3.1 Ropes, Wires & Chains.

1. Difference between Natural and Synthetic ropes:

Rope may be constructed from: Natural fibres: such as cotton, coir, hemp, manila
and sisal.

Or from…..

Synthetic fibres:

Synthetic fibre ropes are made from four main yarn groups and with the exception
of nylon, the more expensive the fibre, the stronger the rope with less stretch.

Examples are polyamide (nylon), polyester (terylene), polythene and polypropylene

or a mixture of some of these synthetic fibres.

Properties of Natural Ropes:

Cotton rope is mainly used on yachts, being soft and pliable. It also knots well.

Coir rope is both buoyant and elastic but lacking in strength.

Sometimes referred to as grass line, coir is obtained from the fibres of coconut
husks. It is mainly exported from Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon) and ports in India. It
is a very rough, coarse and hairy rope, with only about one quarter the strength of
a hemp rope. However, it is very light and floats, possessing great elasticity.

Hemp rope Hemp rope was used in the age of sailing ships, though the rope had to
be protected by tarring to prevent rot.

Tarring was a labour-intensive process, and earned sailors the nickname "Jack Tar".

Hemp rope was phased out when Manila, which does not require tarring, became
widely available. Manila is sometimes referred to as Manila hemp.

Manila rope Manila is obtained from the abaca (wild banana) plant, which grows,
largely in the Philippine Islands, and is exported via the port of Manila, from which
it acquires its name.

Manila rope is not as durable as hemp, but is most certainly more pliable and
softer. It is gold-brown in colour, and never tarred. It is not generally used for
running rigging because it swells and expands, often jamming in the block.
Although it swells when wet, it is considered by far the strongest natural rope made
and was the preferred choice before the synthetic fibres were developed.

Manila still maintains some advantage over synthetic fibres as it is not affected by
heat and UV radiation. It is in general used for Lifeboat falls, cargo handling,
lashings and moorings.

Sisal rope: This rope’s name comes from the plant it’s made of, namely Agave
sisalana. It is much appreciated because it costs less, but it has the tendency to
become coarse and relatively bulky. Other than that, it is stiff, strong, durable and
it has the capacity to resist deterioration in salted water. It is commonly used as
tying twine. However, chemicals and moisture shorten its lifespan.

Properties of Synthetic ropes:

Polyamide (Nylon) rope, the most elastic and strongest of all synthetic fibre ropes,
resists alkalis, oils, organic solvents and rot. Melting point 2500C. Mainly used for
springs and tow ropes, also used by stevedores for cargo work.Good resistance to
UV radiation.

Polyester (Terylene) rope with a melting point of 2600C has the highest resistance
to fusing of all synthetic fibres. It resists acids, oils, organic solvents, bleaching
agents and rot. Stretches less than Nylon and is used on yachts or where stretch is
not desired.

Polythene rope with a melting point of 1350C has the least resistance to fusing of
all synthetic fibres. Buoyant, it resists alkalis, oils, bleaching agents and rot. Used
for loglines and halyards. Light weight and flexible and a type of fibre that floats.

Polypropylene rope is made in three types, "Fibrefilm", "monofilament", and

"staple". The main difference being is in the elastic property of the rope, the least
elastic and lightest of the synthetic fibre ropes, it has a melting point of 1650C and
is buoyant. Resists acids, alkalis, oils and rot.

Size for size, all natural fibre ropes have a lower breaking strain than synthetic
ropes, need more care, can shrink and put extra strain on gear and nowadays are
more difficult to source. But natural fibre ropes can be cheaper.

Understanding breaking Stress, SWL and factor of safety of Ropes, wires

and chains.

Stress: denotes the load put on material.

Strain: is the molecular disturbance made evident by a change of shape or a
fracture of the material due to the stress that has been applied.

In simple words it is the result in the properties of a material after the stress is
applied.

The term Breaking Stress (BS) or Ultimate Load is the load or weight applied to the
material when testing to destruction.

SWL or Safe working load Also called WLL (Working Load Limit): is like a safety
rating given to any piece of gear. It is the maximum load that a rope, wire or chain
or any gear in good condition, be subjected to without fear of breaking.

It is also known as WLL or Working Load Limit.

Factor of Safety: Every item used in a rigging has a BS from which a SWL may be
found by dividing the BS by a factor of safety for the function of the gear.

It is common practice to allow a ’Factor of Safety’ of six in general marine work for
both fibre and wire rope.

Wire slings can have a ’Factor of Safety’ of five in some cases and allow a Factor of
Safety of five for chain.

One of the safety precautions to be observed when using ropes, wires or chains or
any gear is NOT to exceed its Safe Working Load (SWL).

At no time should any attempt be made to lift weights in excess of the SWL of the
weakest part of the gear.

SWL = BS/Factor of Safety

For example if a rope has a BS of 600 kg what will its SWL be? The answer is:

600/6 = 100 kg.

EXAMPLE: Calculate the size of manila rope to use if the stress on the hauling part
will be not greater than 3 tonnes.

Use the formula:

2D₂/300 as the breaking strain for manila rope.

BS/6=SWL

As the given stress on the hauling part = 3 tonnes, the SWL = 3 tonnes.
Maintenance of ropes and wires used for cargo gear:

Wires on cargo gear are left exposed to the elements, which is generally wind, salt
water, and funnel emissions. These are corrosive elements, and poorly protected or
lubricated wires will deteriorate.

Ideally, wires should be removed from their drums for a thorough inspection, care
being taken that broken wires don’t snag and cause injury to those personnel
handling the wires.

Once the inspection is complete, wires should be cleaned and lubricated.

One of the most common methods of greasing wires is either by the use of a rag
covered in grease or with brushes dipped in grease and smeared over the wire.

This is an ineffective method, as the wire isn’t cleaned of the old grease, there is no
grease penetrating to the core of the wire etc., new grease is merely spread over
the surface of the old grease, salt, soot and other contaminants.

This layer of grease only serves to further contaminate surface of the wire with
anything that comes into contact with it.

There are proprietary wire rope cleaners/lubricators available, many of which

consist of a sleeve clamped around the wire, into which compressed air forces
grease or a specialised oil.

Some of these cleaners have rotary collar brushes that follow the grooves of the
wire, others have rubber collars; all scrape off the old grease before injecting fresh
lubricant into the wire as the wire is slowly pulled through the sleeve.

The collars are interchangeable, so different sizes can be used for different size
wires.

These can generally be used in situ, with adaptable flexible mountings, so can be
used on cranes, davits, winches, etc. There are also a number of fixed systems
available whereby the lubricating unit is permanently rigged on the crane or other
appliance.

Another method for cleaning wires (except mooring wires as they tend to be too
big) is for the wire to be removed completely from its spool and placed in a
container of kerosene or similar.

This dissolves the old grease, right into the core of the wire. When new grease is
applied to the outside of the wire, the remaining kerosene draws fresh lubricant into
the wire.
Lubricants applied to wire ropes provide a dual form of protection such that
individual wires are protected from each other and the whole wire is protected from
the corrosive action of sea water.

In order to understand the importance of lubrication, it is necessary to understand

that a wire, when in use, is a dynamically complex mechanical unit comprising of a
number of moving parts. As a wire passes over a sheave or round a roller it is
subjected to corrosion, bending, tension and compressive stresses as it equalises
the effects of the load imparted upon it.

The lubricant added to the wire during the manufacturing process allows this
equalisation process to occur with the minimum of abrasion / deterioration to the
individual wires in a strand. It should therefore be apparent that applying a coating
of grease to an old contaminated layer of grease serves little purpose as it cannot
penetrate the wire.

Any form of rope is liable to wear and mechanical damage and can be weakened by
various means, including chemical, heat and light. Regular inspection is essential to
ensure that ropes are serviceable before use.

When not in use as on a passage the rope used for cargo gear should be stowed in
a clean, dry area free from heat and away from chemicals.

Maintenance and Care of fibre ropes:

Unless otherwise stated, all fibre ropes are liable to deteriorate with static, or when
exposed to strong sunlight, chemical fumes, heat, sparks and by abrasion, or when
contaminated by acids, alkalis, bleaching agents,, oils and organic solvents.

In the event of contamination, the rope should be immediately washed with fresh
water and closely inspected for damage.

Natural fibre ropes are particularly subject to damage from mildew and rot and
must not be stowed away wet.

Rope should never be stored in the vicinity of steam pipes or boilers.

When stowed on deck, fibre ropes should be covered with tarpaulin canvas in order
to exclude damage from weather and strong sunlight.

Never leave the end of a rope to fray. Put a whipping on.

Chain Register:

The Chain Register is a legal document similar to the Oil record book or the Official
log book.

It is a declaration on the ships part that her cargo gear complies with the
regulations.

In the event of an accident caused through failure of the ship’s gear, it would be
treated as a piece of evidence.

The tests, examinations and inspections included in the register are based on the
requirements of the ILO Convention 152.

The tests are intended to ensure that ships having lifting appliances are initially
certified by a competent person and to establish that they continue to be in safe
working order.

The information contained on the face or cover of the chain register is as follows:

1. Name of the Ship.

2. Official Number.

3. Call Sign.

4. Port of registry.

5. Name of the owner.

6. Date of Issue.

7. Issued by.

8. Signature and Stamp.

The chain register now consists of two parts. The Register and Certificates for gear
currently aboard the ship shall be preserved for at least five years after the date of
the last entry.

All lifting appliances and every item of loose gear shall be thoroughly examined by
a competent person at least once in every 12 months. The particulars of these
thorough examinations shall be entered in Part I of the Register.

Regular visual inspections of every item of loose gear shall be carried out by a
responsible person before use. A record of these regular inspections is to be
entered in Part II of the Register, but entries need only be made when the
inspection has indicated a defect in the item.
Wire Rope Examination:

The required intervals between on board inspections should be documented by the

manufacturer and is dependent upon the use, size and construction of the wire.
These intervals should be transferred to the vessel’s planned maintenance system.

The general condition of a wire should be monitored whenever it is in use. Specific

inspections should however concentrate on signs of deterioration and damage. A
formal inspection should be undertaken by a responsible person before work
commences and if shock-loading is suspected.

The time interval between subsequent inspections can be reduced by the competent
person due to the condition of the wire.

For crane wire, the following points should be covered by examination:

Although the wire rope shall be examined throughout its length, particular care
shall be taken at the following locations:

a) The termination points of both moving and stationary ropes;

b) The part of the rope which passes over the block or over sheaves;

c) In the case of cranes performing a repetitive operation, any part of the rope
which lies over sheave(s) while the crane is in a loaded condition;

d) Any part of the rope which may be subject to abrasion by external features (e.g.
hatch coamings);

f) Internals of the rope, for corrosion and fatigue;

g) Any part of the rope exposed to heat.

These should stand as guidelines for inspecting wires associated with lifeboat / life
raft / rescue boat davits, accommodation ladders and gangways etc.

Records should be maintained detailing the changing condition of a wire throughout

its life-cycle.

Details that should be recorded include the number and location of individual
broken wires, any flattening of the surface of the wire, any signs of abrasion,
kinking, etc.

This would allow for progressive monitoring of the wire, and allow for programming
additional maintenance and for replacement wires to be purchased in good time.
Discard criteria:

Deterioration frequently is the result of a combination of factors, including:

1. The nature and number of broken wires. Wire ropes which have broken wires in
strands should be replaced. Whenever 10% of wires are broken in any eight (8)
diameters length, the wire should be condemned.

2. Reduction of rope diameter.

3. Decreased elasticity.

4. Wear

5. Corrosion – internal and external

6. Deformation, including ‘bird cages’, kinks, etc.

7. Damage due to heat or electric arcing

8. Rate of increase of permanent elongation.