KATHLYNE PINKRAH

CIE/19/01/9842
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
ASSIGNMENT 1
1. Soil
Soil is a mixture of minerals, dead and living organisms (organic materials), air, and water. An
engineer may view soils as a material upon which infrastructure is built
The surface mineral and/or organic layer of the earth has experiences some degree of physical,
biological, and chemical weathering.
 Physical weathering
Physical weathering is also referred to as mechanical weathering. It is a process that causes the
disintegration of rocks, minerals, and soils without any chemical change. Physical weathering
can occur due to temperature, pressure, frost, root action, and burrowing animals.
When water for example gets into the rocks and freezes the frozen water expands and causes the
rocks to weaken and widen the cracks. In the long run, the bigger rocks are broken into smaller
and smaller fragments. Moving ice in glacial areas also washes away rock fragments and
disintegrates them into smaller pieces as the rocks interact with the forces and pressure of the
frozen materials.
Thermal stress is influenced by temperature. This is the result of temperature changes on rocks
causing them to contract and expand. Uneven expansion and contraction cause the rocks to
fracture and fragment into smaller pieces. These processes eventually cause the rock to fragment
into smaller and smaller pieces.
 Chemical weathering
Chemical reactions such as oxidation, carbonation, hydrolysis, and acidification are used in the
process of chemical weathering to erode or disintegrate these particles. Rust, which develops
through oxidation and acid rain from the dissolution of rocks by carbonic acid, is an illustration
of chemical weathering. There are different types of chemical weathering, the most common are:
Solution - removal of rock in solution by acidic rainwater. In particular, limestone is weathered
by rainwater containing dissolved CO2, (this process is sometimes called carbonation).
Hydrolysis - the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and soluble salts.
Oxidation - the breakdown of rock by oxygen and water, often giving iron-rich rocks a rusty-
colored weathered surface.
 Transported soil
Transported soils are those that have formed at one location (like residual soils) but are
transported and deposited at another by water, wind, and other natural forces. Examples include
colluvial (transported by gravity), alluvial (transported by running water), and, glacial.
 Residual soil
Residual soils are formed from the weathering of rocks and practically remain at the location of
origin with little or no movement of individual soil, For example, basalt, shale, and lateritic soils.
Residual soil occurs as a result of chemical weathering.
2. A SHORT HISTORY OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
Although the first documented use of soil in construction is unknown, the 18th century saw the
beginning of geotechnical engineering. The history of geotechnical engineering began in the
1700s through experimentation without scientific character.
We can categorize the geotechnical engineering timeline into four periods according to its past:
Classical Soil Mechanics Phase II, Pre-Classical, Classical Soil Mechanics Phase I, and Modern
Soil Mechanics
Pre-Classical (1700-1776)
Natural slopes and the weights of various soil types were the main topics during this time. Earth
pressure theories were studied by engineers. Henri Gautier a French engineer and scientist
publishes a book known as treatise and bridges which classified soils as clean dry sand, ordinary
earth, and compacted clay. As a follow up de Belidor proposed a classification system of rock,
hard sand, soft earth, clay, peat, and ordinary earth
A French engineer published the first lab test findings in this field of study in 1746. Slip planes
had been observed by Francois Gadroy. Jean Rodolphe Perronet, another engineer, described the
distinction between fills and intact ground.
Classical Soil Mechanics Phase I (1776-1856)
The theory of earth pressure and wedge theory, related to geotechnical engineering, was
propounded by Charles Augustin de Coulomb. Alexandre Collin made progress in estimating the
failure of surfaces toward the end. William John Rankine’s work on earth pressures and the
stability of retaining walls was a notable advance in soil mechanics, particularly his paper “On
the Thermodynamic Theory of Waves of Finite Longitudinal Disturbance.
Classical soil mechanics phase II(1856-1910)
Joseph Valentin Boussinesq gave stresses and displacements in elastic foundations. During Phase
II, experiments produced new insights into sand and sand filters. The term “hydraulic
conductivity” was also introduced by Osborne Reynolds.
Modern soil mechanics (1910- 1927)
 Albert Mauritz Atterberg
Explained the consistency of cohesive soils by defining liquid, plastic, and shrinkage limits
 J. Frontard,
Double shear test under normal load (σ ≠ 0)
 A.L Bell,
Lateral pressure and resistance of clay; Bearing capacity of clay foundations
 W. Fellenius,
Slope stability; ф = 0 concept
 Karl von Terzaghi
1. Effective stress concept
2. Consolidation
3. Shear strength and permeability of clays