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Delineation of groundwater potential zones using geo-spatial and AHP

techniques: Ambo area, Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia

Article  in  Sustainable Water Resources Management · February 2022

DOI: 10.1007/s40899-022-00622-3

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https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-022-00622-3

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Delineation of groundwater potential zones using geo‑spatial

and AHP techniques: Ambo area, Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia
Mesfin Mamo Haile1   · Jebena Tafesse Yadeta1 · Leta Amena Gambe1

Received: 2 March 2021 / Accepted: 5 January 2022

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

Abstract
The town of Ambo in Ethiopia has experienced a severe lack of drinking water. The surface water resources in the region
can be supplied with groundwater supplies that precisely pinpoint their recharge and prospective areas, which are frequently
unsure for a variety of reasons. In this study, geographic information system (GIS)-based multi-criteria evaluation tech-
niques (MCET) and analytic hierarchy process (AHP) as a spatial prediction tool were utilized in exploring the groundwater
potential of the study area. Rainfall, geomorphology, geology, soil, land use, slope, and drainage density were all included
as affecting elements in the analysis. The weights of these criteria were calculated using the AHP technique with the Arc
GIS 10.3 software and its sub-modules. The study's main conclusions were that groundwater-potential index values for the
study area were estimated. The groundwater-potential zone evaluation of the study area was obtained as follows: very good
(2.43%), good (4.78%), moderate (67.36%), poor (25.43%); and a groundwater potential zone (GWPZ) map of the sub-
basin was prepared. The derived groundwater potential map was overlaid with borehole and spring data for validation and
shows good correlations with that of existing borehole and spring data. Therefore, this study demonstrates a robust method
of using GIS and AHP techniques that is efficient and useful in delineating and mapping groundwater potential zones. Any
groundwater management project done in these regions would offer the greatest value. Similar studies should be deemed
important before planning a water resource development activity, as it would save the expense of comprehensive field trips,
which are time-consuming.

Keywords  AHP · GIS · Groundwater potential · Weighted overlay analysis

Introduction because it is still nearby when water is required. Groundwa-

Groundwater is critical around the world because it is the
main source of drinking water, as well as industrial and agri-
cultural use. Several researchers have performed groundwa-
ter quality studies (Agrawal 2009), and groundwater level
fluctuations have been identified using temporal water depth
data (Kumar and Devi 2006), while others have investigated
potential groundwater zones (PGZs) using geographic infor-
mation systems (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) techniques
(Bera and Bandyopadhyay 2012; Javed and Wani 2009).
According to research, groundwater is an outstanding natu-
ral resource that is usually sufficient for potable sources with
minimal or no treatment. It is appealing as a service potion
* Mesfin Mamo Haile
mesfinmamo0355@gmail.com
1
Department of Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering,
Ambo University, Ambo, Oromia, Ethiopia
ter was civilization's main source of water supply. Ground-
water losses, for example, account for one-fifth of overall
water consumption in some developing nations. Groundwa-
ter is also an important source of water supply in areas where
long-term droughts reduce water flow during dry summers.
In the case of groundwater, it is important not to overlook
the importance of surface water. Many surface streams, on
the other hand, get a significant portion of their discharge
from groundwater. Several reports have reported that the use
of GIS techniques in mapping potential groundwater areas
has been applied in various parts of the world in the past
(Srinivasa Rao and Jugran 2003; Sikdar et al. 2004; Shankar
and Mohan 2006; Madrucci et al. 2008; Preeja et al. 2011;
Rahman et al. 2012; Jasrotia et al. 2013).
Recent research has successfully delineated ground-
water potential zones (GWPZ) using remote sensing and
geographic information system-based AHP methods (Chen
et al. 2011; Nair et al. 2019; Abrams et al. 2018; Patra et al.

13
Vol.:(0123456789)
 36   Page 2 of 17
2018). When these studies were evaluated, it was revealed
that nearly all of them employed land use, geomorphology,
geology, recharge rate, drainage density, digital elevation
model (DEM), rainfall, slope, surface water body, linea-
ment density, lithology, and water table depth characteris-
tics. The basins' groundwater potential index (GWPI) values
were conditioned by combining all of the criterion weights
with AHP techniques (Gdoura et al. 2015; Saidi et al. 2017;
Kaur et al. 2020; Gupta and Srivastava 2010). These GWPI
values were then categorized, and GWPZ maps for vari-
ous geographical areas were produced (Rahmati et al. 2015;
Pinto et al. 2017; Murthy 2000; Ibrahim-Bathis and Ahmed
2016). However, the theme level utilized to identify GWPZs
varies between studies and regions, and the qualitative lay-
ers used are arbitrary. Almost all research relies heavily on
land use, soil, geomorphology, drainage density, and slope
characteristics. Murthy (2000) included rainfall in ground-
water potential zone analyses in semiarid Andhra Pradesh.
The rainfall and lineament density data were also provided
by Ibrahim-Bathis and Ahmed (2016). The geology param-
eter was also included by Sikdar et al. (2004), Prasad et al.
(2007), Madrucci et al. (2008), Chowdhury et al. (2009),
Senanayake et al. (2016), and Zaidi et al. (2015). Jha et al.
(2010) focused on surface water bodies. Machiwal et al.
(2011) used surface water bodies, rate of recharge, and water
table depth as variables. Senanayake et al. (2016) and Agar-
wal and Garg (2016) included the digital elevation model
as a criteria.
The GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation technique AHP
method was utilized in this study to generate groundwater
potential maps of the Ambo District utilizing hydro mete-
orological and geospatial features without drilling boreholes
in the area. To define groundwater potential, ArcGIS 10.3
and features such as the spatial analyst tool were utilized
in this study. Rainfall, geomorphology, geology, soil, land
use, slope, and drainage density are the seven parameters
that influence groundwater were taken into account. The
AHP–MCET technique was used in a GIS environment to
calculate the relative weights of each criterion. As a result of
this study, GWPZ maps of the study area were created. The
obtained prospective groundwater potential maps accurately
reflect a key source that assists water resource managers in
developing correct management plans and making much bet-
ter use of groundwater resources.
Materials and methodology
Description of the study area
Ambo district is found in western part of Oromia regional
state, Ethiopia. Ambo is situated at a distance of 110 km
west of Addis Ababa the capital of Ethiopia. The study area
13
Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:36
is reached by the main road from Addis Ababa to Assosa
The target area has an average altitude of 2100 m.a.s.l. and
geographically, located approximately between 37° 40′–38°
0′ E and 8° 50′–9° 20′ N and 1600 ­km2 of land area as shown
on Fig. 1.
General methodology
The GIS–AHP combination is a powerful assessment tool
for analyzing multiple-criteria methods in a GIS environ-
ment (Rikalovic et al. 2014). It improves the use of multiple
parameters and simplifies problem solving (Chenini and
Mammou 2010); to apply this model, the Spatial Analyst
extension of the Arc GIS software is ideal. The research
method was carried out using the methods of spatial analy-
sis and overlay, taking the relative values into account and
grading and interpolating the final thematic maps. Geospa-
tial techniques were applied through the analytical hierarchy
method to delineate the groundwater potential of the Ambo
district. The strategies for this research paper include the
following phases: (1) identification and evaluation of cri-
teria; (2) data collection; (3) preprocessing; (4) input data-
set; (5) input layers reclassified; (6) overlay analysis with
weight sum overlay analysis in ArcGIS tools, ranking the
final value. The overall methodology flowchart of the entire
study is illustrated as shown in Fig. 2.
Input dataset
In this study, various types of data and software have been
used. A digital elevation model (DEM) with 12.5 m resolu-
tion was obtained from ASF Data search Vertex to derive
slope and drainage density map using the ArcGIS tool. The
development of drainage density involves filling sinks, flow
direction, flow accumulation, and stream network extrac-
tion. Then, the drainage density map was produced using
a line density analysis tool. Landsat 8 Operational Land
Imager (OLI) satellite image was obtained from the United
States Geological Society (USGS) website and used to gen-
erate LULC maps (USGS 2019). The daily rainfall data of
23 years (1994–2016) and groundwater well data were pro-
vided from the National Metrological Agency and Ethiopian
Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy, whereas geological
and geomorphological data were obtained from the Ethio-
pian geological survey. A rainfall map was developed using
inverse distance weight methods. Soil map of the study area
was prepared using the Harmonized World Soil Database
(HWSD).
The input layers were prepared for multiple variables such
as thematic maps of Slope and drainage density map are
generated from DEM data of 12.5 × 12.5 m resolution. Soil
Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:36 Page 3 of 17  36
Fig. 1  Location map of the study area
and land use/land cover map derived from the map prepared
by Ethiopian Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy.
The required parameters were prepared for each layer to
evaluate the groundwater potential zone and resampled to
a common spatial resolution as per suitable for overlaying,
weighting as per suitable for groundwater potential capabil-
ity, and AHP pairwise comparisons were computed for each
thematic map (Table 1).
Generation of parameters and layers
From previous literature (Madrucci et al. 2008; Chowdhury
et al. 2009; Rahmati et al. 2015; Pinto et al. 2017) and per-
sonal judgments, parameters affecting groundwater poten-
tial zones and their relative value are taken. It incorporated
exactly the same variables and picked only representative
parameters. The others use lithology, geomorphology, land
use cover, lineaments, slope, soil, drainage density, precipi-
tation and runoff that affect the capacity and recharge of
groundwater as the key parameters (Sajikumar and Gigo
2013). Rainfall, geomorphology, geology, soil, drainage
density, land use/land cover and slope are used to define the
spatial distribution of the possible zone of groundwater for
this study.
Rainfall  The most critical variables for the development and
recharge of groundwater potential are rainfall. In Fig. 3, the
rainfall map of the study area is shown. Quite high rainfall
of around 1320–1397 mm/year occurs in the northern part
of the study region; high rainfall of around 1242–1320 mm/
year occurs in some areas of the central part of the study
area. Moderate precipitation is 1164–1242 mm/year in the
southern, western, central and northern highland foot range.
Relatively, low precipitation is 1087–1164 mm/year in the
southern, north-western and western region, northeastern
and central portion. Compared to other parts of the study
areas, the eastern zone receives very low rainfall of 1009–
1087 mm/year, as shown in Fig. 3. In the central and north-
ern highland parts, the high distribution of rainfall along the
high-slope gradient directly favors the high rate of infiltra-
tion, which suggests a high potential groundwater zone in
the study region (Table 2).
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 36   Page 4 of 17 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:36

Existing Data Field Data Satellite Precipitation DEM data set

Images

GCP Gap filling and

Supervised Slope Drainage
homogenization
classification Density
Soil Geology Geomorphology
Map Map Map
Averaging ARF
Land use/cover
Map
IDW
Interpolation

Rainfall Map

Reclassifying as per suitable for GWP

Soil Geology Geomorphology LULC Rainfall Slope Drainage Density

Map Map Map Map Map Map Map

AHP based Weight Calculation

Weighted Overlay Analysis

Delineation of Groundwater and Recharge Zone

Fig. 2  Flow chart of methodology

Table 1  Summary of data used Data type Source Output

for the study and their source
Rainfall data National Meteorology of Ethiopia Rainfall map
Geomorphological data Geological Survey of Ethiopia (GSE) Geomorphology map
Geological data Geological Survey of Ethiopia (GSE) Geology map
Soil data MOIE Soil map
LULC data Satellite data and MOIE LULC map
DEM http://​vertex.​daac.​asf.​alaska.​edu Slope and drainage density map

Geomorphology  The description and characterization of
numerous landforms and structural features in the research
area are crucial from a geomorphological perspective,
which are needed for groundwater potential and recharge
zones (Shifaji and Nitin 2014). The geomorphology of the
study area is reclassified into five groups based on their sug-
gestion of the groundwater potential region: plains and low-
lands, high to mountainous relief hills, piedmonts and water
bodies, severely dissected plateaus, and anthropogenic land
forms. Plains and lowlands can be seen in the west, south-
west, and a portion of the south and central areas of the
study region. This part of the study area is also impacted by
pediments. The pediment, as the name indicates, is usually
located at the base of a cliff. Pediments are plains that are

13
Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:36 Page 5 of 17  36
Fig. 3  Reclassified rainfall map
of the study area
Table 2  Rainfall and its rank as per suitable for groundwater potential
Parameter Classes GW prospect
Rainfall (mm/year) 1009–1087 Very poor
1087–1164 Poor
1164–1242 Moderate
1242–1320 Good
1320–1397 Very good
softly undulating and mildly sloping. The front is a low-angle
inclined terrestrial erosional foot slope surface with no sig-
nificant relief in either direction. Because of the occurrence
of some lineaments or cracks, there might be some room for
groundwater movement. Stream flooding, weathering, sheet
washing, and lateral planting all lead to the creation of a
front. Most of the farm land in the study area is covered by
pediments, and the area has high-to-moderate groundwater
potential (Kebede et al. 2018).
The plateau, which is crisscrossed by small rivers and
gorges, stretches to the east, south, and southeast. The
southern zone of the study region is defined by plateaus
that are deeply cut by large rivers and gorges. Since the
plateau's presence accelerates further run-off, it is classi-
fied as a potential region of low groundwater. The central
and eastern regions are dominated by elevated structural
benches, terraces, and plateaus within large river gorges.
These are related to cropland, low-lying ground, and hills
with or without vegetation. This suggests a poor indica-
Rank
tion of groundwater potential and recharge zones. There
is, however, a small area of land with a high elevation in
1 comparison to the surrounding local land. A thematic map
2 for geomorphology, as shown in Fig. 4, was created by
3 extracting different classes of geomorphology (Table 3).
4
5 Geology  Geological parameter is one of the most impor-
tant parameters in terms of groundwater potential. Geo-
logical features are important in reflecting aquifer status,
which indicates groundwater storage. Figure 5 depicts the
basin's geological thematic map. The geological composi-
tion of the sample area is reclassified into five categories
based on their ability to store groundwater:
1. Abay beds
  Abay bed formation is primarily made up of gypsum
and mud stone. Toward the top, there is an intercalation
of lime stone and at the base, shale. It is a bit too soft
and lightly weathered. The major types of rocks in this
formation are mudstone, siltstone, and shale. However,
there are some beds with distinct intercalations. This
means that the temperature is very high. It has a high
level of weathering. The young, broad, and very small
fracture surfaces include very low permeability and
restricted groundwater incidence characteristics. The
formation of Abbay beds has certain characteristics. In
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 36   Page 6 of 17 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:36

Fig. 4  Reclassified geomorphol-
ogy map of the study area

springs meet such patterns. This rock is classified as an

Table 3  Geomorphology and its rank as per suitable for groundwater
potential and recharge intensely active aquifer in general (Kebede et al. 2018).

Parameter Classes GW prospect Rank

Geomorphology High to Mountainous Relief Very poor 1 3. Tarmaber basalt and Central volcanic basalts
Hills   This unit has a high level of secondary permeabil-
Plains and lowlands Good 5 ity and porosity. The scoriaceous lava flow character
Piedmonts and water body Very good 4 of the unit makes it suitable for ground water storage
Severely dissected plateau Poor 2 and travel. The permeability is strongly dependent on
Moderately dissected plateau Moderate 3 the degree and depth of fracking, and the occurrence
of joint growth on Tarmaber basalt provides the aqui-
fer with strong hydraulic properties. Central volcanics
have a volatile mode of occurrence and have solid water-
general, this structure is classified as a low-active aquifer bearing characteristics. Their vesicular presence and
(Kebede et al. 2018). boulder-forming characteristics often make them good
aquifers with good groundwater incidence and move-
ment. However, secondary materials cover the vesicles,
2. Adigrat sandstone and the weathering process gives them a comparatively
  Adigrat sand stone has both primary and secondary high permeability. This unit is characterized by domes
permeability for ground water passage and occurrence. and hills and, rather than acting as a good recharging
The main water-bearing horizon is formed by interstitial area for the underlying aquifer, has little groundwater
spaces. Furthermore, secondary fractures and joints with occurrence. In general, they have been classified as low-
greater porosity and permeability regulate the incidence productive aquifers (Kebede et al. 2018).
and flow of ground water. However, precipitates quickly
close those porous spaces to percolating water in cer-
tain places, reducing aquifer permeability. The Adigrat 4. Alcalitrachyte sand subordinate basalts and alluvium
sandstone bedding plains in the study area are dipping   Alcalitrachyte sand tertiary basalt with a dense paleo-
toward the flow paths of rivers and gorges, and several sol is found over subordinate basalts. It has an aphanitic

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Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:36 Page 7 of 17  36
Fig. 5  Reclassified geology map
of the study area soil
to medium-grained texture with vesicular differences
mainly in the lower section. Trachyte basalt is often
found alternately layered with dominant trachyte. It has
columnar jointing in the lower portion and is influenced
by two sets of joints (Assiged 2007). Alluvium is one of
the most important sources of shallow groundwater. It
has strong permeability and productivity since the com-
position ranges from sand to coarse gravel due to the
loose and undifferentiated grains. Sediment grain sorting
is poor in some regions, resulting in very low produc-
tivity. As a result, the geological class is categorized as
intermediate aquifers with permeability and productivity
(Kebede et al. 2018).
5. Amba Alaji rhyolite and Blue Nile basalts
  The steep slope ridges and the comparatively local-
ized flat terrain are shaped by these hydro-geological
units. It is heavily weathered in the upper portion, but
young and vibrant in the lower. However, vertically
developed fractures are often found in the beds of rhyo-
lite and trachyte inters. It is made up of subordinate rhy-
olites, ignimbrites, and trachytes. The Blue Nile basalt is
located in the Abay gorge, where thick basaltic flows and
outcrops protrude uncomfortably above Mesozoic sedi-
ments. It is alkaline basalt with larger columnar joints
that form vertical cliffs. These deposits are known as
"good aquifers" (Kebede et al. 2018) (Table 4).
The soil is an important element determining water
penetration into the soil. The rate and volume of infil-
tration are determined by the composition of the grain
structures. The penetration of ground water is higher in
coarse-grained porous systems. In fine-grained soils, such
as clay, penetration is slower and smaller. Porosity and
permeability are essential factors in groundwater flow and
regeneration. The research focus area's soil texture has
been reclassified into five groups based on FAO's (1998)
shown in Fig. 5, and their hydrological soil group (HSG)
properties are described by Universal Soil Data Analysis
(USDA).
Class 1 (shallow sandy loam, HSG of C) covers a large
part of the study area in the northern, central, northwest-
ern, and northeastern parts of the study area. These classes
of soil group have low infiltration rates due to their shal-
lowness and/or stoniness and moderate runoff rates.
The deep sand (HSG of A) distributed over the northern,
eastern, and southeastern parts of the study area has hydro-
logical properties of moderate infiltration rates and consists
mainly of deep and well-drained soil types.
Class-3 (loam, HSG of B) covers the western, southwest-
ern, and southern parts of the study area in small amounts
and has hydrological properties that are well drained and
have favorable physical properties; they have granular or
crumb surface soil that is porous and well aerated. They
consist chiefly of moderately deep to deep, moderately well
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 36   Page 8 of 17 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:36

Table 4  Geology and its rank Parameter Classes GW prospect Rank

as per suitable for groundwater
potential and recharge Geology Abbay beds Very poor 1
Adigrat sandstone Very good 5
Central volcanic basalt and Tarmaber basalt Poor 2
Alcalitrachyte sand subordinate basalts and alluvium Moderate 3
Alaji rhyolite and Blue Nile basalts Good 4

to well-drained soils with moderately fine to moderately fine properties of low infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted
textures. and primarily clay soils with a high swelling potential, as
Class 4 (shallow soils over impervious layer, HSG of described in Table 5 (Fig. 6).
group D) covers eastern parts of the study area and has
hydrological properties of low infiltration rates. It consists Drainage density  Drainage density is one of the variables
of shallow soils over impervious material. Class 5 (clay, affecting the groundwater potential index. Drainage density
HSG of D): it encompasses a small amount of highland in is an inverse property of permeability. In contrast, the less
the study area's eastern and central zones, with hydrological permeable a rock is, the less rainfall infiltration occurs, and
tends to be concentrated in surface runoff. In areas with poor
penetration of river flows, drainage density is low (Tucker
Table 5  Soil and its rank as per suitable for groundwater potential and Bras 1998). It displays information on surface and sub-
and recharge surface forming behavior, rock specifics, soil permeability,
Parameter Classes GW prospect Rank water penetration, and surface runoff (Mishira 2013). The
Structural Drainage Network was used to demonstrate the
Soil HSG of C Moderate 3
characteristics of the groundwater capacity and recharge
HSG of A Very good 5
region, as seen in Table 6. The area with high drainage den-
HSG of B Good 4
sity values has high rainfall, indicating poor freshwater sup-
HSG of D Poor 2
ply, and therefore higher weights are allocated to the region
HSG of D Very poor 1
with low drainage density, and vice versa (Pinto et al. 2017;

Fig. 6  Reclassified soil map of

the study area

13
Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:36 Page 9 of 17  36
Table 6  Drainage density and its rank as per suitable for groundwater
potential and recharge
Parameter Classes GW prospect
Drainage density (Km/Km2) 0–0.23 Very good
0.23–0.46 Good
0.46–0.69 Moderate
0.69–0.91 Poor
0.91–1.14 Very poor
Agarwal and Garg 2016). Drainage density was prepared
from the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) using the line den-
sity tool ArcGIS 10.3 and reclassified into five groups, as
seen in Fig. 7. The extremely high drainage level recorded
in the volcanic mountains and in the mountain foothills and
the extremely low drainage density recorded in the area of
the central rift floor and some of the highlands.
Slope  The slope is the difference in elevation between two
points that has a direct influence on ground water recharge
(Chowdhury et  al. 2009). Since high-slope regions have
high drainage and low penetration rates, which are not suita-
ble for recharging groundwater, water may not have enough
time to enter the area (Chenini and Mammou 2010). Using
the ArcGIS 10.3 spatial analysis tool, a slope map of the
study area was created using data from the Digital Eleva-
tion Model. Based on these results, the slope of the research
Fig. 7  Reclassified drainage
density map of the study area
area was divided into five groups: nearly flat (0–7.04), very
gently sloping (7.04–13.50), gently sloping (13.50–21.42),
Rank moderately sloping (21.42–32.87), and strongly sloping
(32.87–74.83). As shown in Fig. 8, the created map has been
5
reclassified and ranked based on its potential groundwater
4
effects. The highest rank was allocated to almost flat slopes
3
because flat areas have the potential to retain water, making
2
water penetration into the land very quick, while the lowest
1
rank was assigned to steep slopes because of high drain-
age and low infiltration, resulting in limited groundwater
recharge (Table 7).
Land use/land cover  Land use and covering have a signifi-
cant impact on the hydrological processes of soil drainage,
evapotranspiration, and groundwater recharge. As shown
in Table 8, water bodies, farm land, and waterlogged areas
are excellent sources of groundwater recharge, while bare
land and exposed rock surface areas are less important. FAO
(1998) data and the area heavily covered by reasonably cul-
tivated land were taken from the research area's land use and
land cover. Grassland and planted cropland dominate some
of the escarpments in the northeast and southwest (Fig. 9).
Geo‑spatial‑based AHP method
AHP is one of the most commonly used MCDM processes.
It was introduced in 1980 by Thomas L. Saaty and is an
approach focusing on the identification of the evaluation
13
 36   Page 10 of 17 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:36

Fig. 8  Reclassified slope map of

the study area

Table 7  Slope value of and its rank as per suitable for ground water tools and overcoming complexities and confusions, finding
potential and recharge better alternatives, and preparing. Here, the AHP approach
Parameter Classes GW prospect Rank was used to test the chosen variables in this case. The
AHP technique was used, along with an empirical weight
Slope Nearly level (0–7.04) Very good 5 evaluation, to decide the relative significance of the col-
Very gently sloping (7.04–13.50) Good 4
lection and weight formation factors. There had to be at
Gently sloping (13.50–21.42) Moderate 3
least two standards and two techniques to choose from
Moderately sloping (21.42–32.87) Poor 2
(Greene et al. 2011). These parameters have been assigned
Strong sloping (32.87–74.83) Very poor 1
relative value, which is why knowledge and expertise are
especially critical for correct evaluation and study. Criteria
can be both qualitative and quantitative in nature (Tri-
Table 8  Land use and its rank as per suitable for groundwater poten- antaphyllou and Sanchez 1997). GIS-based MCDM is a
tial and recharge knowledge-based specialist technique that is very helpful
Parameter Classes GW prospect Rank for addressing difficult problems. The use of GIS tech-
niques and multi-criteria decision analysis results in more
Land use/cover Agro-pastoral Moderate 3 versatile solutions for forecasting groundwater potential
Agriculture Good 4 areas. As a result, the decision matrix was generated using
Urban, pastoral Very poor 1 a scale of 1–9 for the criteria influencing the decision. The
Marsh and waterbody Very good 5 following parameters were included in the scoring scale:
Sylvo-pastoral Poor 2 (1) equal importance (2) equal to moderately important (3)
moderately important (4) moderately to strongly important
(5) strongly important (6) strong to very strongly impor-
criteria at a specific level, which includes determining tant (7) very strongly important (9) extremely important
their relative importance, comparing the alternatives for (Saaty 2003).
each parameter, and deciding the overall rating of the The weighting of different factors in this article was
alternatives. AHP is commonly used in areas, such as done by personal judgment and a review of the litera-
minimizing problem confusion and complexity, promot- ture. The basic steps for determining the system's normal
ing decision-making, determining goals through expert weight and consistency ratio (CR) were as follows:
comparative clauses (Punniyamoorty et al. 2012), defining Step 1 Formation of judgment matrices (a) via pairwise
comparison:

13
Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:36 Page 11 of 17  36

Fig. 9  Reclassified land use/

land cover map

⎡ a11 a12 … a1n ⎤ where λ is the eigenvalue of judgment matrix and it is cal-
⎢ a a … a2n ⎥ culated as follows:
a = ⎢ 21 22 ⎥, (1)
⎢… … … ⎥ ∑n � �
⎣ an1 an2 ann ⎦ ai W n
𝜆max = i=1
. (5)
N⋅W
where an displays the nth indicator unit and ann is the judg-
ment matrix element. The Random Consistency Index (RCI) can be obtained
Step 2 Estimation of normalized weight: from standard tables. The value of the CR had to be about
0.10 or less to be accepted (Table 9).
GM The empirical hierarchical approach exposes all layers,
Wn = ∑N n , (2)
GMn including geology, geomorphology, soil, rainfall, drainage
n=1
density, and slope. The usable layers should be TIF files.
where W is weight vector (column) and GMn is the geomet- The AHP plugin is then used to connect all of the raster
ric mean of the ith row of the judgment. layers. The values for each criterion of the different lay-
Step 3 CR calculation to ensure the consistency of the ers are given in the first step of the pairwise comparison
judgments: matrix, and the values are determined. Repeat the values
if the outcome is greater than 0.1. In the second stage of
CI
CR = . (3) the weighted linear combination, the weights are calcu-
RCI
lated. The weights allocated to each layer are determined
Consistency index (CI) is denoted as follows: by the factors of each feature. The final step is to run the
AHP process, which will produce the output. The render
𝜆max − N type is then chosen as a single-band pseudo-color and
CI = , (4)
N−1 separated into equivalent intervals of five groups in the
rendering band's layer properties. Finally, classification is

Table 9  Saaty’s ratio index for

different values of n  N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
RCI 0 0 0.58 0.89 1.12 1.24 1.32 1.41 1.45 1.49

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 36   Page 12 of 17 Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:36

achieved. The weight factors for the different geomorphic
units are determined by their capacity to store ground-
water. This process is repeated for each of the remaining
layers, and the resulting layers are reclassified. In the
pairwise matrix used to measure the geometric mean and
the normalized weight of the parameters in the computa-
tional hierarchical process analysis, separate datasets are
used (Chowdhury et al. 2009).
The dimensionless magnitude of the sum of the relative
weights of the parameters affecting groundwater poten-
tial is defined as the Groundwater Potential Index (Ven-
kateswara Rao and Briz-Kishore 1991). This coefficient
was calculated by estimating the weights of the ground-
water potential parameters using the AHP and GIS-based
methods, as seen in Eq. (2).
It is calculated as follows according to the AHP
method:
( ) ( ) ( )
GPI = Dw × Dr + Gw × Gr + G1w × G1r
( ) ( ) The relative weight for thematic layers (rainfall, slope, geo-
+ Rw × Rr + Sw × Sr
( ) ( )
+ SLw × SLr + LuLcw LuLcr . (6)
In the above equation, D is drainage density, G is geo-
morphology, G 1 is geology, S is soil, SL is slope, R is
annual rainfall, w is parameter of weight and r is rank.
Results and discussion
Determination of groundwater potential
The standards for geology, geomorphology, soil, rainfall,
drainage density, and land use/coverage were all considered
in this article. Tables 10 and 11 display the pairwise contrast
matrix. The pairwise contrast matrix was used to measure
the relative weight matrix and the normalized principal
Eigenvector. The influence percentage of thematic layers and
the rank of their parameters were assigned on the basis of the
assessment of the work carried out by researchers (Gdoura
et al. 2015; Rahmati et al. 2015; Pinto et al. 2017) and the
knowledge acquired through similar work on groundwater
potential zone mapping.
Estimation of weight
morphology, geology, drainage density, land use/cover, and
soil) was allocated to each layer based on personal judgment
and professional expertise obtained from previous ground-
water potential mapping work. To compare the value of

Table 10  Analytical hierarchy Parameters RF G G1 S LuLc DD SL

process (AHP) pairwise
comparison matrix RF 1 2 4 3 3 6 4
G 0.5 1 3 2 2 5 3
G1 0.25 0.33 1 0.5 0.5 4 0.5
S 0.33 0.5 2 1 1 4 2
LuLc 0.33 0.5 2 1 1 4 2
DD 0.17 0.2 0.25 0.25 0.25 1 0.25
SL 0.25 0.33 2 0.5 0.5 4 1
Total 2.83 4.86 14.25 8.25 8.25 28 12.75

Where, DD is drainage density, G is geomorphology, G1 is geology, S is soil, SL is slope, RF is annual

rainfall, and LuLc

Table 11  Normalized matrix Parameters RF G G1 LuLc S DD SL NW NW (%)

of AHP
RF 0.35 0.41 0.28 0.36 0.36 0.21 0.31 0.33 33
G 0.18 0.21 0.21 0.24 0.24 0.18 0.24 0.22 22
G1 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.14 0.04 0.07 7
S 0.12 0.1 0.14 0.12 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.13 13
LuLc 0.12 0.1 0.14 0.12 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.13 13
DD 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.03 3
SL 0.09 0.07 0.14 0.06 0.06 0.14 0.08 0.09 9
Total 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 100

Where, DD is drainage density, G is geomorphology, G1 is geology, S is soil, SL is slope, RF is annual

rainfall, LuLc and NW is normalized weight

13
Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:36 Page 13 of 17  36

two-layer maps, it is evident that one has a greater effect on by mountain blocks and slopes, was the primary source of
groundwater than the other. groundwater in the district.

Normalization of weight Principal Eigen vector

The weights were normalized using Eq. (2), which calculates To validate the weights assigned to each parameter in
the corresponding ranks by combining the values in each Table 12, the normalized main vector value of the Eigen
row. The results of the normalized weights of each parameter vector was determined using Eq. (2) to drive the consist-
are shown in Table 11. As a consequence, rather than other ency ratio formula (Eq. 3). This was achieved by multiplying
parameters, the measured precipitation has the maximum the weight of the first parameter (e.g., rainfall = 33) from
value. High rainfall indicates a likelihood of high groundwa- Table 11 by the cumulative value contained in the pairwise
ter recharge and therefore high groundwater potential zones, contrast matrix (e.g., rainfall = 2.83) from Table 10. This was
while low rainfall indicates a possibility of low groundwa- repeated with the remaining six variables, as seen in Eq. (2).
ter recharge and therefore low groundwater potential zones. Finally, the sum of these values yields the consistency vec-
The precipitation from the surrounding highlands, caused tor (max of = 7.14), as seen in Table 12 for the consistency
index estimation.
On the basis of Eq. (4), the consistency index was deter-
Table 12  Normalized principal Eigen vectors mined to be adjusted for the consistency ratio formula, yield-
Parameters Normalized prin- ing CI = 0.023. The consistency ratio was then measured as
cipal Eigen vectors in Eq. (3), and the calculated value of CR = 0.018 was less
than 0.1, suggesting that the weights were appropriate for
Rainfall 0.934
further investigation. The groundwater potential zones are
Geomorphology 1.071
obtained using the spatial analysis function in ArcGIS 10.3
Geology 0.998
to overlay all the thematic maps using the weighted overlay
Soil 1.073
analysis as shown in Fig. 10. During the weighted overlay
Land use 1.073
analysis, the ranks for each individual parameter of each
DD 0.84
thematic map are given, and the weight is determined by the
Slope 1.148
influence of the various parameters.
𝜆max 7.14

Fig. 10  Groundwater potential
zone map of the study area

13
 36   Page 14 of 17
All thematic maps are rasterized and superimposed using
a weighted overlay technique (which ranks and weights the-
matic maps and integrates them with each other through
GIS). Rainfall and geomorphology were given more weight
in the weighting process, while slope and drainage den-
sity were given less weight. Individual rankings for the
sub-variable are given after assigning weights to different
parameters. The GIS layer for each parameter was carefully
evaluated during this process, and the ranks were allocated
to the sub-variables. A feature with the greatest groundwater
potential earns the highest importance. Lowland and plain
land shapes will be awarded the highest rating, while moun-
tainous regions will be allocated the lowest value. In terms
of slope, the gentle slope receives the highest rank value,
while the steeper slope receives the lowest rank value. Low
drainage density is given a higher grade factor since it pre-
fers infiltration over surface runoff. Lower value, followed
by higher drainage density. Marsh and water bodies have a
high LULC value, whereas pastoral and urban lands have a
low value (Table 13).
The results suggest that there is a very good potential
area in the northern part of the study area with high rainfall,
low land and the Adigrat sandstone geological formation.
Furthermore, this region is associated with deep sandy soil,
poor drainage density, agro-pastoral land use, and a nearly
level slope (0°–7°). The area with low potential is situated
in the northern, western, eastern, and southwest areas, where
precipitation is low and the terrain is mountainous with steep
slopes.
Validation of groundwater potential zones
An effort was made to gather current data from various
databases for confirmation purposes. A total of 29 exist-
ing groundwater inventories, including 23 boreholes and 6
spring wells, were obtained. For the purpose of comparing
or evaluating the qualitative effects of possible groundwater
areas, well and spring yields have been chosen as a better
candidate than other current data. However, only 7 ground-
water wells and 6 springs fall within the study area, as seen
in Fig. 11. The highest yield among the groundwater data
Table 13  Groundwater potential area and the percentage covered by
the study area
No. Groundwater potential Area ­(km2) Area (%)
zone
1 Very good 37.51 2.43
2 Good 73.96 4.78
3 Moderate 1042.14 67.36
4 Poor 393.46 25.43
5 Very poor 0 0
13
Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:36
obtained was 8 l/s with a well depth of 200 m. The lowest
yield was recorded from springs with a yield of 0.01 l/s.
Since there is no general classification system, well yields
can be classified into several classification systems under
site-specific conditions. GSE (2013) categorized aqui-
fer yields 0.5–1 l/s medium, 1–5 l/s moderate to low and
5–25 l/s high groundwater capacity. The GSE (2013) clas-
sification scheme was followed with some alteration in this
study. Areas with a well/spring yield of between 0 and 1 l/s
were rated as low, 1 and 5 l/s as moderate as and more than
5 l/s as high potential groundwater areas.
Based on this classification, 8 boreholes and springs
(89%) of the 9 boreholes and springs with yields in excess
of 1–5 l/s have moderate yields in the moderate groundwater
potential region. Most of them are located around town of
Ambo and at the foot of the mountains. Out of the 4 bore-
hole yield results, 2 (50%) of the borehole yields fall to low
groundwater potential areas and 2 of the borehole yields
fall to high yield areas as shown in Fig. 11. In general, the
cross-validation study showed that 69.5% (Table 14) of the
groundwater inventory data (boreholes and springs) agree
with the related groundwater potential zone classifications
from the qualitative analysis. Best producing wells are found
in the central and eastern and northern parts of the study
region where moderate to high groundwater potential areas
prevail.
Conclusion
Due to the inaccessibility of the area, mapping groundwa-
ter potential zones using geospatial-based multi-criteria
assessment techniques has become increasingly common,
saving time and money. This research used qualitative work
to assess groundwater potential zones for the Ambo district,
Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia, using AHP-based GIS. Rainfall,
geomorphology, geology, soil, land use, land cover, drainage
density, and slope are all factors that influence the occur-
rence and flow of groundwater.
The delineated groundwater potential region was
divided into five zones: "very low," "low," "moderate,"
"good," and "very good." The low zone denotes a less
desirable area for groundwater prospecting, while the very
good zone denotes the most suitable area for groundwa-
ter prospecting. Plains with high rainfall and the Adigrat
sandstone geological formation, which correspond with
the study area's low slope and low drainage density, have
very good potential areas. Very low groundwater potential
falls in the area of mountainous and severely dissected
landforms, bare lands, high slopes, and high drainage
density. Most of the area, approximately 67.36% of the
area, is under moderate groundwater potential, and the
next poor groundwater potential area is 25.43%. The third
Sustainable Water Resources Management (2022) 8:36 Page 15 of 17  36

Fig. 11  Groundwater potential
validation map of the study area

Table 14  Agreement between Classes of GWP Yield (l/s) No of wells and springs No of wells and springs Agreement (%)
the groundwater points and the exist in the GWPZ fall in the zone
qualitative results
Very poor
Poor 0–1 4 2 50
Moderate 1–5 9 8 89
Good
Very good > 5 3
Total 13 69.5

area covered is good groundwater potential of 4.78% and References

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Data availability  The authors declare that all data supporting the find-
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