CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Renewable energy is the energy which comes from natural resources such as

sunlight, wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat. These resources are renewable and can be

naturally replenished. Therefore, for all practical purposes, these resources can be considered to

be inexhaustible, unlike dwindling conventional fossil fuels [1].

Apart from the rapidly decreasing reserves of fossil fuels in the world, another major

factor working against fossil fuels is the pollution associated with their combustion.

Contrastingly, renewable energy sources are known to be much cleaner and produce energy

without the harmful effects of pollution unlike their conventional counterparts.

1.2 Different sources of Renewable Energy

1.2.1 Solar power

Solar energy can be utilized in two major ways. Firstly, the captured heat can be used

as solar thermal energy, with applications in space heating. Another alternative is the conversion

of incident solar radiation to electrical energy, which is the most usable form of energy. This can

be achieved with the help of solar photovoltaic cells [6] or with concentrating solar power plants.

The International Energy Agency projected in 2014 that under its "high renewables" scenario, by

2050, solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power would contribute about 16 and 11

percent, respectively, of the worldwide electricity consumption, and solar would be the world's

largest source of electricity. Most solar installations would be in China and India.[17]

1
1.2.2 Wind power

Wind turbines can be used to harness the energy [3] available in airflows. Current day turbines

range from around 600 kW to 5 MW [4] of rated power. Since the power output is a function of

the cube of the wind speed, it increases rapidly with an increase in available wind velocity.

Recent advancements have led to aerofoil wind turbines, which are more efficient due to a better

aerodynamic structure.

1.2.3 Small hydropower

Hydropower installations up to 10MW are considered as small hydropower and counted as

renewable energy sources [7]. These involve converting the potential energy of water stored in

dams into usable electrical energy through the use of water turbines. Run-of-the-river

hydroelectricity aims to utilize the kinetic energy of water without the need of building reservoirs

or dams.

1.2.4 Biomass

Plants capture the energy of the sun through the process of photosynthesis. On combustion, these

plants release the trapped energy. This way, biomass works as a natural battery to store the sun’s

energy [8] and yield it on requirement.In addition to combustion, bio-mass/bio-fuels can be

directly converted to electrical energy via electrochemical oxidation of the material. This can be

performed directly in a direct carbon fuel cell, direct ethanol fuel cell or a microbial fuel

cell. The fuel can also be consumed indirectly via a fuel cell system containing a reformer which

converts the bio-mass into a mixture of CO and H2 before it is consumed in the fuel cell.

2
1.2.5 Geothermal

Geothermal energy is the thermal energy which is generated and stored [9] within the layers of

the Earth. The gradient thus developed gives rise to a continuous conduction of heat from the

core to the surface of the earth. This gradient can be utilized to heat water to produce superheated

steam and use it to run steam turbines to generate electricity. The main disadvantage

ofgeothermal energy is that it is usually limited to regions near tectonic plate boundaries, though

recent advancements have led to the propagation of this technology [10].

1.3 Renewable Energy trends across the globe

The current trend across developed economies tips the scale in favour of Renewable Energy. For

the last three years, the continents of North America and Europe have embraced more renewable

power capacity as compared to conventional power capacity. Renewables accounted for 60% of

the newly installed power capacity in Europe in 2009 and nearly 20% of the annual power

production [7].

Fig 1.1 : Global energy consumption

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As can be seen from the Fig 1.1, wind and biomass occupy a major share of the current

renewable energy consumption. Recent advancements in solar photovoltaic technology and

constant incubation of projects in countries like Germany and Spain have brought around

tremendous growth in the solar PV market as well, which is projected to surpass other renewable

energy sources in the coming years.

More than 85 countries had some policy target to achieve a predetermined share of their power

capacity through renewables. This was an increase from around 45 countries in 2005. Most of

the targets are also very ambitious, landing in the range of 30-90% share of national production

through renewables [7]. Noteworthy policies are the European Union’s target of achieving 20%

of total energy through renewables by 2020 and India’s Jawaharlal Nehru Solar Mission, through

which India plans to produce 20GW solar energy by the year 2022.

1.4 Problem Formulation:

Power generated through solar power system is not constant due to the variation in

solar irradiation and temperature. The major drawback of this type is, its intermittent nature

which makes the efficiency low. So as to operate the PV system near to Maximum Power Point,

appropriate MPPT algorithm has to be used. This project proposes to use Perturbation and

Observe algorithm to implement MPPT with DC/DC converters for achieving the maximum

power from the energy sources. This system can lead to maximum output energy and can

increase efficiency of system.

4
1.5 Organisation of Project:

Different renewable sources are introduced and importance of solar power system is

illustrated in Chapter 1 and whereas in Chapter 2 different components of PV system are

developed and modeled mathematically.

In Chapter 3 different techniques of MPPT are illustrated. Perturb and Observer (P&O)

algorithm operation are discussed to implement MPPT . Whereas in Chapter 4 the modeling of

system is included and summary is included in Chapter 5.

5
 CHAPTER 2

DEVELOPMENT OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

2.1 Introduction

Stand-alone photovoltaic power systems are independent of the utility grid and may use solar

panels only or may be used in conjunction with a diesel generator, a wind turbine or batteries.

The basic model of a direct coupled system consists of a solar panel connected directly to load.

MPPTs are generally used to efficiently utilize the Sun's energy.

Fig 2.1 PV plant Overview [5]

2.2 Photovoltaic cell

A photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell is a semiconductor device that converts light to electrical

energy by photovoltaic effect. If the energy of photon of light is greater than the band gap then

the electron is emitted and the flow of electrons creates current.

6
 Fig 2.2 PV Cell

However a photovoltaic cell is different from a photodiode. In a photodiode light falls on n-

channel of the semiconductor junction and gets converted into current or voltage signal but a

photovoltaic cell is always forward biased.

2.3 PV module

Usually a number of PV modules are arranged in series and parallel to meet the energy

requirements. PV modules of different sizes are commercially available. For example, a typical

small scale desalination plant requires a few thousand watts of power.

2.4 PV modeling

A PV array consists of several photovoltaic cells in series and parallel connections. Series

connections are responsible for increasing the voltage of the module whereas the parallel

connection is responsible for increasing the current in the array.

Typically a solar cell can be modeled by a current source and an inverted diode connected in

parallel to it. It has its own series and parallel resistance. Series resistance is due to hindrance in

the path of flow of electrons from n to p junction and parallel resistance is due to the leakage

7
current. For computer simulation of a physical system modeling should be done .It includes all

the physical elements & all the parameters influencing the system. In this modeling the physical

system is converted to computer codes and characteristics are plotted. To describe the behavior

of the physical PV cell, most commonly used model is a single diode model. The single diode

model is as shown in Fig 2.3

Fig 2.3 Single Diode Model of PV Cell

In this model we consider a current source (I) along with a diode and series resistance (R s). The

shunt resistance (Rsh) in parallel is very high, has a negligible effect and can be neglected. The

output current from the photovoltaic array is

I=Isc – Id (2.1)

qVd/kT
Id= Io (e - 1) (2.2)

where Io is the reverse saturation current of the diode, q is the electron charge, V d is the voltage

8
 -19
across the diode, k is Boltzmann constant (1.38 * 10 J/K) and T is the junction temperature in

Kelvin (K)

From eq. 2.3 and 2.4

qVd/kT
I = Isc – Io (e - 1) (2.3)

Using suitable approximations,

I = Isc – Io (eq((V+IRs)/nkT) - 1) (2.4)

where, I is the photovoltaic cell current, V is the PV cell voltage, T is the temperature (in Kelvin)

and n is the diode ideality factor, which is a measure of how closely the diode follows the ideal

equation.The I-V characteristics of a typical solar cell are as shown in the Fig 2.4

Fi

g 2.4 : I-V characteristics of a solar panel

When the voltage and the current characteristics are multiplied we get the P-V characteristics as

9
shown in Fig 2.5.

Fig 2.5 P-V characteristics curve of photovoltaic cell

2.5 Effects Of Ambient Conditions:

Charecteristics of solar cell changes with change in ambient factors like Solar Irradiance,

Temperature etc. Effect of each factor on cell are illustrated in detail with results below.

2.5.1 Effect of Irradiance:

Solar irradiance is the power per unit area produced by the Sun in the form of electromagnetic

radiation. Irradiance may be measured in space or at the Earth's surface after atmospheric

absorption and scattering.

Solar cells experience daily variations in light intensity, with the incident power from the sun

varying between 0 and 1 kW/m 2. At low light levels, the effect of the shunt resistance becomes

10
increasingly important. As the light intensity decreases, the bias point and current through the

solar cell also decreases. Variation of I-V and P-V characteristics with varying irradiance and

constant temperature are shown in Fig 2.6 below.

Fig 2.6 Variation of I-V curves with varying Irradiation

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 Fig 2.7 Variation of P-V curves with Varying Irradiation

2.5.2 Effect of Temperature:

solar cells are sensitive to temperature. Increases in temperature reduce the band gap of a

semiconductor, thereby effecting most of the semiconductor material parameters. The decrease

in the band gap of a semiconductor with increasing temperature can be viewed as increasing the

energy of the electrons in the material. Lower energy is therefore needed to break the bond. In

the bond model of a semiconductor band gap, reduction in the bond energy also reduces the band

gap. Therefore increasing the temperature reduces the band gap.

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The variation of I-V and P-V characteristics with varying Temperature and constant Irradiance

are shown in Fig 2.8 and Fig 2.9 respectively.

Fig 2.8 Variation of I-V curves with varying Temperature

Fig 2.9 Variation of P-V curves with varying Temperature

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2.6 Maximum Power Point (MPP) :

The point on a power (I-V) curve that has the highest value of the product of its corresponding

voltage and current, or the highest power output.

Fig 2.10 Maximum Power Point

But maximum power point changes with change in irradiance and temperature since irradiance

values changes in a day and is minimum during night times. As voltage and current changes with

change in irradiance power also changes.

2.7 Summary

Modelling of each block of PV system shown in the Fig 2.1 are illustrated in detail. PV cell

mathematical modelling is done to know I-V and P-V curves. PV module arrangement is defined

so as to get desired voltage and current conditions. And Variation of P-V and I-V graphs are

studied with change in irradiance and temperature.

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 CHAPTER 3

MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

3.1 Introduction

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is a technique used with wind turbines

and photovoltaic (PV) solar systems to maximize power output. A typical solar panel converts

only 30 to 40 percent of the incident solar irradiation into electrical energy. Maximum power

point tracking technique is used to improve the efficiency of the solar panel.

According to Maximum Power Transfer theorem, the power output of a circuit is maximum

when the Thevenin impedance of the circuit (source impedance) matches with the load

impedance. Hence our problem of tracking the maximum power point reduces to an impedance

matching problem. By changing the duty cycle of the buck converter appropriately we can match

the source impedance with that of the load impedance.

3.2 Duty Cycle

A duty cycle is the percentage of one period in which a signal or system is active. A period is the

time it takes for a signal to complete an on-and-off cycle. As a formula, a duty cycle may be

expressed as:

where   is the duty cycle,   is the time the signal is active, and   is the total period of the

signal. Thus, a 60% duty cycle means the signal is on 60% of the time but off 40% of the time.

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3.3 Conductance

The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is a measure of the difficulty to pass

an electric current through that conductor. The inverse quantity is electrical conductance, and is

the ease with which an electric current passes. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (Ω),

while electrical conductance is measured in Siemens or mho.

3.4 Different MPPT techniques

There are different techniques used to track the maximum power point. Few of the most popular

techniques are [21]

1) Perturb and Observe method

2) Incremental Conductance method

3) Fractional short circuit current

4) Fractional open circuit voltage

5) Neural networks

6) Fuzzy logic

The choice of the algorithm depends on the time complexity the algorithm takes to track the

MPP, implementation cost and the ease of implementation. Different Methods stated above are

illustrated in detail below:

3.4.1 Perturb & Observe

Perturb & Observe (P&O) is the simplest method. In this we use only one sensor, that is the

voltage sensor, to sense the PV array voltage and so the cost of implementation is less and hence

easy to implement. The time complexity of this algorithm is very less but on reaching very close

16
to the MPP it doesn’t stop at the MPP and keeps on perturbing on both the directions. When this

happens the algorithm has reached very close to the MPP and we can set an appropriate error

limit or can use a wait function which ends up increasing the time complexity of the algorithm.

Perturb and Observe Algorithm is as illustrated below

Step 1: Initially set Pk=0,Vk=0 ,D=D0 (D=Duty Cycle) and set a constant value for

incremental/decremental change in duty cycle (i.e., ∆D=d) and Dmin and Dmax values.

Step 2: Read Voltage ,Current from PV array and Calculate power as P=V*I

Step 3: Calculate Change in power and voltage i.e., ∆P and ∆V.

Step 4: If ∆P>0 and ∆V<0 then decrease Duty cycle by ∆D i.e., D=D-∆D else if ∆V>0 then

increase Duty Cycle by ∆D i.e., D=D+∆D if not go for next step

Step 5: if ∆P<0 and ∆V<0 then decrease duty cycle by ∆D else if ∆V>0 then increase Duty

cycle by ∆D.

Step 6 : If ∆P=0 then go to step 2 and record the values

Step 7: if D>Dmax or D<Dmin then set Duty cycle to previous step value.

Step 8: Print Voltage, Current and Power graphs.

3.4.2 Incremental Conductance

Incremental conductance method uses two voltage and current sensors to sense the output

voltage and current of the PV array. At MPP slope of PV curve is zero.

When the instantaneous conductance equals the conductance of the solar then MPP is reached.

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Here we are sensing both the voltage and current simultaneously. Hence the error due to change

in irradiance is eliminated. However the complexity and the cost of implementation increases.

Algorithm for this method is as discussed below

Step 1: Set initial Voltage, Current, Duty cycle D=D 0,and decrement/increment value for Duty

cycle i.e., ∆D.

Step 2: Sense Voltage and current from system

Step 3: Calculate change in voltage and current i.e., ∆V,∆I .if ∆V≠0 then check whether (di/dv) =

-(i/v) else go to next step.

Step 4: if then increase Duty cycle i.e., D=D 0+∆D else decrease duty cycle i.e., D=D 0-

∆D.

Step 5: if ∆V=0, then check if i.e., ∆I=0 if no check whether ∆I>0 if yes increase Duty cycle

else decrease duty cycle i.e., D=D0-∆D.

Step 6: if ∆I=0 set previous step values to present step values

Step 7: Print Voltage and current graphs.

3.4.3 Fractional open circuit voltage

The near linear relationship between Vmpp and Voc of the PV array, under varying irradiance and

temperature levels, has given rise to the fractional Voc method.

Vmpp=k1*Voc (3.2)

where k1 is a constant of proportionality. Since k1 is dependent on the characteristics of the PV

18
array being used, it usually has to be computed beforehand by empirically determining V mpp and

Voc for the specific PV array at different irradiance and temperature levels. The factor k1 has

been reported to be between 0.71 and 0.78. Once k1 is known, Vmpp can be computed with Voc

measured periodically by momentarily shutting down the power converter. However, this incurs

some disadvantages, including temporary loss of power. [15]. Algorithm of Fractional open

circuit method is as shown below.

Step 1: Initialize Vmpp = Vo

Step 2 : If Vmpp = Vref go to next step

Step 3 : Vref = k * Voc. Find the value of k.

Step 4 : Else if If Vmpp >Vref then decrease Duty cycle by ∆D i.e., D=D-∆D

Step 5 : Else increase Duty Cycle by ∆D i.e., D=D+∆D

Step 6 : Print Vout.

3.4.4 Fractional short circuit current

Fractional Isc results from the fact that, under varying atmospheric conditions, Impp is

approximately linearly related to the Isc of the PV array.

Impp = K2*Isc (3.3)

where k2 is a proportionality constant. Just like in the fractional Voc technique, k2 has to be

determined according to the PV array in use. The constant k2 is generally found to be between

19
0.78 and 0.92. Measuring Isc during operation is problematic. An additional switch usually has

to be added to the power converter to periodically short the PV array so that I sc can be measured

using a current sensor[15]. Algorithm of Fractional short circuit method is as shown below

Step 1: Initialize Impp =Io

Step 2 : If Impp = Iref go to next step

Step 3 : Impp= k Isc .find the value of k.

Step 4 : Else if Impp>Iref then decrease Duty cycle by ∆D i.e., D=D-∆D

Step 5 : Else increase Duty Cycle by ∆D i.e., D=D+∆D

Step 6 : Print Impp.

3.4.5 Fuzzy Logic Control

Microcontrollers have made using fuzzy logic control popular for MPPT over last decade. Fuzzy

logic controllers have the advantages of working with imprecise inputs, not needing an accurate

mathematical model, and handling nonlinearity [15]. Two variables are sensed; the input voltage

and input current. The two values are used to calculate the input power. From these

measurements, the fuzzy logic controller provides a signal proportional to the converter duty

cycle which is then applied to the converter through a pulse width modulator.

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3.4.6 Neural Network

Another technique of implementing MPPT which are also well adapted for microcontrollers is

neural networks. Neural networks commonly have three layers: input, hidden, and output layers.

The number nodes in each layer vary and are user-dependent. The input variables can be PV

array parameters like Voc and Isc, atmospheric data like irradiance and temperature, or any

combination of these. The output is usually one or several reference signals like a duty cycle

signal used to drive the power converter to operate at or close to the MPP [15].

3.5 Implementation of P&O technique to PV System

Maximum power tracking P & O technique is one of the most successful and

involves less complexity to implement in hardware. This technique is applied, in this work, to

buck converter. The duty cycle D of the buck converter changes during the algorithm searches

the MPP.

This technique uses simple feedback arrangement and little measured parameters.

In this approach, the module voltage is periodically given a perturbation and the corresponding

output power is compared with that at the previous perturbing cycle [17]. In this algorithm a

slight perturbation is introduce to the system. This perturbation causes the power of the solar

module various.

If the power increases due to the perturbation then the perturbation is continued in the same

direction. After the peak power is reached the power at the MPP is zero and next instant

decreases and hence after that the perturbation reverses.

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 Fig 3.1 : Solar panel characteristics showing MPP and operating points A and B

Fig 3.1 shows the plot of module output power versus module voltage for a solar panel at a given

irradiation. The point marked as MPP is the Maximum Power Point, the theoretical maximum

output obtainable from the PV panel. Consider A and B as two operating points. As shown in the

figure above, the point A is on the left hand side of the MPP. Therefore, we can move towards

the MPP by providing a positive perturbation to the voltage. On the other hand, point B is on the

right hand side of the MPP. When we give a positive perturbation, the value of P becomes

negative, thus it is imperative to change the direction of perturbation to achieve MPP. For

controlling the duty cycle of DC-DC converter Perturb and Observe algorithm is used, which

sets the duty cycle of converter to controls the output voltage of system.

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3.5 Summary

Different techniques for tracking Maximum Power Point are illustrated and

algorithms of each method are discussed step by step. For this model Perturb and Observer

method is used to achieve Maximum point and process of achieving MPP is discussed in detail.

23
 CHAPTER 4

MODELLING OF PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM

4.1 Modelling of PV system

The entire system has been modeled on MATLAB™ 2014a and Simulink™. The Block Diagram

of implementing MPPT algorithm is as shown in the Fig 4.1.

Fig 4.1 Block Diagram of Implementation of MPPT

In this model Perturb and Observe MPPT algorithm is used to control the duty cycle ratio of a

buck converter and there by to control Voltage. PV panel in which modules are connected in

series and parallel to get desired output. The output voltage of PV panel is given as input to Buck

converter, in which Mosfet is used for switching operation.The DC output from Buck converter

is Converted into AC using Inverter which is supplying Load.

24
 Fig 4.2 SIMULINK™ Model of PV system using MPPT

Output of PV panel is interfaced with converter using Controlled voltage source since

Solar panel is formed using SimElectronics and rest is done using SimPowersystems. P&O

algorithm is implemented using Matlab function block. Output of MPPT block is given to pulse

generation to generate gate pulse.

25
4.2 Modelling of Photo Voltaic Panel:

Panel is designed by arranging two parallel paths of solar cell strings each having 360 cells

in series to get desired rating of panel.

Single solar cell charecteristics:

Open circuit voltage =0.67 volts

Shot circuit current = 6.2 amps

Fig.4.3 PV Panel Arrangement

26
The solar panel block consists of two sets of parallel connected cells. Each of the two sets

consists of 360 cells connected in series, making them a total of 720 cells. Each solar cell has a

short circuit current of 6.2amps and a voltage of 0.67v. These are maintained at a temperature of

25oc with varied levels of irradiation. Irradiation is the amount of power received by a unit area

of the solar panel. The irradiance varies with respect to the time in a day.

Fig 4.4 Masked block diagram of the modeled solar PV panel

Output of solar panel changes with change in irradiance (as per the varying signal of irradiance).

The output voltage, current of panel are sensed using measurement blocks and using voltage and

current power is calculated and 3 signals i.e., Voltage, Current and Power signals are taken out of

the masked block and used wherever needed.

27
The unmasked solar panel consists of two parallel paths, in which each path consists of 360 cells

in series,of which are arranged in 10 blocks in series each containing 36 cells in series. Again

these 36 cells are arranged in 6 blocks each containing 6 cells in each block, which is as shown

in Fig 4.5

Fig 4.5 Unmasked block diagram of the modeled solar PV panel

Each solar cell is operating at 25oC and irradiance is as per the varying signal. Voc and Isc of each

cell are set so get desired output rating.

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4.2.1 Rating of PV Panel :

Number of cells arranged in series decides rating of output voltage, whereas number of

cells arranged in parallel decides the current rating

In this scenario since 360 cells are connected in series the voltage rating can be known by

multiplying Voc of each cell with 360 i.e.,

Voltage rating = Voc* 360

=0.67*360

= 240 volts

and short circuit current can be calculated by multiplying number of parallel paths with short

circuit current rating of each cell i.e.,

Current rating = Isc* 2

= 6.2*2

= 12.4 amps

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4.3 Modelling of Buck Converter:

As stated in the introduction, the maximum power point tracking is basically a load matching

problem. In order to change the input resistance of the panel to match the load resistance (by

varying the duty cycle), a DC to DC converter is required.

It is seen that the efficiency of the system also depends upon the converter. Typically it is

maximum for a buck topology, then for buck-boost topology and minimum for a boost topology.

Hence to get maximum of efficiency we use buck converter.

Fig 4.6 : Circuit diagram of a Buck Converter

4.3.1 Mode 1 operation of the Buck Converter

When the switching transistor is switched on, it is supplying the load with current. Initially

current flow to the load is restricted as energy is also being stored in L1, therefore the current in

the load and the charge on C1 builds up gradually during the ‘on’ period. Notice that throughout

the on period, there will be a large positive voltage on D1 cathode and so the diode will

be reverse biased and therefore play no part in the action.

30
 Fig 4.7 : Mode 1 operation of Buck Converter

4.3.2 Mode 2 operation of the Buck Converter

When the transistor switches off the energy stored in the magnetic field around L1 is released

back into the circuit. The voltage across the inductor (the back e.m.f.) is now in reverse polarity

to the voltage across L1 during the ‘on’ period, and sufficient stored energy is available in the

collapsing magnetic field to keep current flowing for at least part of the time the transistor switch

is open.

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 Fig 4.8: Mode 2 operation of Buck converter

The fundamental circuit for a step down converter or buck converter consists of an inductor,

diode, capacitor, switch  To reduce voltage ripple, capacitors are normally added to such a

converter's output.

Fig 4.9 Masked diagram of buck converter

The gate pulse to this buck converter is given by MPPT algorithm. The output of this is fed to a

full bridge inverter. The output of MPPT algorithm is the duty cycle, which is converted into

gate pulse using pulse generation arrangement. The buck converter switching frequency is 5kHz.

For simulating Buck converter , Mosfet is used for switching operation whose duty cycle is

controlled using MPPT algorithm. Voltage and current are sensed using measurement blocks and

used wherever needed. Simulated Circuit is as shown in Fig 4.10 .

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 Fig 4.10 Unmasked diagram of Buck converter

4.4 Modelling of Pulse generation Block

Since output of MPPT block is duty cycle ratio, so as to convert it into gate pulse the pulse
generation arrangement is used which is as shown in the Fig 4.11 below

Fig 4.11 Pulse Generation arrangement

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4.5 Modelling of Inverter

The function of an inverter is to change a dc input voltage to a symmetric ac output voltage of

desired magnitude and frequency. Here we used single phase full bridge inverter where each

switching device is to be force commutated . Frequency of ac output voltage can be changed by

the the pulse width given to GTOs. Pairs gto1 ,gto 4 and gto 3,gto 2 are simultaneously made on

and off.Here diodes are used to feedback the energy to source in case of reverse of current

through the load within one pulse width of inverter.

Fig 4.12 Unmasked diagram of Inverter

34
Two pairs of GTOs are given gate pulses using pulse generation block. And the alternating

supply is given to resistive load , Voltage is sensed using measurement block and used wherever

needed.

4.6 Modelling of DC motor:

DC motor is used as load to the converter, modelling of DC motor is as shown in Fig 4.13 Below

Motor Equations (in Time domain),

V = L(di/dt) + iR +Kphiw (4.1)

Kphii = J(dw/dt) + bw (4.2)

Motor equations (in s-domain),

sLi(s) = V – Ri(s) -Kphiw(s) (4.3)

sJw(s) = Kphii(s) - bw(s) (4.4)

Fig 4.13 Modelling of DC motor

Where L = Inductance of armature

Kphi = Emf Constant
R = Resistance of armature
J = Moment of Inertia

35
 b = Viscous Friction
w = Angular velocity
i = Armature current

Reference: Gopal K Dubey “Fundamentals of Electrical Drives” 2001

Charecteristic curves of separately excited DC motor are as shown below

Fig 4.14 Armature Current vs Time

36
 Fig 4.15 Torque vs Armature Current

4.7 Simulation Results

Simulation Model shown in the Fig.4.1 is simulated in SIMULINK™ 2014a and

Various results are shown and illustrated below.

4.7.1 Irradiance Signal

The irradiation (shown in Fig 4.16) is taken to be varying, to reflect real life conditions and

effectively show the use of an MPPT algorithm in field runs. It varies from 200 Watt per sq.m. to

1000 Watt per sq.m, which is close to the day values of solar radiation received on the earth’s

surface. The simulation is run for a total of 0.5 seconds, with the irradiation varying as per

below.

For 0 < t < 0.1sec Irradiance=200 Watts per sq m

37
 For 0.1 < t < 0.25sec Irradiance=500 Watts per sq m

For 0 .25< t < 0.4sec Irradiance=1000 Watts per sq m

For 0.4 < t < 0.5sec Irradiance=600 Watts per sq m

Fig 4.16 Variation of irradiance signal

4.7.2 Output Voltage of PV panel

Solar panel output voltage is observed with giving varying irradiance as input which is as shown

above. This voltage is given as input to converter, voltage variation is as shown in Fig. below.

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 Fig 4.17 Output of PV Panel

Minimum Voltage is 217 Volts for 200 Watts/m 2 and maximum voltage is 240 Volts for 1000

Watts/m2.

4.7.3 CASE 1:Output Parameters without MPPT

Output voltage and power of Buck converter for corresponding change in irradiance is as shown

in Fig 6.2 below. In this case MPPT algorithm is not implemented.

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 4.18 Output voltage and power without MPPT.

4.7.4 CASE 2: Output parameters With MPPT

In this case results are taken with implementing MPPT algorithm and varying irradiance. Graphs

for corresponding Voltage and Power are as shown in Fig 6.3 below.

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 4.19 Output voltage and power with MPPT

4.8 Summary:

PV system with P&O technique which is shown in Fig.4.1 is simulated in MATLAB

and modeling of each block is shown separately. Varying irradiance signal is given as input to

PV panel, and the corresponding results are obtained. Initially system is simulated without

MPPT and results are recorded, and then system is made to operate with MPPT .Graphs for

Output voltage and power are shown for each case.

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

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 Photovoltaic system output changes with change in ambient conditions, which are

discussed in section 2.5 .Hence to improve efficiency MPPT techniques are to be used, which

tracks the maximum power point for different ambient conditions by sensing voltage, current

parameters.

To improve efficiency operating point of PV system is to be shifted near to Maximum

Power Point. In this model P & O technique is used, because of less complexity involved during

hardware implementation, only voltage parameter is to be sensed which reduces number of

sensors to be used, thereby reducing cost. In this model Maximum power point is achieved by

changing the level of voltage using buck converter whose duty cycle is set using MPPT

algorithm i.e., using P&O method. If operating voltage is less than that of voltage at MPP then

voltage is increased by increasing duty cycle of converter similarly when the operating point

voltage is more than that of at maximum power point voltage then voltage is reduced and made

operated near to MPP voltage by reducing duty cycle of converter. And the process continues

hence the method is Perturbing the system and observing the output parameters.

The simulation model shown in Fig.4.2 is simulated in which system is made to operate

with variable irradiance signal which reflects real life conditions. First the model is made

operated without MPPT and corresponding results are obtained ,for 1000 watts/m 2 irradiance

output power was 905 Watts when it was implemented with MPPT corresponding power is

1295Watts.Output Power for different irradiance, with and without MPPT is as tabulated below.

Table 5.1 Output Power with and without MPPT

S.n Irradiance (Watts/m2) Power Without MPPT(Watts) Power With MPPT(Watts)

42
 o

1 200 740 1060

2 500 830 1190

3 600 850 1230

4 1000 905 1295

Hence by implementing MPPT algorithm as output power is increased, efficiency also increased.

Therefore, it was seen that using the Perturb & Observe MPPT technique increased the

efficiency of the photovoltaic system.

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