School of Engineering and Architecture

Civil Engineering Department

General Civil Engineering

Index Properties
of Soil
Module 1 Chapter 2 – Geotechnical Engineering – Soil Mechanics

Objective After this chapter, the student should be able to:

 Analyze and solve the physical properties of soil.

Content This chapter focuses on

 Weight – Volume Relationships
 Atterberg limits
 Sieve Analysis
 Particle Size Distribution Curve
 Hydrometer Analysis
 Stoke’s Law

Related These are supplemental content necessary for this chapter

 ASTM Test Designations D-4253 and D-4254 (2014)
Readings 

ASTM under designation D-4318
B.M. Das, 2011. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (7th
Edition) Stamford, Connecticut, USA : Cengage Learning

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Module 1 – Index Properties of Soil

INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOIL

A given volume of soil in natural occurrence consists of solid particles and the void spaces
between the particles. The void space may be filled with air and/or water; hence, soil is a three-phase
system. If there is no water in the void space, it is a dry soil. If the entire void space is filled with water,
it is referred to as a saturated soil. However, if the void is partially filled with water, it is a moist soil.
Hence it is important in all geotechnical engineering works to establish relationships between weight
and volume in a given soil mass.

WEIGHT – VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS

To develop the weight–volume relationships, we must separate the three phases (that is, solid,
water, and air) as shown in the figure below:

*In the figure, it is assumed

that the weight of the air is
minimal as compared to the
weights of both water and
the soil solids therefore it is
neglected or assumed to be
“0”. In contrast with this, the
volume of the air is NOT “0”.

The volume and weight of the soil sample can be expressed as:

𝑽 = 𝑽𝒔 + 𝑽𝒗
𝑾 = 𝑾𝒔 + 𝑾𝒘
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒔 + 𝑽𝒘 + 𝑽𝒂
Where:
Vs = Volume of solids Vw = Volume of water Ws = Weight of solids
Vv = Volume of voids Va = Volume of air Ww = Weight of water

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Module 1 – Index Properties of Soil

Voids
– these are the spaces not occupied by the soil solids therefore these may come in both liquid
and gaseous states in this case, water and air. The total volume of the voids is equal to the
volume of water and the volume of air.

𝑽𝒗 = 𝑽𝒂 + 𝑽𝒘

Void Ratio (e)

– Defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the volume of solids. It is expressed in decimal
form.
𝑽𝒗
𝒆=
𝑽𝒔

Porosity (n)
– Defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the total volume. It is expressed in percentage
and does not exceed 100%
𝑽𝒗 𝒆
𝒏= =
𝑽 𝟏+𝒆

Degree of Saturation (S)

– Defined as the ratio of volume water to the volume of voids. Expressed in percentage.
𝑽𝒘
𝑺=
𝑽𝒔

Water Content (w)

– Defined as the ratio of Mass/Weight of water to mass/weight of solids. It is expressed as
percentage but used as decimal in computations.

𝑾𝒘
𝒘=
𝑾𝒔

Specific Gravity of Soil Solids (Gs)

– The specific gravity of any material is the ratio of its density/unit weight to that of water. It
ranges from 2.60-2.80 for most natural soil. A standard method of measuring the specific
gravity of soils uses a calibrated glass flask known as pycnometer. The pycnometer is first
filled with water and set on a balance to find its mass. Then it is refilled with a known mass
of dry soil plus water so the total volume is the same as before. Again its mass is determined.

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Specific Gravity of Soil (G)

– The specific gravity of soil is DIFFERENT from the specific gravity of soil solids; G refers to
the specific gravity of the bulk of the soil which includes the voids it contains.

𝜸𝒔
𝑮𝒔 =
𝜸𝒘

Bulk Unit Weight / Specific Unit Weight / Total Unit Weight / Specific Weight / Unit Weight (γ)
– Defined as the ratio of the weight of a substance over its volume. The most commonly used
values of unit weight are that of water which are 9.81 KN/m3 for SI and 62.4 pcf (pounds per
cubic foot) for English.

𝑾𝑻
𝜸=
𝑽

Dry Unit Weight (γd)

𝑾𝒔 𝜸
𝜸𝒅 = =
𝑽 𝟏+𝒘

Saturated Unit Weight (γsat)

𝑾𝒔𝒂𝒕
𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 =
𝑽

Submerged Unit Weight / Buoyant Unit Weight (γsub)

𝜸′ = 𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 − 𝜸𝒘

Density/Unit Mass/Specific Mass (ρ)

– Defined as the ratio of the mass of a substance over its volume.

𝒎
𝝆=
𝑽

Air Void Ratio (avr)

– Defined as the ratio of the volume of air over the total volume.

𝑽𝒂
𝒂𝒗𝒓 = 𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 =
𝑽

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Relative Density/Degree of Density/Density Index (Dr)

– Used to express relative compactness of natural cohesion-less soil (coarse grained soil). It is
equal to the ratio of the difference between the maximum void ratio and the in-situ void
ratio and the difference between the maximum void ratio and the minimum void ratio.

𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒆 𝜸𝒅 − 𝜸𝒅(𝒎𝒊𝒏) 𝜸𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙)

𝑫𝒓 = =( )( )
𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝜸𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙) − 𝜸𝒅(𝒎𝒊𝒏) 𝜸𝒅

Where:

𝒏𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒏𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟏 − 𝒏𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝟏 − 𝒏𝒎𝒊𝒏

Dr - relative density, usually given as a percentage

e - in situ void ratio of the soil
emax - void ratio of the soil in the loosest state
emin - void ratio of the soil in the densest state
γd(min) - dry unit weight in the loosest condition (at a void ratio of emax)
γd - in situ dry unit weight (at a void ratio of e)
γd(max) - dry unit weight in the densest condition (at a void ratio of emin)

The values of Dr may vary from a minimum of 0% for very loose soil to a maximum of
100% for very dense soils. Soils engineers qualitatively describe the granular soil deposits
according to their relative densities, as shown in the table below. In-place soils seldom have
relative densities less than 20 to 30%. Compacting a granular soil to a relative density greater
than about 85% is difficult.

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Module 1 – Index Properties of Soil

ASTM Test Designations D-4253 and D-4254 (2014) provide a procedure for
determining the maximum and minimum dry unit weights of granular soils so that they can
be used in the equation written below to measure the relative density of compaction in the
field.

For sands, this procedure involves using a mold with a volume of 2830 cm3 (0.1 ft3). For
a determination of the minimum dry unit weight, sand is poured loosely into the mold from a
funnel with a 12.7 mm (12 in.) diameter spout. The average height of the fall of sand into the
mold is maintained at about 25.4 mm (1 in.). The value of γd(min) then can be calculated by
using the following equation:
𝑾𝒔(𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒅)
𝜸𝒅(𝒎𝒊𝒏) =
𝑽𝒎

Where:
Ws(mold) = weight of sand required to fill the mold
Vm = volume of the mold

The maximum dry unit weight is determined by vibrating sand in the mold for 8 minutes.
A surcharge of 14 kN/m2 (2 lb/in2) is added to the top of the sand in the mold. The mold is
placed on a table that vibrates at a frequency of 3600 cycles/min and that has an amplitude
of vibration of 0.635 mm (0.025 in.). The value of γd(max) can be determined at the end of the
vibrating period with knowledge of the weight and volume of the sand. The figure below
shows the equipment needed to conduct the test for determination of emin.

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Relative Compaction (R)

– Used to express the relative compactness of both cohesive (fine-grained) and cohesion-less
(coarse grained) soil. It is the ratio between the in-situ dry unit weight and the maximum dry
unit weight of the soil.

In most specifications for earthwork, the contractor is instructed to achieve a compacted

field dry unit weight of 90 to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight determined in the laboratory
by either the standard or modified Proctor test. This is a specification for relative compaction,
which can be expressed as:

𝜸𝒅(𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅) 𝑹𝒐
𝑹= =
𝜸𝒅(𝒎𝒂𝒙) 𝟏 − 𝑫𝒓 (𝟏 − 𝑹𝒐 )
Where:
γd(min)
Ro =
γd(max)

Swell Factor (SF)

– it is the ratio of the Volume of the excavated material and the volume of the in-situ material
(borrow pit material or bank material).

RELATIONSHIPS AMONG UNIT WEIGHT, VOID RATIO, MOISTURE CONTENT, AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Bulk Unit Weight / Specific Unit Weight / Total Unit Weight / Specific Weight / Unit Weight

𝑾𝑻
𝜸=
𝑽

𝑮𝑺 + 𝑺𝒆
𝜸= 𝜸
𝟏+𝒆 𝒘

Dry Unit Weight

𝑾𝒔 𝜸
𝜸𝒅 = =
𝑽 𝟏+𝒘

𝑮𝑺
𝜸𝒅 = 𝜸
𝟏+𝒆 𝒘

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Module 1 – Index Properties of Soil

Saturated Unit Weight

𝑾𝒔𝒂𝒕
𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 =
𝑽
𝑮𝑺 + 𝒆
𝜸𝒔𝒂𝒕 = 𝜸
𝟏+𝒆 𝒘

Void Ratio, Degree of Saturation, Water Content, and Specific Gravity

𝑮𝒔 𝒘 = 𝒆𝑺

STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE IN SOLVING THE INDEX PROPERTIES OF SOIL

Step 1: Identify the given values and their units.

Step 2: Identify the unknowns and their units.

Step 3: Determine which of the formula/s have both the given and the unknown
(requires familiarity of formulas)

Step 4: If step 3 is feasible, substitute the values to solve for the unknown. If not, proceed
to step 5.

Step 5: Think of other formulas that can be combined, substituted or derived to produce
essential values that can be used directly to solve the unknowns and use them to obtain
said values. (requires mastery of formulas AND concepts) This is what we call critical
thinking.

Step 6: Since the essential values needed for solving the unknowns have now been
obtained, Substitute to solve for the unknowns.

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Module 1 – Index Properties of Soil

Sample Problem 1
For a moist soil sample, the following are given:
Total volume: V = 1.2 m3
Total mass: M = 2350 kg
Moisture content: w = 8.6%
Specific gravity of soil solids: Gs = 2.71

Determine the following:

a. Moist density d. Porosity
b. Dry density e. Degree of saturation
c. Void ratio f. Volume of water in the soil sample

Solution:
a. Moist density d. Porosity

m 2350 kg e 0.503
ρ= = n= =
V 1.2 m3 1 + e 1 + 0.503
𝛒 = 𝟏𝟗𝟓𝟖. 𝟑 𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝟑 𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟓

b. Dry density e. Degree of Saturation

ρ 1958.3 kg/m3 GS w = eS
ρd = =
1+w 8.6
1+ 8.6
100 GS w 2.71 (100)
𝑆= =
𝛒𝐝 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟑. 𝟑 𝐤𝐠/𝐦𝟑 𝑒 0.503
𝑺 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟑 = 𝟒𝟔. 𝟑%
c. Void Ratio
γw f. Volume of water in the soil sample
GS γw γd GS 𝑔 γ
γd = → = ; =𝜌 𝑚
1+e 𝑔 1+e 𝑔 mw m − md 𝑚 − 1 + 𝑤
𝑉𝑤 = = =
𝐺𝑠 𝜌𝑤 𝜌𝑤 𝜌𝑤 𝜌𝑊
Therefore: 𝜌𝑑 =
1+𝑒
2350
2350 − 8.6
𝐺𝑠 𝜌𝑤 2.71(1000)
𝑒= −1= −1 1+
𝜌𝑑 1803.3 𝑉𝑤 = 100
1000
𝐞 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝟑
𝑽𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟔𝐦𝟑

CHAPTER 2 Page 9 of 32
Module 1 – Index Properties of Soil

Sample Problem 2
The following data are given for a soil:
Porosity: n = 0.4
Specific gravity of the soil solids: Gs = 2.68
Moisture content: w = 12%
Determine the mass of water to be added to 10 m3 of soil for full saturation.
Solution:
Refer to the following formulas to be used:
2
GS + e 2.68 + ( )
𝐆𝐒 + 𝐒𝐞 𝐆𝐒 + 𝐞 γsat = γw = 3 9.81
𝛄= 𝛄𝐰 ; 𝛄𝐬𝐚𝐭 = 𝛄 1+e 2
𝟏+𝐞 𝟏+𝐞 𝐰 1+( )
3
𝛄 𝐞
𝛒= ; 𝐧= ; 𝐆 𝐰 = 𝐞𝐒 kN
𝐠 𝟏+𝐞 𝐬 γsat = 19.6985
𝑚3
Get the void ratio:
Get moist density and saturated density:
e
0.4 = → 0.4(1 + e) = e 𝑁
1+e 𝛾 17667.4 𝑚3 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= = 𝑚 = 1800.9582 3
0.4 + 0.4e = e 𝑔 9.81 2 𝑚
𝑠
𝟐 𝑁
0.4 = 0.6e ; 𝐞 =
𝟑 𝛾 19698.5 𝑚3 𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡 = = 𝑚 = 2008
Get bulk unit weight and saturated unit weight:
𝑔 9.81 2 𝑚3
𝑠
GS + Se Get volume of water per cubic meter needed for
γ= γ
1+e w full saturation:

Gs w 𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝜌 = 2008 − 1800.9582

GS + ( e
γ= e ) γ
w
1+e 𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝜌 = 207.0418
GS + Gs w 𝑚3
γ= γw
1+e Total mass of water to be added for 10m3 for full
saturation is:
GS (1 + w)
γ= γw
1+e 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑑𝑑 = 207.0418 (10 𝑚3 )
12 𝑚3
2.68 (1 +
γ= 100) 9.81 = 17.6674 kN 𝒎𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒐 𝒂𝒅𝒅 = 𝟐𝟎𝟕𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟖 𝒌𝒈
2 𝑚3
1+
3

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Module 1 – Index Properties of Soil

Sample Problem 3
For a given sandy soil, emax = 0.75 and emin = 0.4. Let Gs = 2.68. In the field, the soil is compacted to a
moist unit weight of 112 lb/ft3 at a moisture content of 12%. Get the relative density of compaction.

Solution:
Refer to the following formulas to be used:
GS (1 + w)
𝐆𝐒 (𝟏 + 𝐰) 𝒍𝒃 e= γw − 1
𝛄= 𝛄𝐰 ; 𝜸𝒘 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟒 𝟑 γ
𝟏+𝐞 𝒇𝒕
2.68(1 + 0.12) 2
𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒆 e= 62.4 − 1 =
𝑫𝒓 = 112 3
𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏
2
emax − e 0.75 −
Get the void ratio: Dr = = 3
emax − emin 0.75 − 0.4
GS (1 + w)
γ= γw 𝐃𝐫 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟗 = 𝟐𝟐. 𝟗%
1+e

Sample Problem 4
The maximum and minimum unit weights of a sand collected from the field were determined in the
laboratory as 18.38 kN/m3 and 15.99 kN/m3, respectively. It is required that the sand in the field be
compacted to a relative density of 85%. Determine what would be the relative compaction in the field.

Solution:
Refer to the following formulas to be used:
Ro
𝛄𝐝(𝐟𝐢𝐞𝐥𝐝) 𝐑𝐨 R=
𝐑= = 1 − Dr (1 − R o )
𝛄𝐝(𝐦𝐚𝐱) 𝟏 − 𝐃𝐫 (𝟏 − 𝐑 𝐨 )
0.87
𝛄𝐝(𝐦𝐢𝐧) R=
𝐑𝐨 = 1 − 0.85(1 − 0.87)
𝛄𝐝(𝐦𝐚𝐱)
𝐑 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟖 = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟖%
15.99
Ro = = 0.87
18.38

CHAPTER 2 Page 11 of 32
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Supplement Problem 1
Two undisturbed soil samples, each having a volume of 0.1 ft3, are collected from different depths of
the same soil layer. For sample A, located above the groundwater table, W = 11 lb and w = 9%. Sample
B is located below the groundwater table. If Gs = 2.68, determine:
a. Void ratio of A (ans. 0.657)
b. Degree of saturation of A (ans. 36.7%)
c. Water content of B (ans. 24.5%)
d. Total weight of B (ans. 12.56 lb)

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CHAPTER 2 Page 12 of 32
Module 1 – Index Properties of Soil

Supplement Problem 2
In a construction project, the field moist unit weight was 17.5 kN/m3 and the moisture content was
11%. If maximum and minimum dry unit weights determined in the laboratory were 19.2 kN/m3 and
14.1 kN/m3, respectively, what was the field relative density? (ans. 39.6%)

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CHAPTER 2 Page 13 of 32
Module 1 – Index Properties of Soil

Supplement Problem 3
The moist mass of 0.1 ft3 of soil is 12.5 lb. If the moisture content is 14% and the specific gravity of
soil solids is 2.71, determine the following:
a. Moist unit weight (ans. 125 lb/ft3)
b. Dry unit weight (ans. 109.64 lb/ft3)
c. Void ratio (ans. 0.54)
d. Porosity (ans. 0.35 lb/ft3)
e. Degree of saturation (ans. 70.2%)
f. Volume occupied by water (ans. 0.024 ft3)

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CHAPTER 2 Page 14 of 32
Module 1 – Index Properties of Soil

ATTERBERG LIMITS

When clay minerals are present in fine-grained soil, the soil can be remolded in the presence
of some moisture without crumbling. This cohesive nature is caused by the adsorbed water
surrounding the clay particles. In the early 1900s, a Swedish scientist named Atterberg developed a
method to describe the consistency of fine-grained soils with varying moisture contents. At a very low
moisture content, soil behaves more like a solid. When the moisture content is very high, the soil and
water may flow like a liquid. Hence, on an arbitrary basis, depending on the moisture content, the
behavior of soil can be divided into four basic states—solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid—as shown in
the figure below.

The moisture content, in percent, at which the transition from solid to semisolid state takes place
is defined as the shrinkage limit. The moisture content at the point of transition from semisolid to
plastic state is the plastic limit, and from plastic to liquid state is the liquid limit. These parameters are
also known as Atterberg limits. This chapter describes the procedures to determine the Atterberg
limits. Also discussed in this chapter are soil structure and geotechnical parameters, such as activity
and liquidity index, which are related to Atterberg limits.

Liquid Limit
There are multiple ways in obtaining the liquid limit of a soil sample. These methods are the
One Point Method and the Flow Curve Method.

One Point Method

1. A soil is placed in the grooving tool which consists of a brass cup and a hard rubber
base.
2. A groove tool is cut at the center of the soil pat using a standard grooving tool.

CHAPTER 2 Page 15 of 32
Module 1 – Index Properties of Soil

3. The cup is then repeatedly dropped from a height of 10 mm until a groove closure
of 12.7 mm shows.
4. The soil is then removed and its moisture content is determined.

Flow Curve Method

1. A soil is placed in the grooving tool which consists of a brass cup and a hard rubber
base.
2. A groove tool is cut at the center of the soil pat using a standard grooving tool.
3. The cup is then repeatedly dropped from a height of 10 mm until a groove closure
of 12.7 mm shows.
4. The soil is then removed and its moisture content is determined.
5. The test is repeated at various moisture contents with the corresponding number of
drops.
6. Then use the Flow Curve to determine the Liquid Limit
7. The liquid limit can be determined by plotting 25 blows on the Flow Curve Diagram
and looking for the Moisture Content that crosses the drawn Flow Curve.

CHAPTER 2 Page 16 of 32
Module 1 – Index Properties of Soil

For Flow Curve Method, there are two more methods that can be used which are the
Casagrande Method and the Fall Cone Method.

Liquid Limit Using Casagrandre Method

– defined as the moisture content required to close a distance of 12.7 mm (0.5 in) along the
bottom of the groove after 25 blows.
– Refer to the Soil Mechanics Laboratory Manual for the actual experiment.

CHAPTER 2 Page 17 of 32
Module 1 – Index Properties of Soil

Liquid Limit Using Fall Cone Method

– Defined as the moisture content at which a standard cone of apex angle 30 degrees and
weight 0.78N (80 gf) will penetrate a distance d=20 mm in 5 seconds when allowed to drop
from a position of point contact with the soil surface.
– Refer to the Soil Mechanics Laboratory Manual for the actual experiment.

CHAPTER 2 Page 18 of 32
Module 1 – Index Properties of Soil

Plastic Limit
– Defined as the moisture content in percent, at which the soil crumbles, when rolled into
threads of 3.2 mm in diameter.
– If it is wet, it breaks at a smaller diameter, if it is dry it breaks at a larger diameter.

CHAPTER 2 Page 19 of 32
Module 1 – Index Properties of Soil

Shrinkage Limit
– It is performed in a laboratory with a porcelain dish approximately 45 mm in diameter and
about 12.7 mm high.
– The dish is completely filled with wet soil. The mass and volume of the wet soil is then
recorded.
– The dish is then oven dried, then the mass and volume of the oven dried soil is also recorded.
– The soil shrinks during the drying process, so moisture is gradually lost from it.
– During the drying process, it will reach a stage at which more loss of moisture will result in
no further volume change.
– The moisture content in percent at which the soil mass ceases to change is known as the
shrinkage limit.

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Plasticity Index (PI)

– The difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit of a soil

𝑷𝑰 = 𝑳𝑳 − 𝑷𝑳

Liquidity Index (LI)

– A ratio that signifies the relative consistency of a cohesive soil in the natural state.

𝒘 − 𝑷𝑳 𝒘 − 𝑷𝑳
𝑳𝑳 = =
𝑳𝑳 − 𝑷𝑳 𝑷𝑰

Consistency Index (CI)

𝑳𝑳 − 𝒘
𝑪𝑰 =
𝑳𝑳 − 𝑷𝑰

Toughness Index (TI)

– The ratio of plasticity index and flow index.
– The indication of resistance to deformation at the plastic state. If the toughness index is less
than 1, it indicates that the soil is deformable or friable at the plastic limit.

𝑷𝑰
𝑻𝑰 =
𝑭𝑰

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Sample Problem 5
Following are the results of a test conducted in the laboratory. Determine the liquid limit (LL) and the
flow index (FI).

Number or blows, N Moisture Content, %

15 42.0
20 40.8
28 39.3

Solution:
Using Graph: The plot of w against N (log scale) is shown in the figure below. For N = 25, w = 39.5%
= LL.

Using the following formulas:

20 0.121
𝐰𝟏 − 𝒘𝟐 𝑵 𝟎.𝟏𝟐𝟏 𝐿𝐿 = 40.8 ( )
𝐅𝐈 = ; 𝑳𝑳 = 𝐰𝐍 ( ) 25
𝑵𝟐 𝟐𝟓
𝐥𝐨𝐠 ( ) 𝐋𝐋 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟕
𝑵𝟏
42 − 39.3
FI =
28
log ( )
15
𝐅𝐈 = 𝟗. 𝟗𝟔

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Sample Problem 6
Following are the results of a liquid limit test using a fall cone. Estimate the liquid limit.

Cone penetration, d (mm) Moisture Content, %

15 29.5
26 35.5
34 38.5
43 41.5

Solution:
Using Graph: The plot of w against d (log scale) is shown in the figure below. For d = 20, w = 32.5%
= LL.

Using the following formulas:

29.5
𝐰 𝐰 𝐿𝐿 =
𝐋𝐋 = ; 𝑳𝑳 = 0.65 + 0.0175(15)
𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐝 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟓𝒅
𝐋𝐋 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟑𝟑
𝟎.𝟑𝟑
𝟐𝟎
𝐋𝐋 = 𝐰 ( ) 𝟐𝟎 𝟎.𝟑𝟑
𝐝 𝐋𝐋 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟓 ( )
𝟏𝟓
29.5
LL = 𝐋𝐋 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟒𝟑
0.77(log15)

𝐋𝐋 = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟓𝟖

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MECHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOIL (SIEVE ANALYSIS)

Mechanical analysis is the determination of the size range of particles present in a soil, expressed
as a percentage of the total dry weight. Two methods generally are used to find the particle-size
distribution of soil: (1) sieve analysis—for particle sizes larger than 0.075 mm in diameter, and (2)
hydrometer analysis—for particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm in diameter. The basic principles of
sieve analysis and hydrometer analysis are described briefly in the following two sections. The sieves
used for soil analysis are generally 203 mm (8 in.) in diameter. To conduct a sieve analysis, one must
first oven-dry the soil and then break all lumps into small particles. The soil then is shaken through a
stack of sieves with openings of decreasing size from top to bottom (a pan is placed below the stack).
The figure shows a set of sieves in a shaker used for conducting the test in the laboratory. The smallest-
sized sieve that should be used for this type of test is the U.S. No. 200 sieve. After the soil is shaken,
the mass of soil retained on each sieve is determined. When cohesive soils are analyzed, breaking the
lumps into individual particles may be difficult. In this case, the soil may be mixed with water to make
a slurry and then washed through the sieves. Portions retained on each sieve are collected separately
and oven-dried before the mass retained on each sieve is measured.

Steps in Sieve Analysis

1. Determine the mass of the soil retained on each sieve (i.e. M 1, M2, M3, …… MN) and in the
pan MP.

2. Determine the total mass of the soil ∑ 𝑀 = 𝑀1 + 𝑀2 + 𝑀3 + 𝑀4 +. . . . + 𝑀𝑖

3. Determine the cumulative mass of the soil retained above each sieve. For the ith sieve,
𝑀1 + 𝑀2 + 𝑀3 + 𝑀4 +. . . . +𝑀𝑖

4. The mass of the soil passing the ith sieve is ∑ 𝑀 − (𝑀1 + 𝑀2 + 𝑀3 + 𝑀4 +. . . . + 𝑀𝑖 )

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5. The percent of soil passing the ith sieve (or percent finer) is

∑ 𝑀 − (𝑀1 + 𝑀2 + 𝑀3 + 𝑀4 +. . . . + 𝑀𝑖 )
𝐹=
∑𝑀

Once the percent finer for each sieve is calculated (step 5), the calculations are plotted on semi
logarithmic graph paper with percent finer as the ordinate (arithmetic scale) and sieve opening size
as the abscissa (logarithmic scale). This plot is referred to as the particle-size distribution curve.

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION

A particle-size distribution curve can be used to determine the following four parameters for a
given soil:

1. Effective size (D10)

- This parameter is the diameter in the particle-size distribution curve corresponding to 10%
finer. The effective size of a granular soil is a good measure to estimate the hydraulic
conductivity and drainage through soil.

2. Uniformity coefficient (Cu)

- This parameter is defined as:
𝑫𝟔𝟎
𝑪𝒖 =
𝑫𝟏𝟎

- Where D60 is the diameter corresponding to 60% finer.

3. Coefficient of gradation (Cc)

- This parameter is defined as:
(𝑫𝟑𝟎 )𝟐
𝑪𝒄 =
𝑫𝟔𝟎 (𝑫𝟏𝟎 )

4. Sorting Coefficient (So)

- This parameter is another measure of uniformity and in generally encountered in geologic
works and expressed as:
𝑫𝟕𝟓
𝑺𝒐 = √
𝑫𝟐𝟓

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The percentages of
gravel, sand, silt, and clay-
size particles present in a
soil can be obtained from
the particle-size
distribution curve. The
particle-size distribution
curve shows not only the
range of particle sizes
present in a soil, but also
the type of distribution of
various-size particles.
Such types of distributions
are demonstrated in the
figure below. Curve I
represents a type of soil in
which most of the soil
grains are the same size.
This is called poorly
graded soil. Curve II
represents a soil in which
the particle sizes are
distributed over a wide
range, termed well
graded. A well-graded soil
has a uniformity coefficient
greater than about 4 for
gravels and 6 for sands,
and a coefficient of
gradation between 1 and 3
(for gravels and sands). A
soil might have a
combination of two or
more uniformly graded
fractions. Curve III
represents such a soil. This
type of soil is termed gap
graded.

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Sample Problem 7
Following are the results of a sieve analysis. Make the necessary calculations, draw the particle-size
distribution curve, and determine the following:
a. D10, D30, and D60
b. Uniformity Coefficient, Cu
c. Coefficient of gradation, Cc

Mass of soil Particle

U.S. Percentage Cumulative Percent Finer
retained on size
Sieve no. Retained (%) Retained (%) = 100-Cumulative Retained
each sieve (g) (mm)
4 0 0 0 0 4.75
10 40 5.487 5.487 94.513 2
20 60 8.2305 13.7175 86.2825 0.85
40 89 12.2085 25.926 74.074 0.425
60 140 19.2044 45.1304 54.8696 0.25
80 122 16.7353 61.8657 38.1343 0.18
100 210 28.8066 90.6723 9.6459 0.15
200 56 7.6818 98.3541 1.0167 0.075
Pan 12 1.6461 100.0002
Total 729

Solution:
Using Graph:

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From the particle size distribution shown,

D10 = 0.15 mm D60 0.27
𝐶𝑢 = =
D30 = 0.17 mm 𝐷10 0.15
D60 = 0.27 mm
𝐂𝐮 = 𝟏. 𝟖

(0.17)2
Cc =
0.27(0.15)

𝐂𝐂 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏

HYDROMETER ANALYSIS
Hydrometer analysis is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water. When a
soil specimen is dispersed in water, the particles settle at different velocities, depending on their shape,
size, weight, and the viscosity of the water. For simplicity, it is assumed that all the soil particles are
spheres and that the velocity of soil particles can be expressed by Stokes’ law, according to which:

𝝆𝑺 − 𝝆 𝒘 𝟐
𝒗= 𝑫
𝟏𝟖𝝁

Where:
v = velocity
ρs = density of soil particles
ρw = density of water
μ = viscosity of water
D = diameter of soil particles

Assuming 𝝆𝒘 to be equal to 1 g/cm3, 𝝁 in (g sec)/cm2, 𝑳 in cm, 𝒕 in min, and 𝑫 in mm, then:

𝑳 𝟑𝟎𝝁
𝑫 = 𝑲√ ; 𝑲=√
𝒕 (𝑮𝑺 − 𝟏)

Note that the value of K is a function of Gs and , which are dependent on the temperature of the
test. The table in the next page gives the variation of K with the test temperature and the specific
gravity of soil solids.

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In the laboratory, the hydrometer test is conducted in a sedimentation cylinder usually with 50
g of oven-dried sample. Sometimes 100-g samples also can be used. The sedimentation cylinder is
457 mm (18 in.) high and 63.5 mm (2.5 in.) in diameter. It is marked for a volume of 1000 ml. Sodium
hexametaphosphate generally is used as the dispersing agent. The volume of the dispersed soil
suspension is increased to 1000 ml by adding distilled water. An ASTM 152H type hydrometer is then
placed in the sedimentation cylinder.

When a hydrometer is placed in the soil suspension at a time t, measured from the start of
sedimentation it measures the specific gravity in the vicinity of its bulb at a depth L. The specific gravity
is a function of the amount of soil particles present per unit volume of suspension at that depth. Also,
at a time t, the soil particles in suspension at a depth L will have a diameter smaller than D as calculated
𝑳
in 𝑫 = 𝑲√ . The larger particles would have settled beyond the zone of measurement. Hydrometers
𝒕
are designed to give the amount of soil, in grams, that is still in suspension. They are calibrated for
soils that have a specific gravity, Gs, of 2.65; for soils of other specific gravity, a correction must be
made.

By knowing the amount of soil in suspension, L, and t, we can calculate the percentage of soil

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by weight finer than a given diameter. Note that L is the depth measured from the surface of the water
to the center of gravity of the hydrometer bulb at which the density of the suspension is measured.
The value of L will change with time t. Hydrometer analysis is effective for separating soil fractions
down to a size of about 0.5 μm. The value of L (cm) for the ASTM 152H hydrometer can be given by
the expression:
𝟏 𝑽𝑩
𝑳 = 𝑳𝟏 + (𝑳𝟐 − )
𝟐 𝑨

Where:
L1 = distance along the stem of the hydrometer from the top of the bulb to the mark for a hydrometer
reading (cm)
L2 = length of the hydrometer bulb = 14 cm
VB = volume of the hydrometer bulb = 67 cm3
A= cross-sectional area of the sedimentation cylinder = 27.8 cm2

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Note:
The value of L1 is 10.5 cm for a reading of R = 0
and 2.3 cm for a reading of R = 50. Hence, for
any reading R (R is the hydrometer reading
corrected for the meniscus),

𝟏𝟎. 𝟓 − 𝟐. 𝟑
𝑳𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟓 − 𝑹
𝟓𝟎

𝑳𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟒𝑹

Substituting the constant values of L2, VB, A and

𝟏 𝑽𝑩
the equation of L1 to 𝑳 = 𝑳𝟏 + (𝑳𝟐 − ),
𝟐 𝑨

𝟏 𝟔𝟕
𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟒𝑹 + (𝟏𝟒 − )
𝟐 𝟐𝟕. 𝟖

𝑳 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟐𝟗 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟒𝑹

On the basis of 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟐𝟗 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟔𝟒𝑹, the

variations of L with the hydrometer readings, R,
are given on the right.

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References

Das, B. M., et al. (2018). Principles of geotechnical engineering (9th ed.). Australia: Cengage Learning

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