. First King of Israel King Saul
16. - Second king of Israel - United the people of Judah
and Israel - Killed Goliath as a shepherd boy - Great
poet and musician King David
17. - Great legislator - Former Egyptian prince -
Attributed to be the author of the Torah - 10
commandments Moses
18. Hebrew Literature
19. The Language and Alefbet -23 consonants,
including which has a two- fold sound -4 have
secondary vowel values -Written from right to le! -Alef
(first letter). Tav (last letter) -Each letter has numerical
values
20. Hebrew Literature • consists of ancient, medieval,
and modern writings in the Hebrew language • written
by Jews on Jewish themes in any language; works of a
literary character written by Jews in Hebrew or Yiddish
or other recognized languages, whatever the theme;
literary works written by writers who were essentially
Jewish writers, whatever the theme and whatever the
language • Characterized by love of God, being
emotional, showing great love of the country and
(poetry) having no rhyme or regularity of rhythm
21. Ancient Hebrew Literature - began with oral
literature of the LeshonHaKodesh (‫ׁש ֶקֹודֲֶׁשֹוןהל‬, “The
Holy Language” Important works: • Tanakh (the
Hebrew Bible) • Mishna - primary rabbinic codification
of laws as derived from the Torah
22. Foundations of Hebrew Literature • Bible (Tanakh) –
which are chiefly dedicated to the ancient history of the
Jews, their laws and social aspirations - written Torah
(Teachings of Law) • Talmud - collection of numerous
treatises which are chiefly dedicated to the laws and
legends of the Jews - marked by it precise terminology
and strict logic. It is predominantly prosaic - oral Torah
- codification of laws (Mishna) - commentary on the
Mishna (Gemara)
23. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT Biblical Period • a union
of legend and fact, imagination and speculation • A
great part is historical narrative which is interrupted by
legal narrative • terse and written in rhythmic poetry;
prophecy is written in the parallelistic form of poetry.
24. Post-Biblical Period • an extension of the Biblical
period • Apocyphal and apocalyptic books belong to a
literature of epigones a. Septuagint - the Greek version
of the Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament) - includes the
Apocrypha (14 books of unknown authorship, or of
doubtful authenticity) b. Halakah - the most popular
Hebrew literature; came from the Hebrew word “halak”
(go or a rule to go by) c. Haggadah - comes from the
Hebrew word “higgid” (to tell); It is a Jewish text that
sets forth the order of the Passover Seder
25. The Haggadah
26. Middle Ages - intellectual models were patterned
a!er Arab models, and later the Western cultures -
latent and new poetic devices came to the form;
rhymes and meters were introduced, as well as
European form, like the sonnet - Arabic influence
permeated even the themes of poetry – themes such as
wine, nature, sensual love and friendship. Writers: •
N.R. Wesley (Mosiad, an epic poem) • Shalom Cohem
(Davidiad, an epic work on King David) • J.M. Gordon,
the most powerful poet of the period. - A!er World War
I, Lyric poetry reached its maturity in the works of
Slikine, Ginzburg, Bavli, Balkan, Boguizon, Efros,
Lisitzky and Peril.
27. Famous Contemporary Hebrew Writers Shmuel
Yosef Agnon - foremost writer in modern Hebrew
literature - Most important work: • I havets mitt (In the
Heart of the Seas) • HakhnasatKalah (The Bridal
Canopy) – a story, Jewish counterpart of Don Quixote •
Oreach Nata Lalun (A Guest for the Night) – his greatest
achievement, a novel - first Jew to receive Nobel Peace
Price for Literature, 1966
28. Famous Contemporary Hebrew Writers Nelly Sachs
- outstanding lyrical and dramatic writer, interpreting
Israel's destiny with touching strength - Most important
works: • FahrtinsStaublose (Journey to the Beyond),
lyric poetry • Zeichenim Sand (Signs in the Sand),
dramatic poetry • Eli, mystery play - first Jew to receive
Nobel Peace Price for Literature, 1966
29. The Bible
30. Jewish / Hebrew Bible • includes only the books
known to Christians as the Old Testament • 39 books
The TANAKH Ta –Torah (or Instruction) Na – Nevi’im (or
Prophets) Kh – Khetuvim (or Writing)
31. The Hebrew Bible Torah (Instruction) 5 books
Genesis Brʾeišyt Exodus Šemot Leviticus Wayiqra
Numbers Bəmidbar Deuteronomy Devarim
32. Nevi'im (Prophets) 19 books Former Joshua
Yehoshua Judges Shofetim Samuel Shemuel Kings
Melakhim Latter Isaiah Yeshayahu Jeremiah Yirmeyahu
Ezekiel Yekhezqel Minor Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah
Jonah Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai
Zechariah Malachi
33. Ketuvim (Writings) 11 books Poetic Psalms Təhillîm
Proverbs Mishlei Job Iyov Five Megillot (Scrolls) Song of
Songs ShirHashirim Ruth Rut Lamentations Eikhah
Ecclesiastes Qoheleth Esther Ester Historical Daniel
Daniyyel Ezra–Nehemiah Ezra Chronicles
Dibh'reHayyamim
34. The Christian Bible • “biblia” (Latin) and “biblos”
(Greek) • Holy Scriptures, Holy Writ, Scripture, or the
Scriptures (sacred writings) • compilation of 66 books
(72 for the Catholics) and letters written by more than
40 authors during a period of approximately 1,500
years (c. 750 to c. AD 100). Sections: • The Old
Testament • New Testament • Apocrypha
35. Old Testament • a collection of ancient writings of
the Hebrew patriarchs, the teachings of later prophets,
as well as psalms and hymns • our greatest and most
lasting religious and moral heritage from the Hebrews •
39 books • Classified into: History, Prophetic Books,
Lyric Poetry, Drama, Wisdom Literature and Tales
36. Classification according to Literature Title History
Hexateuch (first 6 books) Pentateuch (first 5 books)
Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy
Joshua Judges I Samuel II Samuel I Kings II Kings
Nehemiah
37. Classification according to Literature Title Prophetic
Books Isaiah Jeremiah Ezekiel Amos Hosea Micah
Lamentations Habakkuk Zephaniah Nahum Obadiah
Zechariah
38. Classification according to Literature Title Lyric
Poetry The Psalms
39. Classification according to Literature Title Drama
Job Song of Songs (Song of Solomon)
40. Classification according to Literature Title Wisdom
Literature Proverbs Ecclesiastes
41. Classification according to Literature Title Tales
Ruth Jonah Daniel Esther
42. New Testament • account of the origin and early
development of Christianity • 27 books: 4 biographies
of Jesus (The Gospels 1 church history 21 epistles 1
apocalypse
43. Classification according to Literature Title Gospel
SynopticGospels Matthew Mark Luke John
44. Classification according to Literature Title Church
History The Acts of the Apostles Epistles Epistles of Paul
Epistles (of Paul, I Thessalonians II Thessalonians
Galatians I Corinthians II Corinthians Romans By other
authors Hebrew James I John
45. Classification according to Literature Title
Apocalypse The Revelation to St. John The Divine
46. The Apocrypha • 14 books which were included in
the Septuagint, not in the original Hebrew • Excluded
from the Sacred Canon, but are included in the King
James version • 4 books of history, five tales, and two
books of wisdom, one epistle, one song and one prayer
47. History Not accepted I Esdras Not accepted II Esdras
Accepted I Maccabees II MaccabeesAccepted Tales
Accepted Judith Accepted Susanna and the Elders
Accepted Tobit Wisdom Literature Accepted
Ecclesiasticus or the Wisdom of Jesus, Son of Sirah
Accepted The Wisdom of Solomon
48. Additional Books of the Apocrypha Not accepted
The Prayer of Manasses This work dates from the first
century B.C. It was intended to be used in connection
with the story of Manasseh's Babylonian captivity (2
Chron. 33). Parts of the Prayer have found their way
into Protestant liturgy. Not accepted The Song of the
Three Holy Children This addition to the Book of Daniel
was written about 100 B.C. and was found inserted in
his book, in the third chapter, right a!er the 23rd verse.
Accepted Baruch The greater part of this book was
written in the 1st century A.D. under the assumed name
of Baruch, the private secretary of Jeremiah. The 6th
chapter is known as the Epistle of Jeremiah. Both
books contain a series of exhortations,
encouragements and severe denunciations. Accepted
Esther (additional verses) This work, written about 100
B.C., consists of a number of additions to the Biblical
book of Esther. The additions were added for detail and
to make up for some of the spiritual deficiencies of the
canonical book. The added verses greatly enhance the
apocalyptic nature of the story and bring enormous
symbolic understanding to it, dramatically enhancing
its relationship to God. It is replete with dragons, and
images easily reminiscent of the most important
tenants and personages involved in the last-day
warfare between Satan and Christ. The symbolism it
brings to the Book of Esther is powerful prophecy.
Accepted Bel and the Dragon Written about 100 B.C.,
this story reveals Daniel's wisdom in exposing the
falsehood of idolatry and those who promote it. The
book also reveals the existence in Babylon of a dragon-
god. Information about this idol is available from no
other source, but it is particularly relevant in light of
dragon prophecies relative to the last days, scattered
throughout the scriptures.
49. Some Biblical Pieces
50. The Creation (Genesis 1:1-2:3) • Day 1 - God created
light and separated the light from the darkness, calling
light "day" and darkness "night.“ • Day 2 - God created
an expanse to separate the waters and called it "sky." •
Day 3 - God created the dry ground and gathered the
waters, calling the dry ground "land," and the gathered
waters "seas." On day three, God also created
vegetation (plants and trees). • Day 4 - God created the
sun, moon, and the stars to give light to the earth and
to govern and separate the day and the night. These
would also serve as signs to mark seasons, days, and
years. • Day 5 - God created every living creature of the
seas and every winged bird, blessing them to multiply
and fill the waters and the sky with life. • Day 6 - God
created the animals to fill the earth. On day six, God
also created man and woman (Adam and Eve) in his
own image to commune with him. He blessed them
and gave them every creature and the whole earth to
rule over, care for, and cultivate. • Day 7 - God had
finished his work of creation and so he rested on the
seventh day, blessing it and making it holy.
51. Psalm 23 (Psalm of David / The Lord Is My
Shepherd)
52. Ecclesiastes • 12 chapters • Wisdom literature, Old
Testament • Ketuvim (Tanakh) • Written by Koheleth (a
pseudonym, “teacher” / “preacher” / “gatherer” • “all is
vanity”
53. Story of Joseph (starting from Gen. 37) • 17 yr old
shepherd-boy; Isaac’s favorite, 2nd to the youngest ( of
13 siblings) • Dreamed that he will eventually have
dominion over his brothers • Was plotted against by his
brothers (due to jealousy), le! him in a pit, and bringing
home to Jacob Joseph’s blood-stained many-colored
coat • Merchants li!ed Joseph out of the pit and sold
Joseph for 20 silvers • Joseph was brought to Egypt • In
the slave market, Potiphar, an o"icer of the Pharaoh,
bought him • Potiphar’s wife tried to seduce Joseph but
he refused • Joseph was imprisoned on the wrong
account that he slept with Potiphar’s wife • While in
prison, Joseph interpreted correctly the dreams of the
chief butler and the chief baker
54. cont. Story of Joseph • Pharaoh’s dream was
interpreted correctly by Joseph (7 years of bounty then
7 years of famine) • Because of that, he became ruler of
Egypt • During the famine, Jacob asked his sons to go to
Egypt to buy corn • 10 went (except Benjamin, the
youngest) • Joseph, the governor of the land,
recognized his brothers but pretended to be otherwise •
He did not allow them to return to Canaan unless
Benjamin will be brought to him • A!er 3 days, he
allowed them to go home, leaving one man behind,
and to return with Benjamin with them • Without their
knowing, Joseph returned their money to them along
with the corn they bought • Arriving home, they asked
Jacob to allow them to bring Benjamin to Egypt.
55. cont. Story of Joseph • When their corn was
finished, they needed to return to Egypt to buy more. •
Though hesitating, he eventually allowed Benjamin to
go with his brothers to Egypt • Joseph received them
well in his house, feasting with them • A!er the feast, he
instructed his servant to “fill their sacks with as much
food as they can carry. Place my silver cup into the sack
of their youngest. • In the morning, the brothers le! but
were soon stopped because they were accused of
stealing • Upon checking their sacks, Joseph’s silver
cup was found inside Benjamin’s sack • Being that
Benjamin will be punished, Judah pleaded that he will
take Benjamin’s place instead • Eventually, Joseph
revealed himself.
56. The Story of Ruth (Book of Ruth) • Elim’e-lech and
Naomi, sons Mah’lon and Chil’i-on moved from
Bethlehem-Judah to the country of Moab due to
famine • Elim’e-lech died and his sons married Moabite
women Orpah and Ruth • A!er 10 years, the sons died
leaving Naomi, Orpah and Ruth • Naomi decided to
return to the land of Judah and asked her daughters in
law to return to their families • Orpah and Naomi said
they will go back with Naomi to her land but Naomi
insisted that she doesn’t have anymore sons for them
to marry • Orpah returned to her family • Ruth did not
leave Naomi, “Intreat me not to leave thee, or to return
from following thee; for whither thou goest, I will go;
and where thou lodgest, I will lodge; thy people shall be
my people, and thy God my God.” • Ruth eventually
married Boaz and from them came the great
grandparents of David (and Jesus)
57. Parable of the Talents (Mt 25: 14-30) • A man who
was travelling called his servants and le! one of them
with 5 talents, the other 2 talents and to another 1. •
The man with the 5 talents went and traded it, getting 5
more • The man with 2 talents, gained also another 2 •
The man with 1 talent, buried his talent • The lord of the
servants eventually returned and called his servants •
The came and brought their talents with them • The
man with 10 talents was eventually made a ruler of the
land, as well as the man who have 4 • “You knew that I
reap where I have not sown and gather where I
scattered no seed? Then you ought to have invested my
money with the bankers, and at my coming I should
have received what was my own with interest.” • The
man who buried his talent was told to give his talent to
the man who has 10 • For to everyone who has will
more be given, and he will have an abundance. But
from the one who has not, even what he has will be
taken away. And cast the worthless servant into the
outer darkness. In that place there will be weeping and
gnashing of teeth.”

Editor's Notes

Date of Establishment (when they were

o"icially recognized as a country, a state) :
May 14, 1948
Capital: Jerusalem (disputed)
Financial Center: Tel Aviv
Currency: Israeli new shekel
Anthem: “Hatikvah” (The Hope)
Demonym: Israeli
Religion: Monotheistic (Jehovah)
Type of Government: Unitary Parliamentary
Republic
Head of Government: Prime Minister
Legislative Body: Knesset
Total Land Area: 8,019 / 8, 522 sq. miles

Fast facts
Israel is an independent republic in
Southwest Asia. It is situated between the
Eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea
and the head of the Gulf of Aqaba, an arm
of the Red Sea.
It is the only world’s only Jewish-majority
state. It also has the highest standard of
living in the Middle East and the fi!h
highest in Asia. Israel also has one of the
highest life expectancies in the world.

Israel is located on an area considered to be

the Holy Land for Christians, Jews and
Muslims. From 1920, the whole region was
known as Palestine (under British Mandate)
until the Israeli Declaration of
Independence in 1948.
It is bordered on by : Lebanon (north)
Syria (northeast)
Jordan (east)
Palestinian territories (West Band and Gaza
Strip, east and west)
Egypt (southwest)
Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea, south)
The terms “Land of Israel and “Children of
Israel” were used historically to denote the
biblical Kingdom of Israel (and the entire
Jewish nation). The name “Israel” refers to
Jacob, who was given the name Israel
(which means struggle with God) a!er he
successfully wrestled with an angel of the
Lord. His 12 sons became the ancestors of
the Israelites, also known as the Twelve
Tribes of Israel (or Children of Israel).

Jacob and his sons lived in Canaan but

were forced to go to Egypt because of a
famine. For four generations they stayed
there, until Moses, a great, great grandson
of Jacob, led the Exodus.

The area known as the Holy Land was

known by a variety of other names such as
Judea, Samaria, Syria Palaestina, Kingdom
of Jerusalem and Canaan.

The first record of the name Israel was in

the Memeptah stele, erected for the
Egyptian Pharaoh Memeptah c. 1209 BCE. It
said “Israel is laid waste. His seed is no
more”.

The flag of Israel was adopted on October

28, 1948, five months a!er the
establishment of the State of Israel. It
depicts a blue hexagram on a white
background, between two horizontal blue
stripes.

The blue stripes are intended to symbolize

the stripes on a tallit, the traditional Jewish
prayer shawl. The portrayal of a Star of
David on the flag of the State of Israel is a
widely-acknowledged symbol of the Jewish
people and of Judaism.
The color white symbolizes Chesed (divine
benevolence), while the blue color
symbolizes God’s glory, purity and Gevurah
(God’s severity).

Jews and many other people consider the

wall to have been part of a Jewish temple,
also called the Second Temple, which stood
for hundreds of years.

Jews from all countries, and as well as

tourists of other religious backgrounds, go
to pray at the wall, where many people
believe that one immediately has the "ear
of God." People who cannot pray at the wall
can send in prayers or ask for the Kaddish,
a specific Jewish prayer, to be said for
departed loved ones. Prayers that are sent
in are placed into the cracks of the walls
and are called kvitelach.
The Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem is a
major Christian holy site as it marks the
place of Jesus’ birth. It is also one of the
oldest Christian surviving churches.

The church was originally commissioned in

327 AD by Constantine and his mother
Helena over the site that is still traditionally
considered to be located over the cave that
marks the birthplace of Jesus of Nazareth.

The site of the Church of the Nativity is a

World Heritage Site, and was the first to be
listed under Palestine by the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
Open Doors is the first Philippine
monument in Israel symbolizing the
people’s hospitality when the Philippines
opened its doors to the Jewish refugees
fleeing Europe during the Holocaust.
Israel is well known for their military policy
and might. Apart from possessing between
80-200 nuclear warheads, they also hold
almost 4000 tanks, and [practically
everyone is military trained.
When taken broadly, the Patriarchs will
refer to the 24 ancestor-figures between
Adam and Abraham. The first ten were
called the Antediluvian Patriarchs because
they lived before the flood (during the time
of Noah).

The three most significant are Abraham, his

son Isaac and Isaac’s son, Jacob. According
to the Torah, God has made a covenant to
these three and has promised the Land of
Israel to them. They were also used as a
significant marker by God in revelations
and promises. They have been referred to
as the Three Patriarchs, Patriarchs of the
Jewish Nation or the Father of the Jewish
Nation. The term “Abot” (the Jewish
equivalent for Patriarch) is applied only to
these three. The origin of divine devotion
can be traced back to these three. Hence
the "'Amidah" prayer begins with the
patriarchal benediction "Birkat abot". (The
God of our fathers, Abraham, Isaac, and
Jacob"); but it concludes with "Praised be
the Lord, the shield of Abraham," as a
special reference to God's promise to make
for Abraham a "great name".
Abraham (Ibrahim in Islam) is considered to
be the father of the Prophets in Islam
because all subsequent prophets were his
descendants (the Israelite prophets
through Isaac and Muhammad through
Ismā'īl).
The Patriarchs are considered to be the first
rulers of the Hebrews.
The Matriarchs are the wives of the biblical
Patriarchs. They are Sarah, the wife of
Abraham, Rebekah, the wife of Isaac and
Leah and Rachel, the wives of Jacob.
Saul became the first king of Israel when he
was 30 years old a!er being chosen by God
himself. He reigned for 42 years. He
defeated many of the enemies of his
country, including the Ammonites,
Philistines, Moabites, and Amalekites and
united the scattered tribes. However, he
can also be impulsive and unwise.
David is the second King. He made
Jerusalem as the capital and religious
center a!er having truly united the people
of Judah and Israel. He was a young
shepherd boy when he killed Goliath, the
giant of the Philistines, using only a sling
and a pebble. He is depicted as a
courageous warrior and military leader, a
poet and musician (he plays the harp)
credited for composing much of the psalms
contained in the Book of Psalms. He is
described as 'a man a!er God's own heart'
in the books of I Samuel and Acts. He was
succeeded by his son Solomon, one of
Israel’s greatest kings.
Name means from the river

According to the Book of Exodus, Moses

was born in a time when his people, the
Israelites, an enslaved minority, were
increasing in numbers and the Egyptian
Pharaoh was worried that they might ally
with Egypt's enemies.[7] Moses' Hebrew
mother, Jochebed, secretly hid him when
the Pharaoh ordered all newborn Hebrew
boys to be killed in order to reduce the
population of the Israelites. Through the
Pharaoh's daughter (identified as Queen
Bithia in the Midrash), the child was
adopted as a foundling from the Nile river
and grew up with the Egyptian royal family.
A!er killing an Egyptian slavemaster
(because the slavemaster was smiting a
Hebrew), Moses fled across the Red Sea to
Midian, where he encountered the God of
Israel speaking to him from within a
"burning bush which was not consumed by
the fire" on Mount Horeb (which he
regarded as the Mountain of God).
God sent Moses back to Egypt to demand
the release of the Israelites from slavery.
Moses said that he could not speak with
assurance or eloquence,[8] so God allowed
Aaron, his brother, to become his
spokesperson. A!er the Ten Plagues, Moses
led the Exodus of the Israelites out of Egypt
and across the Red Sea, a!er which they
based themselves at Mount Sinai, where
Moses received the Ten Commandments.
A!er 40 years of wandering in the desert,
Moses died within sight of the Promised
Land.
LANGUAGE

Hebrew was the language spoken by the

ancient Israelites, and in which were
composed nearly all of the books of the Old
Testament. It is also referred to adverbially
as the "Jews' language”. Among Bible
scholars, it is referred to as “ancient” or
“classical” Hebrew.

Hebrew belongs to the great Semiticfamily

of languages, the geographical location of
which is principally in South-Western Asia,

The Alefbet

The Hebrew alphabet comprises twenty

two letters, but as one of these ( ) is used to
represent a twofold sound, there are
equivalently twenty-three. These letters are
all consonants, though a few of them ( )
have secondary vowel values analogously
with our w and y.
Hebrew is written from right to le!, rather
than le! to right as in English, so Alef is the
first letter of the Hebrew alphabet and Tav
is the last. The Hebrew alphabet is o!en
called the "alefbet," because of its first two
letters.
Each letter in the alefbet has a numerical
value. These values can be used as
numerals, similar to the way Romans used
some of their letters (I, V, X, L, C, D, M) as
numerals.
Ancient Hebrew Literature
The TANAKH

Ta – is from TORAH (or Instruction)

Na – Nevi’im (or Prophets)
Kh – Khetuvim (or Writing)
Literature in Hebrew begins with the oral
literature of the LeshonHaKodesh
(‫)לֶשׁוֹןהֲקוֹדֶשׁ‬, "The Holy Language", since
very ancient times and with the teachings
of Abraham, the first of the biblical
patriarchs of Israel, (c. 2000 BCE). Beyond
comparison, the most important work of
ancient Hebrew literature is the Hebrew
Bible (Tanakh).
The Mishna, compiled around 200 CE, is the
primary rabbinic codification of laws as
derived from the Torah. It was written in
Mishnaic Hebrew, but the major
commentary on it, the Gemara, was largely
written in Aramaic. Many works of classical
midrash were written in Hebrew.
Two of the earliest pieces of Hebrew
Literature are the Bible and the Talmud.
The Hebrew Bible then is a collection of 39
books which are chiefly dedicated to the
ancient history of the Jews, their laws and
social aspirations. The Talmud is a
collection of numerous treatises which are
chiefly dedicated to the laws and legends of
the Jews.

Critics usually regard the Bible and the

Talmud as formless. However, this
formlessness is necessitated by the
passionate expression of deeply felt insight.
Still, others say that there is form especially
in the poetic books of the Bible. It is simple
with endless variations, a form cherished
by the Canaanites. It relies on symmetry of
members, syntactic units of verse, rather
than symmetry of form and content. It is
also the cherished ideal of Hebrew poets.

The Talmud’s form is marked by it precise

terminology and strict logic. It is
predominantly prosaic.

The Bible and the Talmud are both

Teachings of Law; the Bible is the written
Torah while the Talmud is the oral Torah

This is merely an extension of the Biblical

period. Many apocryphal and apocalyptic
books were patterned a!er the Biblical
prototype. These books belong to a
literature of epigones. Its newness
consisted in a radical departure from pagan
philosophy.

Septuagint- the Greek version of the

Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament), including
the Apocrypha, made for Greek-speaking
Jews in Egypt in the 3rd and 2nd centuries
BC and adopted by the early Christian
Churches. This is the cornerstone of
Hellenistic literature of the Jews. It may be
regarded as a work of apologetics, perhaps
the first and noblest work of Jewish
apologetics, and symbolic of the spirit of
the Jewish nation.

Apocrypha usually refers to a set of texts

included in the Septuagint but not in the
Hebrew Bible. They are usually written
works (14 books), that are of unknown
authorship, or of doubtful authenticity, or
spurious, or not considered to be within a
particular canon and were rejected by the
authorities.
The word's origin is the Medieval Latin
adjective apocryphus, "secret, or non-
canonical".

Halakah – the most popular Hebrew

literature, came from the Hebrew word
“halak” which means “go” or “a rule to go
by”. In these, academics, masses or oral
traditions, customs, folklore and
interpretation of old laws were ordered,
discussed and systematized. These were
finally collected into Palestinian and
Babylonian Talmud.

Halakah is a set of Jewish rules and

practices.There are 613 unchangeable
mitzvoth (commandments).Halakhah
comes from the Torah, the rabbis, and
custom.

Haggadah - comes from the Hebrew word

“higgid” meaning “to tell”.It is a Jewish text
that sets forth the order of the Passover
Seder. Reading the Haggadah at the Seder
table is a fulfillment of the Scriptural
commandment to each Jew to "tell your
son" of the Jewish liberation from slavery
in Egypt as described in the Book of
Exodus. It embraces folklore, theology,
ethics, history, poetry, and science and
extra non-legal material. It uses biblical
verse as a point of departure. It is
essentially investigative; its didacticism,
subtle.
Shmuel Agnon's reputation as the foremost
writer in modern Hebrew literature has
gradually penetrated linguistic barriers
which, in this case, are particularly
obstructive. His most important works are
now available in Swedish under the title I
havets mitt (In the Heart of the Seas).
Shm
The Christian Bible consists of the Old
Testament and the New Testament, with
the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox
versions of the Old Testament being slightly
larger because of their acceptance of
certain books and parts of books
considered apocryphal by Protestants.

The Jewish Bible includes only the books

known to Christians as the Old Testament.
The arrangements of the Jewish and
Christian canons di"er considerably. The
Protestant and Roman Catholic
arrangements more nearly match one
another.

Talmuh is the oral torah

Torah
Level: Basic
• Torah in the narrowest sense refers to the
first five books of the Bible • In a broader
sense, Torah includes all Jewish law and
tradition • Torah was given to Moses in
written form with oral commentary • The
oral component is now written in the
Talmud • There are additional important
writings
The word "Torah" is a tricky one, because it
can mean di"erent things in di"erent
contexts. In its most limited sense, "Torah"
refers to the Five Books of Moses: Genesis,
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and
Deuteronomy. But the word "torah" can
also be used to refer to the entire Jewish
bible (the body of scripture known to non-
Jews as the Old Testament and to Jews as
the Tanakh or Written Torah), or in its
broadest sense, to the whole body of
Jewish law and teachings

The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide

accounts of the creation (or ordering) of the
world and the history of God's early
relationship with humanity. The remaining
thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an
account of God's covenant with the Biblical
patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob (also
called Israel) and Jacob's children, the
"Children of Israel", especially Joseph. It
tells of how God commanded Abraham to
leave his family and home in the city of Ur,
eventually to settle in the land of Canaan,
and how the Children of Israel later moved
to Egypt. The remaining four books of the
Torah tell the story of Moses, who lived
hundreds of years a!er the patriarchs. He
leads the Children of Israel from slavery in
Ancient Egypt to the renewal of their
covenant with God at Mount Sinai and their
wanderings in the desert until a new
generation was ready to enter the land of
Canaan. The Torah ends with the death of
Moses.[29]
The Torah contains the commandments of
God, revealed at Mount Sinai (although
there is some debate among traditional
scholars as to whether these were all
written down at one time, or over a period
of time during the 40 years of the
wanderings in the desert, while several
modern Jewish movements reject the idea
of a literal revelation, and critical scholars
believe that many of these laws developed
later in Jewish history).[30][31][32][33]
These commandments provide the basis
for Jewish religious law. Tradition states
that there are 613 commandments (taryag
mitzvot).

Nevi'im (Hebrew: ‫ נְבִיאִים‬Nəḇî'îm,

"Prophets") is the second main division of
the Tanakh, between the Torah and
Ketuvim. It contains two sub-groups, the
Former Prophets (Nevi'im Rishonim ‫נביאים‬
‫ראשונים‬, the narrative books of Joshua,
Judges, Samuel and Kings) and the Latter
Prophets (Nevi'im Aharonim ‫נביאים אחרונים‬,
the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel
and the Twelve Minor Prophets).
The Nevi'im tell the story of the rise of the
Hebrew monarchy and its division into two
kingdoms, ancient Israel and Judah,
focusing on conflicts between the Israelites
and other nations, and conflicts among
Israelites, specifically, struggles between
believers in "the LORD God"[34] and
believers in foreign gods,[35][36] and the
criticism of unethical and unjust behavior
of Israelite elites and rulers;[37][38][39] in
which prophets played a crucial and
leading role. It ends with the conquest of
the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians
followed by the conquest of the Kingdom of
Judah by the Babylonians and the
destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem.

Former Prophets
The Former Prophets are the books Joshua,
Judges, Samuel and Kings. They contain
narratives that begin immediately a!er the
death of Moses with the divine
appointment of Joshua as his successor,
who then leads the people of Israel into the
Promised Land, and end with the release
from imprisonment of the last king of
Judah. Treating Samuel and Kings as single
books, they cover:
Joshua's conquest of the land of Canaan (in
the Book of Joshua),
the struggle of the people to possess the
land (in the Book of Judges),
the people's request to God to give them a
king so that they can occupy the land in the
face of their enemies (in the Books of
Samuel)
the possession of the land under the
divinely appointed kings of the House of
David, ending in conquest and foreign exile
(Books of Kings)
Latter Prophets
The Latter Prophets are divided into two
groups, the "major" prophets, Isaiah,
Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and the Twelve
Minor Prophets, collected into a single
book:
Hosea, Hoshea (‫)הושע‬
Joel, Yoel (‫)יואל‬
Amos, Amos (‫)עמוס‬
Obadiah, Ovadyah (‫)עבדיה‬
Jonah, Yonah (‫)יונה‬
Micah, Mikhah (‫)מיכה‬
Nahum, Nahum (‫)נחום‬
Habakkuk, Havakuk (‫)חבקוק‬
Zephaniah, Tsefanya (‫)צפניה‬
Haggai, Khagay (‫)חגי‬
Zechariah, Zekharyah (‫)זכריה‬
Malachi, Malakhi (‫)מלאכי‬

Ketuvim or Kəṯûḇîm (in Biblical Hebrew:

‫" כּ ְתוּבִים‬writings") is the third and final
section of the Tanakh. The Ketuvim are
believed to have been written under the
Ruach HaKodesh (the Holy Spirit) but with
one level less authority than that of
prophecy.[40]
The poetic books
In Masoretic manuscripts (and some
printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job
are presented in a special two-column form
emphasizing the parallel stichs in the
verses, which are a function of their poetry.
Collectively, these three books are known
as Sifrei Emet (an acronym of the titles in
Hebrew, ‫ תהלים‬,‫ משלי‬,‫ איוב‬yields Emet
‫אמ"ת‬, which is also the Hebrew for "truth").
These three books are also the only ones in
Tanakh with a special system of cantillation
notes that are designed to emphasize
parallel stichs within verses. However, the
beginning and end of the book of Job are in
the normal prose system.
The five scrolls (Hamesh Megillot)
The five relatively short books of Song of
Songs, Book of Ruth, the Book of
Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Book of
Esther are collectively known as the
Hamesh Megillot (Five Megillot). These are
the latest books collected and designated
as "authoritative" in the Jewish canon even
though they were not complete until the
2nd century CE.[41]
Other books
Besides the three poetic books and the five
scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim are
Daniel, Ezra–Nehemiah and Chronicles.
Although there is no formal grouping for
these books in the Jewish tradition, they
nevertheless share a number of
distinguishing characteristics:
Their narratives all openly describe
relatively late events (i.e., the Babylonian
captivity and the subsequent restoration of
Zion).
The Talmudic tradition ascribes late
authorship to all of them.
Two of them (Daniel and Ezra) are the only
books in the Tanakh with significant
portions in Aramaic.
The English word "Bible" comes from bíblia
in Latin and bíblos in Greek. The term
means book, or books, and may have
originated from the ancient Egyptian port
of Byblos (in modern-day Lebanon), where
papyrus used for making books and scrolls
was exported to Greece.

Other terms for the Bible are the Holy

Scriptures, Holy Writ, Scripture, or the
Scriptures, which mean sacred writings.

The Bible is a compilation of 66 books (72

for the Catholics) and letters written by
more than 40 authors during a period of
approximately 1,500 years (c. 750 to c. AD
100). The Bible remains to be the most
widely read book, the bestseller among all
the books published in the world. It is also
the most translated. It is divided into three
sections: the Old Testament which was
written for the most part in Hebrew (with a
small percentage in Aramaic), New
Testament which was originally written in
Koine Greek and the Apocrypha. There are
14 Apocrypha books, 5 of which can only be
found in the Septuagint.

The Bible remains to be the most widely

read book, the bestseller among all the
books published in the world. It is also the
most translated

Originally, the Holy Scriptures were written

on scrolls of papyrus and later parchment,
until the invention of the codex. A codex is a
handwritten manuscript formatted like a
modern book, with pages bound together
at the spine within a hard cover.

The OLD TESTAMENT

The Old Testament, the sacred scripture of
the Jews, is a collection of ancient writings
of the Hebrew patriarchs, the teachings of
later prophets, as well as psalms and
hymns. This literature, with its idea of one
god, is our greatest and most lasting
religious and moral heritage from the
Hebrews. The Old Testament forms the
literary inheritance of the nations of
Europe, Philippines and the Western
countries. It is also widely known in Asia
and Africa.
The Old Testament is made up of 39 books.
Traditionally, the Jews have divided their
scriptures into three parts: the Torah (the
“Law,” or the Pentateuch), the Nevi’im
(“Prophets”), and the Ketuvim (“Writings,”
or Hagiographa). The Christian Bible that
we know now can be classified
conveniently into 6 groups: History,
Prophetic Books, Lyric Poetry, Drama,
Wisdom Literature and Tales.
History

These books traces the history of the

Hebrews from the creation of the world
down through the rebuilding of Jerusalem
a!er the return from the Babylonian exile.

Pentateuch

These has been erroneously attributed to

Moses for a very long time; its present form
dates back to c.350 BC with some parts
written perhaps as early as 950 BC. It is
based on 4 principal sources, the so called
J, E, P and D Documents.

Genesis
Story of Creation: Chapter 1 -11
1-2: Creation of the world and man
3: the fall of Adam and Eve
4: Cain’s murder of Abel
5-10: Noah’s flood
11: Tower of Babel
Cycles of Legend (revolves around central
figures)
Chapter 12-23: Abraham
24-26: Isaac
26-36: Jacob
37-50: Joseph
Other interesting passages
Chapter 19: how Lot’s wife is turned into
salt
22: Abraham’s sacrifice of Isaac
29: Jacob’s marriages to Leah and Rachel
28: Jacob’s Ladder
37: The sale of Joseph into Egypt
39: Joseph’s temptation by Potiphar’s wife
41: Pharaoh’s dreams
45: Jacob’s moving to Egypt

Exodus
This book deals with the Hebrew’s escape
from Egypt and their journey back to
Palestine under the able leadership of
Moses.
Chapter 2: Discovery of Moses in the
bulrushes
7-11: Plagues of Egypt
12: The Origin of the Passover
15: Moses’ song
16: The sending of manna
20: The Ten Commandments
Most of the last half of the book is devoted
to laws and their interpretations, rites and
ceremonies.

Leviticus
This document embodies a legal and
religious system of laws, codes, rites and
sacrifices
Chapter 17-26: Holiness Code (of Exilic
origin); it emphasizes righteousness and
goodness of motive as opposed to
ritualistic details.

Numbers
Contains an unreliable census, more
religious laws and customs and some
narratives concerning Moses.
Chapter 20: Moses’ smiting of the rock
22: Balaam’s ass

Deuteronomy
Based on “Book of Law” found in the
Temple at Jerusalem in 621 BC.
It repeats much of Leviticus but it contains
some original narrative material concerning
the wandering of the Hebrews in the
wilderness
Chapter 34: Death of Moses

Joshua
Deals with Joshua’s assuming leadership of
the Hebrews a!er the death of Moses.
It tells of the entry into Canaan and of the
battles against hostile tribes, it is a
deliberate attempt to create a national
military hero.
Chapter 6: Fall of the Walls of Jericho
10: The standing still of the sun and the
moon

Judges
(earliest form, c. 850 BC; present form, c
550 BC)
This is the saga of the Hebrews soon a!er
the death of Joshua. It recounts the life and
the battles of the Jews under the Judges.
Chapter 4-5: The exploits and song of
Deborah (possibly written 1100BC)
6-8: Gideon’s battles
9: Story of Abimelech
11: Story of Jephthah’s daughter
13-16: Story of Samson

I Samuel
(c. 550 BC)
A continuation of Hebrew history under the
judges and under Saul, the first King.
Chapter 3: The call of Samuel
9-10: The choosing and anointing of Saul
17: David’s battle with Goliath
18-19: The friendship of David and
Jonathan
20-27: Saul’s attempt on David’s life

II Samuel
(c. 550 BC)
The reign of David
Chapter 11-12: David’s marriage to
Bathsheba
13-18: Absalom’s rebellion

I Kings
(c. 550 BC)
A history written for the purpose of proving
that God rewarded His worshipers and
punished His enemies. It covers the period
from the death of David to the accession of
Ahaziah of Israel.
Chapter 12: The building division of the
kingdom
17-22: The prophecies and miracles of
Elijah

II Kings
(c. 550 BC)
Written for the same purpose as I Kings, it
continues the history through the fall of the
kingdom of Israel (721 BC) and of Judah
(586 BC).
Chapter 1-8: Miracles of Elisha
17: The Fall of Israel
18-19: Sennacherib’s raid
22-23: The reforms of Josiah
25: The Fall of Judah

Nehemiah
(c. 300 BC)
This is a personal memoir by the political
leader of the Hebrews on their return from
exile in Babylon. It tells of the rebuilding of
the walls of Jerusalem and of the religious
reforms e"ected by Nehemiah.

Prophetic Books

The Old Testament Prophet was not

primarily a soothsayer; rather, he was a
religious and social reformer. He was a
spokesman for God who pointed out the
people’s evil to them and who o!en
threatened the nation with disaster and
destruction unless it repented. Elijah and
Elisha wrote nothing but are considered the
first two prophets. Their successors varied
widely in approach and point of view. But
all of them were endowed with a vision and
eloquence which led to the production of
superb poetry.

Isaiah
(c. 740 – 701 BC)
Composed of 39 chapters.
Generally recognized as the greatest of the
prophets, Isaiah was a statesman as well as
a religious leader. He advocated
collaboration with Assyria. Tradition holds
that he was executed by being sawed in
half during the reign of the wicked King
Manasseh of Judah. Isaiah had no illusion
about the complete moral regeneration of
the people but placed his hope in a “saving
remnant” from whom eventually will spring
the Messiah; this leader would be strong
enough to establish the righteousness in
the land.

Jeremiah
(c. 600 - 586 BC)
A book of gloomy prophecy.
Jeremiah opposed rebellion against
Babylon and was later carried o" as a
prisoner by refugees who fled to Egypt
when Jerusalem fell in 586 BC. He held no
hope for the survival of his nation but
placed his only reliance on personal
righteousness.

Ezekiel
(c. 585 BC)
Written in Babylon by an exiled priest.
This document helped maintain Hebrew
morale by emphasizing the importance of
ritualistic practices. Paradoxically, however,
the author rejects the doctrine of vicarious
righteousness and of the visitation upon
the sons of the sins of the fathers; instead
he stresses personal individual
responsibility. He is visionary and mystic.
The book had great influence on Daniel,
Dante, Milton, Blake and others.

Amos
(c. 765 – 750 BC, the oldest complete book
in the Bible)
Amos voices a stern and uncompromising
warning to the Kingdom of Israel – a
warning of utter annihilation unless social
reforms are immediately e"ected. Amos is
o!en considered the first to emphasize the
justness of God.

Hosea
(c. 740 BC)
This book of prophecy contains a far milder
message than that of Amos. Hosea stresses
God’s mercy and forgiveness rather than
His justice and he entreats instead of
denouncing. He emphasizes God’s love and
willingness to forgive.

Micah
(c. 720 BC)
Micah foretells not only the punishment of
the wicked but also an era of redemption
and prosperity. He is probably the first
author to express the hope for universal
peace.

Lamentations
(c. 586 BC)
Erroneously attributed to Jeremiah,
prophetic only in spirit, this poem bemoans
the fall of Jerusalem. It is extremely
artificial in form; in the original Hebrew it is
“an acrostic, each line beginning with a
di"erent letter of the alphabet and the lines
are arranged in regular triplets or couplets,
the whole carefully divided to form a series
of dirges within a dirge.”

Habakkuk
(c. 600 BC)
Contains perhaps the earliest Hebrew
discussion of the problem of evil.
Foreseeing that the tyranny of Babylon
would succeed that of Assyria, Habakkuk
wonders whether the wicked will really be
punished and the righteous rewarded but
he soon answers confidently in the
a"irmative – though the course of justice
may be long. Not vehement but sincere, he
attacks social and religious evils.

Zephaniah

Nahum

Obadiah

Zechariah

Joel

Malachi

The Unknown Prophets

(Second or Deutero-Isaiah;
c. 540 BC)
Chapters 40-66 of the Book of Isaiah as it
appears in the King James translation.
Of exilic authorship this book is exuberant
and rapturous. Its author suggests a new
interpretation of Jewish history; the
su"erings of the people are not divine
punishment for sins but vicarious su"erings
for the instruction and redemption of
mankind. He suggests a Messiah of Peace –
the personification of the Hebrews – who,
through his su"erings, will atone all human
beings.
Lyric Poetry

Ancient Hebrew poetry employs some of

the same poetic devices found in Germanic
verse – parallelism of structure and idea,
repetition and balance. There is no rhyme
and no regular meter but usually there is a
distinct rhythm.
Bits of lyric poetry are, of course, to be
found scattered through many of the prose
books (e.g. the Song of Deborah in Judges)
and some of the prophetic books are
almost entirely poetic.

The Psalms
(compiled c. 150 BC)
An anthology of 150 hymns.
A few of the hymns were probably written
by David (c. 1000 BC); some were written
during the periods of the Kingdom and of
the Exile, most were post-Exilic. These
psalms vary widely in tone, content and
style. Some are personal (Chapters 23, 121),
others antiphonal and liturgical (Chapter
24), some are vindictive and violent
(Chapter 137), others lo!y and noble
(Chapter 19, 42).
It is doubtful that any other comparable
anthology has ever equaled the Psalms in
sincerity, fervor and passion.
Job
(c. 350 BC)
The Book of Job is a philosophical drama,
principally in poetic form; it was probably
influenced by Greek tragedy – in content as
well as in form. It was not intended to be
acted.
Theme: The problem of evil
Summary: Satan persuades God to let him
try Job, a righteous and prosperous man,
by a"licting him with boils, the death of his
children and the loss of his wealth. Job’s
friends, Zophar, Eliphaz and Bildad (known
as Job’s comforters”), suggest God is
testing Job’s love and loyalty. Job protests
that he is innocent; he is steadfast in his
love for God but he questions God’s
motives in making the innocent su"er. The
real philosophic conclusion is presented by
the voice out of the whirlwind *Chapters
38-41); the question of why the innocent
su"er is unanswerable by man and man is
presumptuous to question the motives of
God. Job is humbled.
Two passages have been interpolated into
the original drama:
Chapter 32-37: made up of speeches of
Elihu, a fourth comforter. These tedious
speeches add little to the philosophical
discussion and break the dramatic action
Chapter 42: Contradicted the conclusion
found in Chapters 38-41: Job’s health and
possessions are restored.

Song of Songs or Song of Solomon

(c. 350 BC)
A semidramatic poem intended to be
presented with songs and dances as part of
a wedding ceremony. Beautiful, sensuous
and sometimes highly erotic, the poems
comprising this book are supposed to be
spoken by the groom (in the role of King
Solomon), the bride (the Shulamite) and
choruses. Few scholars today accept the
old beliefs that the book is an allegory of
Christ’s love for the Church, that Solomon
was its authors and that the love described
is spiritual.
Job
(c. 350 BC)
The Book of Job is a philosophical drama,
principally in poetic form; it was probably
influenced by Greek tragedy – in content as
well as in form. It was not intended to be
acted.
Theme: The problem of evil
Summary: Satan persuades God to let him
try Job, a righteous and prosperous man,
by a"licting him with boils, the death of his
children and the loss of his wealth. Job’s
friends, Zophar, Eliphaz and Bildad (known
as Job’s comforters”), suggest God is
testing Job’s love and loyalty. Job protests
that he is innocent; he is steadfast in his
love for God but he questions God’s
motives in making the innocent su"er. The
real philosophic conclusion is presented by
the voice out of the whirlwind *Chapters
38-41); the question of why the innocent
su"er is unanswerable by man and man is
presumptuous to question the motives of
God. Job is humbled.
Two passages have been interpolated into
the original drama:
Chapter 32-37: made up of speeches of
Elihu, a fourth comforter. These tedious
speeches add little to the philosophical
discussion and break the dramatic action
Chapter 42: Contradicted the conclusion
found in Chapters 38-41: Job’s health and
possessions are restored.

Song of Songs or Song of Solomon

(c. 350 BC)
A semidramatic poem intended to be
presented with songs and dances as part of
a wedding ceremony. Beautiful, sensuous
and sometimes highly erotic, the poems
comprising this book are supposed to be
spoken by the groom (in the role of King
Solomon), the bride (the Shulamite) and
choruses. Few scholars today accept the
old beliefs that the book is an allegory of
Christ’s love for the Church, that Solomon
was its authors and that the love described
is spiritual.
Tales

Several stories (once considered true, bow

generally recognized as fictional) are
included in the Old Testament. Each one
has a special purpose or message.

Ruth
(c. 350 BC)
A short story containing a tactful protest
against the forbidding of racial
intermarriage. Ruth, a Moabitess, is
revealed as the ancestor of David, the
greatest king of the Hebrews. It is famous
for Ruth’s declaration of love for her
mother-in-law: “Entreat me not to leave
thee.”

Jonah
(c. 275 BC)
A widely misunderstood tale about an early
Jewish missionary who rebels when sent to
Nineveh, who repents and carries out his
mission, but who rebels a second time
when God forgives Nineveh. O!en the
religious and ethical reasons – the
wickedness of the rebelliousness and
selfishness of Jonah, the universality and
mercifulness of God, the virtue of
repentance and the need for religious and
racial tolerance – are disregarded in favor of
an inconsequential argument over whether
a man could exist for three days in a whale’s
belly.

Daniel
(c. 150 BC)
An allegorical tale written for the purpose
of encouraging the Jews during the
Maccabean struggle. The story is based
partially on old legends about an Exilic
prophet. It has an apocalyptic ending.
Chapter 3: Shadrach, Meshach and
Abednego in a fiery furnace
5: Belshazzar’s feast
6: Daniel in the lion’s den
Esther

(c. 150 BC)

Probably the latest of all the Old Testament

books and also the least moral. Its purpose
was the supplying of a historical basis for
the Jewish Feast of Purim. The tale is
bloodthirsty and revengeful but artistic and
e"ectively written.
Esther, queen of King Ahasuerus (Xerxes),
saves her uncle Mordecaii, as well as other
Jewish people, y exposing the plot of the
wicked Haman who has sought to destroy
the Jews.
New Testament

The News Testament is an account of the

origin and early development of
Christianity. It is made up of four
biographies of Jesus (the Gospels), a
Church history, 21 epistles concerning
religious matters and an apocalypse – 27
books in all.
Most (or perhaps all) of these were written
originally in Greek; perhaps the Gospels
appeared first in Aramaic. All the books
were composed in the period AD 40-125.
Gospel

There are four accounts of the life of Christ.

They agree inmost essentials but di"er in
minor details.

Matthew
(Greek version, c. AD 80;
perhaps Aramaic version, c. AD 55)
Attributed to Apostle Matthew; based to a
large extent on the Gospel according to
Mark.
Addressed to the Hebrews, the book has to
main purpose:
To prove to the Jews that that Christ was a
fulfillment of the old prophecy – that He
was the Messiah
To record the ethical teachings of Jesus
It begins with the genealogy of Joseph,
husband of the mother of Jesus, and it
gives the birth, life, crucifixion, resurrection
and ascension of Christ. It contains the only
account of the Wise Men and the flight of
Joseph, Mary and Jesus to Egypt. This
Gospel is more carefully and purposefully
written than that by Mark.

Mark
(Greek version, c. AD 70-100;
Perhaps in lost Aramaic version, c. AD 40-
70)
It is the earliest, shortest and perhaps most
authentic of the Gospels.
Mark is a source book for Matthew and
Luke. The book of Mark is attributed to
John Mark, companion of the Apostle Peter
in Rome. It tells of only the last three years
of the life of Christ – his ministry, death and
resurrection. The author of this fast-moving
narrative delights in the story for its own
sake and in the miracles. He is careless in
workmanship and is guilty of confusing
repetitions.
Chapter 16:9-20: The last portion of the
book is generally considered an
interpolation by a later editor.

Luke
(Greek version, c. AD 90;
Perhaps Aramaic version, c. AD 65)
Written by Luke, a physician and the
companion of Paul on some missionary
journeys. Luke uses Mark and Matthew as
sources but draws on other materials as
well. The book was written for the Greeks
and the Romans. Its author stresses the
humanity of Jesus.
Luke delights in poetry
Chapter 1:46-55 : The Magnificat, songs of
Mary
2:29-32 : The NuncDimittis, songs of
Simeon
The tone of this Gospel is gentle, tolerant
and humanitarian.
Chapter 2:1-20 : The entire life of Jesus and
the famous account of His birth

John
(c. AD 100-125 in its present form)
Attributed, probably erroneously, to the
Apostle John; the extant form of the book is
much too late for such authorship.
The book shows the influence of Greek and
Alexandrian philosophy, especially the
doctrine of the Logos. Its emphasis is on the
divinity of Christ, His personification of the
logos, faith (as opposed to works), and the
identification of the love for God with the
love for man and a mystical union with the
Deity. A!er a prologue, the book begins
with John the Baptist’s baptizing of Jesus;
then it tell of Jesus’ ministry, death and
resurrection. It does not mention the
ascension.
Epistles

These are letters written to a person or

group of persons. It is usually an elegant
and formal didactic letter.

In the New Testament, there are 8 epistles

besides those of Paul.
Only three are given major importance.

The others are:

I and II Peter, II and III John and Jude.

The Acts of the Apostles

(c. AD 60-90)
By Luke, the author of the third Gospel.
The Acts is a vivid and moving narrative of
the spread of Christianity over Asia Minor,
the islands of the Mediterranean, Greece
and Rome. It tells of the Pentecost; the
stoning of Stephen, the first Christian
martyr; many early miracles; the struggles
of the young Church and the conversion
and missionary journeys of Paul.

Epistles (of Paul,

all written AD 50-65)
Of the 13 letters attributed to Paul, 6 are of
major significance. Although topical and
addressed to specific congregations or
individuals, these letters have proved to be
the most universal influential letters ever
written as an account of later Christian
doctrine and practice. The tone and style of
the epistles vary with the occasion and with
the emotion of the moment. Some are cool,
clear and rational; others are eloquent,
passionate or even rhapsodic. Many parts
are very closely reasoned and make
di"icult reading.

I Thessalonians
Written at Athens to the young Church at
Thessalonica.
In these letters, Paul expounds his beliefs
that Christ’s Second Coming is near and
that therefore all men should make haste to
be righteous and devout so that they may
be able to rise with Christ and inherit
eternal life.

II Thessalonians

Galatians
Written at Rome; called by Goodspeed “a
chapter of religious freedom”.
Here Paul energetically denounces the
tendency of the Church at Galatia to
emphasize Mosaic law and ritualism. This
epistle is expressive of Paul’s liberalism and
his concept of Christianity as a universal
rather than a local religion.

I Corinthians
Written at Philippi.
Here Paul answers many questions which
had been troubling the Church at Corinth.
He inveighs against personal pride and
ambition and he proclaims the vanity of all
gi!s and accomplishments not motivated
by charity. He repeats his conviction that
Christ’s Second Coming will soon take place
and he advocates, therefore, that people
remain unmarried so that they may devote
more attention to religious endeavors.
Chapter 13: The Love Chapter
15: He states his belief in Christ’s
resurrection and in personal immortality
(“O death, where is thy sting?
O grave, where is thy victory?”)

II Corinthians
Written at Philippi.; probably a combination
of two other letters, the earlier one
constituting the last four chapters.
Chapter 10-13: Author’s memorable but
rather bitter defense of himself – a defense
which seems to have been the result of the
revolt of a faction of the Corinthian Church
against Paul’s leadership. The defense was
successful and the first nine chapters of the
letter indicate that a reconciliation had
been made.

Romans
Written at Corinth.
This epistle is the most thorough
expression of Paul’s doctrine of salvation by
faith – a supplement to his belief about
sympathetic understanding found in I
Corinthians.
The Epistle to the Romans is the most
profound and most theoretical of Paul’s
writings; it represents the very center of his
theology – “All roads lead to Romans”.

Hebrew
(c. AD 70-80)
An anonymous sermon once erroneously
attributed to Paul.
This document is in the Paulin tradition but
is smoother, more flowing and gentler than
Paul’s writing. Addressed to the Christian
Jews, it puts a great deal of stress on Paul’s
doctrine of justification by faith.

James
(c. AD 40-90)
Attributed to James, the brother of Jesus.
This is an open letter or sermon addressed
to the “twelve tribes which are scattered
abroad”. It seems to be the deliberate result
of the author’s reaction against by works:
“Be ye doers of the Word and not hearers
only”.
James also makes an eloquent plea against
social injustice.

I John
( c. AD 100-125)
By the author of the Gospel according to
John.
Addressed to “a pious matron”, this letter is
an answer to Gnostic heresies concerning
the nature of Christ. John finds no di"iculty
in in recognizing in Christ the mystical unity
of the human and the divine.

The Revelation to St. John The Divine

(c. AD 90)
This book was almost certainly written by
some unidentified Ephesian mystic instead
of by the Apostle John, to whom it has been
ascribed.
It is addressed, in epistolary form, to the
seven Churches in Asia. Though nominally
a revelation of Jesus Christ, the book is
more Hebraic than Christian in tone and
represents a continuation of a Jewish
longing for freedom from oppression- the
same longing found in many of the Old
Testament prophets and in the book of
Daniel. It was written soon a!er widespread
persecution of the Christian began under
the Roman emperor Domitian. This
apocalypse foretells the fall of Rome (the
whore of Babylon), the Second Coming of
Christ, the resurrection of the saints, the
chaining of Satan, the Millennium, and the
final battle (of Armageddon) between the
powers of Good and Evil – with the triumph
of the former, the Judgment Day and the
establishment of the New Jerusalem.
Ethically inferior to the other books of the
New Testament, the Revelation, is
nevertheless a literary masterpiece. Its
mystical symbolism, its graphic account of
the battle between Good and Evil and its
terrifying picture of the end of the world
place it high in the realm of descriptive
writing.
The Apocrypha

This is a collection of 14 books which were

included in the Septuagint (Greek) of the
Vulgate (Latin) version of the Old
Testament, but which were not considered
by the Palestinian Jews to have been
genuinely inspired and which were not in
the original Hebrew. During the
Reformation, these were excluded from the
Sacred Canon by the Protestants but they
were included in the King James version
and placed between the Old and New
Testaments. The Church of England
admitted them into the Canon for the
purpose of “edification” rather than for the
“establishment of doctrine”. From a literary
point of view, it is regrettable that these
books have been dropped from most
Protestant Bibles since about 1890.

The Apocrypha consists of 4 books of

history, five tales, and two books of
wisdom, one epistle, one song and one
prayer. The books listed below has been
marked whether they have been accepted
or not accepted as scriptures by the Roman
and Greek churches.
I Esdras
(c. 390 BC)
An account of the Jew’s return a!er the
Babylonian captivity. It is mainly a
reworking of II Chronicles, Ezra and
Nehemiah and therefore has little original
literary value. It does, however, contain the
delightful story of Zorobabel, who wins
from Darius aid in rebuilding Jerusalem
and the Temple. The favor is granted when
Zorobabel competes in a contest to name
the strongest force in the world. His
opponents nominate, respectively, wine
and the king. Zorobabel said that woman is
stronger than either wine or king but that
truth is the strongest of all

II Esdras
(c. 380 BC)
This sequel is less historical than I Esdras
but more interesting as a piece of literature.
It consists chiefly of visions, angelic
revelations and prophecies of the downfall
of the wicked and of the salvation of the
righteous.

I Maccabees
II Maccabees
(c. 130 BC)
These books give a history of the Jews in
Palestine during the middle of the second
century BC.
Book II covers approximately the period
185-168 BC – the years preceding the
rebellion of the Jews against the Syrian
King Antiochus Epiphanes who attempted
to suppress the Jewish religion.
Book I recounts the rebellion itself, Judas
Maccabeus and in the establishment of the
dynasty of Hebrew priest-kings who ruled
until 40 BC.
The history is highly colored by the author’s
imagination and religious bent but it
abounds in exciting events and startling
pictures. Judas is held up as hero who wins
not only – or even primarily – because he is
brave and strong but because he is a
devout worshipper of Jehovah.
I Maccabees, written by a Jew in Palestine,
is perhaps the best historical source on the
period from 175 to 135 B.C. Well written, it
reveals deep insight into the root causes of
the Maccabean rebellion and details the
rebellion itself down to the death of Simon
in 135 B.C. This book is essential to both
Christians and Jews. It gives detailed
information relative to Antiochus
Epiphanes and his desecration of the
Jerusalem Temple, an action which Jesus
said would be repeated at the time of the
end. The book also contains a wealth of
details relative to the Jewish feast of
Hannukah (which celebrates the re-
dedication of the Temple Antiochus
debased). That information is available
from no other source, Jewish or otherwise,
and without it there would be no Hannukah
celebration.

Judith
(c. 150 BC)
A fictitious story of a God-fearing Jewess,
who, when her native Bethulia is besieged
by Nebuchadnezzar’s men, makes her way
(by means of her beauty and wisdom) into
the tent of Helofernes, the leader of the
Assyrian expeditionary force. She pretends
willingness to submit to his desired, lulls
him into a feeling of security and succeeds
in beheading him in his drunken slumber.
Judith is a favorite heroine of the Hebrews
and has been the subject of many poems
and paintings.

Susanna and the Elders

(c. 1l30 BC)
An excellent little story about a beautiful
and righteous matron whom two wicked
elders attempt to seduce. Her obstinacy
leads the elders to accuse her of infidelity.
She is condemned to death at first but is
later exonerated when Daniel proves by
cross-examination that the elders are
perjuring themselves. The elders are put to
death. The story is told with admirable
economy of words and with suspense.

Tobit
(date uncertain, 350 BC – AD 75)
A wildly romantic tale which shows
Egyptian and Persian influence. Tobit, who
has lost his property and his eyesight,
sends his son Tobias to Medea to recover
some silver which he (Tobit) has formerly
le! there. The angel Raphael, disguised as a
fellow countryman, accompanies Tobias.
By burning various parts of a fish, they
succeed in driving away Asmodeus, a devil
who has killed seven successive
bridegroom of Sara, a cousin of Tobias.
Tobias and Sara marry, receive half the
property of Sara’s father and return to fetch
the silver from Medea, reveals his identity
and exhorts the other principals of the story
to worship God for his goodness to them.
The book was based on two well-known
Egyptian stories.

Ecclesiasticus or the Wisdom of Jesus, Son

of Sirah
(c. 150 BC)
This is a group of poetic, pithy proverbs.
Like the Book of Proverbs in the Sacred
Canon, its wisdom is shrewd rather than
deep or noble; its burden is that obedience
to God will bring prosperity and happiness
– a favorite Old Testament sentiment. The
book contains, however, some lo!y and
majestic passages.
It represents one of the most valuable
records of early Rabbinical thought. It was
translated into Greek in 132 B.C. by a
grandson of the author.

The Wisdom of Solomon

(c. 50 BC, written in Alexandra)
Another collection of maxims and wise
sayings.
Its moral tone, partially, a result of Greek
influence is on a higher level than that of
either Proverbs of Ecclesiasticus and it
actually approaches the nobility found in
Christian ethics.
Origins / beginning

Genesis 1:1-2:3
The Creation Story Summary:
The opening chapter of the Bible begins
with these words, "In the beginning God
created the heavens and the earth." (NIV)
This summarizes the drama that was about
to unfold. We learn from the text that the
earth was formless, empty, and dark, and
God's Spirit moved over the waters
preparing to perform God's creative Word.
And then God began to speak into existence
his creation.s
EXPLANATION

The setting for the psalm. King David, who

wrote the psalm, grew up and worked as a
shepherd, so he knew a lot about sheep
and shepherding. He loved the metaphor of
seeing God, or the Lord, as a shepherd. The
shepherd’s job is to care for his flock,
making sure they are safe, nourished, calm
and happy at all times.
Sheep are vulnerable to danger from
wolves and other predators because they
cannot run very fast, and they are not
always smart enough to avoid danger. To
care for them correctly and safely, sheep
require a shepherd to take them to the
fertile areas to graze, protect them from
predators and other hazards, and keep
them together so they don’t stray from the
group. This is the job of the shepherd. One
can extend this idea and say that God does
this for us, if we submit to His will.
Let us now explore Psalm 23 line by line
and phrase by phrase:

The Lord is my shepherd. This proclaims

the metaphor of the psalm, that god is like
our shepherd. That is, he helps us to find
food, water, work, love, friends and all that
we need. He also protects us from evil. He
also gently or firmly prods us when we step
out of line and deviate from the way of
living set down in the Bible as being
correct.

I shall not want. This is a very powerful

statement, although it is not explained in
detail in the psalm until later. I interpret it
to mean that I will have everything I need if
I allow God to be my shepherd. I may not
have everything the ego wants, but I will be
cared for, loved, and provided for very well,
indeed.
This line is one of the most powerful in the
prayer. It is a blunt and frank statement or
a"irmation. I shall not want means I will be
okay. I will have health, money, friends,
family, respect, love and all else. That is
how I interpret it. The line sort of wakes one
up from the dead and says you can have it
all, at least what you need, when you elect
to have God run your life. Later in the
prayer this idea is explored more.
I shall be free of want also expresses or is
an a"irmation that my life will not be
controlled by ‘wanting’ all the time. Always
wanting thins is a miserable way to live, but
a common one. The same idea is expressed
in the Tenth Commandment given to Moses
in the Old Testament: “You shall not covet
your neighbor’s house. You shall not covet
your neighbor’s wife, or his male or female
servant, his ox or donkey, or anything that
belongs to your neighbor.” So this is
another way of understanding this line of
the psalm.

He maketh me to lie down in green

pastures. Sheep require plenty of green
pasture on which to graze or to eat. So at
one level, this line means that God will
provide all of my food and other needs. It
deepens and repeats the idea that I shall
not want for anything, and that God takes
care of me.
At a deeper level, it means that God
provides nourishment for the body, the
mind and the soul that is wholesome,
healthful, and appetizing for me. It does not
say I must struggle to make ends meet. It
says God will lead me to the green pastures,
which means all things go.
Notice that it says he maketh me to lie
down. It does not say he suggests that I lie
down. At times, we are forced to just rest.
This is an aspect of retracing.

He leadeth me besides the clear waters.

This continues the theme of the previous
line in the psalm. The still waters may
represent peace, love, harmony and
beauty.

He restoreth my soul. When someone is

retracing old traumas to restore health and
joy, one o!en feels that the soul has been
somehow lost or stolen or destroyed. This
line is extremely comforting for those who
have this feeling about their lives.

He leadeth me in paths of righteousness for

his namesake. When one is healing and
retracing, o!en one does not know in what
direction to turn and to go. This assures
one that the Lord will lead you in directions
of righteousness, meaning paths that are
wholesome and with full integrity.

Though I walk through the valley of the

shadow of death, I will fear no evil, for
though art with me. For many people
undergoing the journey of healing and
retracing, this is the most important line in
the psalm, though certainly not the only
important one. It tells us that yes, you may
need to walk in di"icult territory in your
life. However, you need not fear, for the
Lord is with you. When one retraces, one
indeed o!en needs to move back into
issues and health conditions that need
correcting, healing and perhaps reframing
or a di"erent understanding. Anyone who
has done it know this to be the case.

Thy rod and thy sta", they comfort me.

Traditionally, shepherds carried a rod and a
sta" to guide the sheep and to ward o"
wolves or other predators that would harm
the sheep. The metaphor is that the Lord
also has his rod and his sta". You may get
prodded or pushed, at times, and it is for
your good. It may be for your protection
and to keep you on your path. The rod and
the sta" in fact are there to comfort you
and know that you are cared for and loved.
This is a critical concept when one is on a
nutritional balancing program that o!en
pushes the body in certain directions that
may not seem pleasant, at times.

Thou preparest a table before me in the

presence of mine enemies. This is a very
interesting line. It implies that you will
encounter “enemies”, or forces that do not
want you to continue your healing and your
retracing. It also says that you will be taken
care of even in the midst of your
opponents. It does not just say you will
survive. It says that a table or a feast will be
spread before you, even while you are in
the presence of those forces that oppose
you. This, indeed, is a wonderful thought to
be contemplated.

Thou anointest my head with oil. This is

another surprising line. Anointing the head
with oil was a practice in biblical days that
was used to honor a person and to dignify a
person. It means that not only will you be
fed or cared for in the presence of your
enemies or opposers, but you will be
honored and dignified or deeply respected,
as well.
In fact, there is something very holy and
special about going through the retracing
process, which eventually takes us all back
to God and perfection. It is far better than
just using remedies, whether they be drugs,
vitamins, herbs or others. This is not easy to
understand, but it is true.

My cup runneth over. This phrase means

that I am given even more than I need or
can use. The words form a very powerful
image of a cup of elixir that overflows as
there is so much of it. It means I am truly
abundant, abundantly loved and cared for
beyond even my needs or wants.

Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me,

all the days of my life. This can be
interpreted many ways. What is meant by
goodness and mercy shall follow me? To
me it means that goodness and mercy shall
go with me wherever I go, and whatever I
do, even if I am in unfamiliar areas or
places. It is a statement of future
protection.
The use of the word mercy is interesting. It
implies that at times I will sin, or I will not
think, act or speak correctly. So this prayer
or psalm does not say we will be perfect.
Quite the opposite. However, it means that
if we allow the Lord to be our shepherd, or
guide and overseer, we will be treated
mercifully or leniently. Perhaps our past
mistakes will be forgiven, or at least their
importance diminished.
Retracing has something very profound to
do with forgiving the self and letting go of
old problems on physical, mental and
emotional levels. It is truly merciful and
good in this respect, going much more
deeply into healing than most of us are
accustomed to.

I shall dwell in the house of the Lord

forever. Here one re-a"irms where one
wants to live and have one’s being or
consciousness. This line is an a"irmation
that one chooses to dwell in a particular
state of consciousness forever – the “house
of the Lord”.
To me, this is not a physical house, but
rather it means to keep one’s attention
focused on the Lord, live by the rules set
down by the Lord, submit the will to God’s
will, and stay with this forever. The words
“to dwell” may also be thought or as “to
abide”, which means to embrace, to follow,
to be one with. This topic is explored in
another article on this website entitled
Feeling Connected To God.

The power of this prayer may be due in part

to the fact that millions of people have
used it over the past three or four thousand
years. However, it is also a very profound
statement of the process that human
beings o!en go through as they heal at
deep levels.
If this prayer seems helpful for you, use it
o!en and learn to appreciate that when you
truly embrace the concept of God as your
shepherd and guide, you will be protected
and helped in ways you cannot imagine.

Ecclesiastes
(c. 150 BC)
The author "Koheleth" uses a literary
device to introduce himself as "son of
David, king in Jerusalem" (i.e., Solomon),
and proceeds to discuss the meaning of life
and the best way of life. He proclaims all
the actions of man to be inherently hevel,
meaning "vain", "futile", "empty",
"meaningless", "temporary", "transitory",
"fleeting", or "mere breath," as the lives of
 both wise and foolish people end in death.
While Koheleth clearly endorses wisdom as
a means for a well-lived earthly life, he does
not ascribe eternal meaning to it. In light of
this senselessness, one should enjoy the
simple pleasures of daily life, such as
eating, drinking, and taking enjoyment in
one's work, which are gi!s from the hand of
God. The book concludes with the
injunction: "Fear God, and keep his
commandments; for that is the whole duty
of everyone" (12:13).

Wrongly ascribed to Solomon, this is a

series of heretical essays of profound
pessimism, fatalism and skepticism (except
for many proverbs and pious passages
interpolated by later editors). The tone is
that of a disillusioned old man who has
found existence to be futile and
meaningless.
“All is vanity”.

American novelist Thomas Wolfe wrote: "

[O]f all I have ever seen or learned, that
book seems to me the noblest, the wisest,
and the most powerful expression of man's
life upon this earth — and also the highest
flower of poetry, eloquence, and truth. I am
not given to dogmatic judgments in the
matter of literary creation, but if I had to
make one I could say that Ecclesiastes is the
greatest single piece of writing I have ever
known, and the wisdom expressed in it the
most lasting and profound."[5] The book is
even popular among atheists.

The Teacher tries many earthly pleasures.

He drinks, becomes wealthy, acquires
power, buys property, experiences sexual
gratification, and views artistic
entertainment. However, none of these
experiences satisfies him. Although the
Teacher originally assumes that wisdom is
better than folly, he realizes that achieving
wisdom is a frustrating and elusive pursuit,
for the wise and the foolish both die the
same death. He hypothesizes that the best
humans can do is to honor God and to eat,
drink, and enjoy themselves.
The Teacher also surveys the general trends
of human activity. He notes that just as
there is time for each good thing in life,
such as birth or love, there is always a time
for its opposite, such as death or hate. It is
o!en hard for mortal humans to
understand the di"erence between
wickedness and justice, but God
distinguishes between the two. The
Teacher notes that human labor is marked
by competition, envy, and oppression. The
Teacher praises the virtues of human
cooperation, noting the advantages that a
team of two or three individuals has over
one person alone.
Next, the Teacher discusses various foolish
actions, such as gluttony, the love of
money, and excessive talking. The Teacher
provides a series of instructions for
avoiding such foolhardiness. Each saying
extols negative experiences over positive
ones: mourning, he claims, is better than
feasting, and the end of things is better
than the beginning. He also encourages
people to be neither too righteous nor too
wicked but to remain moderate.
Still, the Teacher remains bothered by the
fact that both evil and good people meet
the same fate. He grows tired of discussing
the distinctions between good and bad,
clean and unclean, obedient and
disobedient. He ultimately decides that the
only factors in determining the outcome
between life’s opposing forces are time and
chance.
The Teacher gives positive exhortations. He
encourages humans to enjoy their vain lives
and activities to the fullest. People must
embrace the unforeseen chances of life,
since caution only impedes God’s
providence. He urges young people to
remain happy and to follow their
inclinations, reminding them to always
remember God. The things of earth are only
temporary, and life is a cycle that
eventually returns to God (12:7). The
Teacher also warns the reader against
heeding too many wise sayings, for the
study of wisdom never ends. The “end of
the matter,” he concludes, is for humans to
fear God and to obey his commandments
(12:13).

Ecclesiastes chapter 1
1:1-3 - What can people achieve during
their lives?
1:4-7 - Who can change the world?
1:8-11 - Can our desires ever satisfy us?
1:12-15 - Why is life so hard?
1:16-18 - Does wisdom improve a person’s
life? Ecclesiastes chapter 2
2:1-3 - Is there a worthwhile way to live?
2:4-8 - Is it foolish to please yourself?
2:9-11 - Why do our feelings of satisfaction
not last?
2:12-16 - How does a person benefit if he is
wise?
2:17-21 - Can a person’s e"orts achieve
anything that lasts?
2:22-26 - Without God, can anyone have a
good life? Ecclesiastes chapter 3
3:1-8 - A time for everything
3:9-15 - Time and eternity
3:16-17 - God is the perfect judge
3:18-22 - Life a!er death Ecclesiastes
chapter 4
4:1-3 - The power of wealthy people
4:4-6 - Jealous and lazy attitudes
4:7-8 - Work that never satisfies
4:9-12 - Advantages of love and friendship
4:13-16 - The weakness of people’s support
Ecclesiastes chapter 5
5:1-3 - Foolish and wise prayers
5:4-7 - Promises to God
5:8-9 - Responsibilities towards poor
people
5:10-12 - Love of money
5:13-17 - Things that lose their value
5:18-20 - Wrong reactions to God’s kindness
Ecclesiastes chapter 6
6:1-2 - A rich person who cannot enjoy his
wealth
6:3-6 - What is a good life?
6:7-9 - Rest for the soul
6:10-12 - Who would argue against God?
Ecclesiastes chapter 7
7:1-2 - When the truth is unpleasant
7:3-4 - Serious thoughts
7:5-6 - Foolish songs and laughter
7:7 - The danger of money
7:8-10 - The reward for patience
7:11-12 - The best gi! for your children
7:13-14 - Why we need troubles
7:15-18 - Wrong attitudes about goodness
and wicked behaviour
7:19-20 - Wisdom and goodness
7:21-22 - Am I good enough?
7:23-24 - What is wisdom?
7:25-26 - Why people constantly do foolish
things
7:27-28 - Is anyone completely good?
7:29 - Why we do wrong things Ecclesiastes
chapter 8
8:1 - Wisdom is wonderful
8:2-4 - When you appeal to a king
8:5-6 - When we must wait for judgement
8:7-8 - Nobody can prevent his own death
8:9-10 - The fate of powerful wicked people
8:11 - How countries become evil
8:12-13 - Is it better to be good or evil?
8:14-15 - Who should enjoy life most?
8:16-17 - The greatness of God’s work
Ecclesiastes chapter 9
9:1 - Are God’s people di"erent from other
people?
9:2 - Can religion save people from their
troubles?
9:3-4 - Does hope, or chance, rule this
world?
9:5-6 - What happens to wicked people a!er
death?
9:7-10 - How people waste their
opportunity to know God
9:11 - Time and chance
9:12 - The right reaction to trouble
9:13-15 - How one man’s wisdom saved his
city
9:16 - Why people will not listen to wise
advice
9:17-18 - Quiet words of wisdom
Ecclesiastes chapter 10
10:1 - A fly in the ointment
10:2-3 - Wise and foolish behaviour: is it just
a matter of opinion?
10:4 - Reasons to behave calmly
10:5-7 - When rulers make wrong decisions
10:8-9 - Lessons about danger
10:10 - Why everyone needs wisdom
10:11 - Get-rich-quick schemes
10:12-15 - A foolish person’s words ruin his
own life
10:16-17 - Wrong desires ruin people’s lives
10:18 - Reasons not to be lazy
10:19 - Is money the answer for everything?
10:20 - When even your thoughts can be
dangerous Ecclesiastes chapter 11
11:1 - Future troubles are certain
11:2 - A friend in trouble
11:3 - Troubles that nobody can do
anything about
11:4 - Troubles that nobody can avoid
11:5 - God’s work astonishes us
11:6 - Can our work succeed?
11:7-8 - The light of life and the days of
darkness
11:9 - Enjoy life – but remember God’s
judgement
11:10 - Is there any advantage to be young
and strong? Ecclesiastes chapter 12
12:1 - Remember God, who created you
12:2-5 - The problems of old age
12:6 - Life and death
12:7 - What happens at death?
12:8 - All is vanity
12:9-10 - King Solomon, the great teacher
12:11-12 - Advice about books
12:13 - Respect God and obey his
commands
12:14 - God is the judge of all our deeds

A Time for Everything

3 There is a time for everything, and a
season for every activity under the
heavens:
2 a time to be born and a time to die, a
time to plant and a time to uproot, 3 a
time to kill and a time to heal, a time to
tear down and a time to build, 4 a time
to weep and a time to laugh, a time to
mourn and a time to dance, 5 a time to
scatter stones and a time to gather
them, a time to embrace and a time to
refrain from embracing, 6 a time to
search and a time to give up, a time to
keep and a time to throw away, 7 a time
to tear and a time to mend, a time to be
silent and a time to speak, 8 a time to
love and a time to hate, a time for war
and a time for peace.

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