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Chapter 1
CO2, climate change mitigation and the
building industry

The construction and operation of buildings and cities accounts

for around 50% of the UK’s CO2 emissions and is thus a significant
contributor to global warming. A reduction in CO2 is needed to
mitigate climate change, and this reduction is the main driver behind
many building-specific EU and UK regulations, codes and frameworks.

However, CO2 emissions are not the building industry’s only

environmental impact. Other impacts include loss of biodiversity,
resource depletion and negative effects on building users’ health and
well-being.

This introductory chapter gives a brief overview of the main causes

of global warming. It looks at climate change mitigation policies
and frameworks, particularly CO2 reduction targets. The chapter also
discusses the challenges to CO2 reduction posed by unpredictable
‘human factors’ and how building designers can meet them. Finally,
a building maintenance and care checklist is followed by a 'green'
checklist of the 2013 RIBA Plan of Work.

While this chapter sets out climate change mitigation measures, the
succeeding chapter covers climate change impacts and adaptation
measures.

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7
The Environmental Design Pocketbook CO2, climate change mitigation and the building industry

1.1 FOSSIL FUELS: THE FACTS 9 1.1 FOSSIL FUELS: THE FACTS

1.1.1 Why do we burn fossil fuels? 10 Fossil fuels are a finite resource. Easily and cheaply exploited reserves might be
1.1.2 What does this have to do with the building industry? 10 nearing depletion and in the future will become prohibitively expensive. But our
hunger for fossil fuels not only endangers our financial security; there are also grave
1.2 CLIMATE CHANGE: HOW ‘BAD’ WILL IT BE? 12 global environmental implications.

1.2.1 The uncertainty of climate predictions 12 Since the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century, we have been burning fossil
1.2.2 The UK’s mild climate 13 fuels on a gigantic scale. This releases greenhouse gases, the most important of
1.2.3 A regional map of the UK 14 which is CO2 (carbon dioxide).

1.3 GLOBAL WARMING: WHAT CAN WE DO ABOUT IT? 15 While CO2 is also released through natural processes, in what is known as the ‘carbon
cycle’, these natural CO2 emissions are offset by CO2 absorption through other
1.3.1 Cutting carbon: is that all? 15 natural processes, ultimately creating a balance. ‘Human’ CO2 emissions exceed
1.3.2 Cuts of 80%+ in the building industry: how realistic is this? 16 the capacity of natural reabsorption mechanisms, and this causes climate change.
1.3.3 What can be achieved in the building industry? 16 Unabsorbed greenhouse gases create a thick ‘blanket’ in the earth’s atmosphere 1
1.3.4 Myth: ‘Whatever we do, it doesn’t matter’ 16 preventing heat from escaping and leading to global warming.
1.3.5 What are we currently doing? 17
1.3.6 UK general policies, legislation, frameworks, tools and
environmental assessment methods: a summary 17

1.4 NOT ALL ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT CAN BE 23

MEASURED IN CO2

1.5 HUMAN FACTORS IN BUILDING PERFORMANCE 25

1.5.1 Stakeholder engagement 25

1.5.2 Software simulations and the real world 25
1.5.3 Interdisciplinary teams 26
1.5.4 On-site workmanship 26
1.5.5 Building performance and Post Occupancy Evaluation 27
1.5.6 Planning for building commissioning, maintenance and care 29

1.6 ‘GREEN’ RIBA 2013 PLAN OF WORK CHECKLISTS 34

1.7 UNITS TO REMEMBER 41 and 472

1.7.1 What is the difference between kW and kWh? 42

1.8 APPLICABLE LEGISLATION AND GUIDANCE 43

1.9 FURTHER READING 44 Fig. 1.1.1 Human and natural CO2 emissions

8 9
Chapter 2
Design strategies and adaptations for a
changing climate

Despite even the best mitigation efforts, our climate is experiencing

irreversible changes.

Buildings are usually designed with a lifespan of around 60 years.

What we build today will still be standing in 2080 and beyond,
and we should design for the climate change predicted during
that period. We must also carefully consider our reliance on finite
resources which move closer to exhaustion by the day. Only in doing
so are we able to fulfil our duty towards clients and building users.

Seasons in the UK, in general, are expected to become warmer. We

will see drier summers, wetter winters and more extreme winds
and rainfall. Although the increases in temperature are incremental,
the actual impact on both the natural and the built environment is
significant. As an island, the UK is particularly vulnerable to coastal
flooding. Inland, extreme rainfall will increase the risk of urban flash
floods and swollen rivers. We are also likely to experience more heat
waves and droughts which could pose issues of subsidence and
affect the way we cool buildings.

This chapter summarises predicted climatic changes and arising

design implications and adaptations, both for site planning, building
design and during construction.

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The Environmental Design Pocketbook Design strategies and adaptations for a changing climate

2.1 A CHANGING CLIMATE: WHAT ARE THE IMPACTS 47 2.1 A CHANGING CLIMATE: WHAT ARE THE IMPACTS IN THE UK?
IN THE UK?
By the end of this century, we expect to have seen temperature increases of 2–5°C
2.1.1 Regional future predicted climate changes: Scotland 48 with the smallest temperature increases in the north of the UK and the largest
2.1.2 Regional future predicted climate changes: north England 48 increases in the southern regions of the UK.1 Rises in sea level will range from 130
and north Wales to 760 mm.2
2.1.3 Regional future predicted climate changes: Northern Ireland 49
2.1.4 Regional future predicted climate changes: south England 49 UK seasonal rainfall is variable, but in general, each region is predicted to see
and south Wales increased winter rainfall of around 30%, although overall yearly rainfall increases
are deceptively modest. This is because the yearly average evens out with similar
2.2 A CHANGING CLIMATE LEADS TO A CHANGE IN 50 rainfall decreases in summer.3 In southern regions, reduced cloud cover during
HOW WE DESIGN summer is likely to contribute to increased solar radiation and higher temperatures,
2.2.1 Environmental modelling and climate data 51 as well as more extreme rainfall as a result of increased temperatures.

2.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF FUTURE-PROOFING OUR 51 The UK is already experiencing a change in climate:
BUILDINGS • Sea-levels around the UK have risen by 100mm since 1900 and there has
2.3.1 Increased summer temperatures: design checklist 54 been a 1°C temperature increase since 1970.4
2.3.2 Increased winter temperatures: design checklist 55 • 2006 was the hottest year recorded in 350 years.5
2.3.3 Decreased summer rainfall: design checklist 55 • In the summer of 2003 a prolonged heat wave hit the country; the UK
2.3.4 Increased flood risk from sea and rivers: design checklist 56 suffered 2,000 heat-related deaths.6
2.3.5 Increased winter rainfall and increase in extreme 56
weather events: design checklist

2.4 FURTHER READING 58

Fig. 2.1. UK general predicted climate changes and impacts, based on current
trajectory of a global 2°C rise by 2040 and 4°C rise by 2080.

46 47
Chapter 3
Environmental site planning

A building’s performance is not only determined by local climate

conditions and operational energy efficiency. Site location and
urban design approach also have a major impact. Rather than
working against the urban grain, we need to work with it by using
environmental site planning principles; we can then promote
occupant comfort and health as well as minimising operational and
transportation energy use.

Instead of endlessly repeating historical patterns, site planning should

respond to climate change predictions. This chapter considers the
implications of a warmer climate on site planning and Chapter 5
discusses flood risk.

It is crucial to get the environmental basics right on the site. Then

whoever ‘plugs into’ the urban grain in the future has a better chance
of achieving high environmental building standards.

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The Environmental Design Pocketbook Environmental site planning

3.1 ENVIRONMENTAL SITE CHECKLIST 61 3.1 ENVIRONMENTAL SITE CHECKLIST

3.2 BROWNFIELD: INFILL DEVELOPMENT 62 Refer to Biodiversity

3.3 DESIGNING FOR URBAN DENSITY 63 4.4 Do the proposals enable the existing wildlife and biodiversity to
be conserved, protected or enhanced?
3.3.1 What are sustainable densities? 64 3.5.1, 4.4.1 Is there space for the creation of green corridors?
3.3.2 Regional recommended densities 65
Site planning (primarily for residential development)
3.3.3 Zero carbon versus sustainable densities paradox 66
3.3 Are public transport facilities easily accessible?
3.4 DESIGNING FOR CYCLISTS AND PEDESTRIANS 68 3.3 Can the site be located close to community facilities and services?

3.4.1 Car-free developments 69 3.3 Is the development density appropriate? Is the mix of uses
and tenure suitable to the locality? Can density be increased
3.5 PLANNING FOR URBAN OPEN SPACES 70 around transport nodes, overlooking parks, waterways and other
amenities? Urban Futures Tool may be helpful:
http://designingresilientcities.co.uk/
3.5.1 Plan continuous green corridors 71
3.4 Movement strategy: can new access routes be connected with
3.6 CREATING A POSITIVE URBAN MICROCLIMATE 72 existing routes?
3.4.1 Prioritisation of pedestrians and cyclists: are there bicycle parking
3.6.1 Designing with the wind 72 spaces, safe crossings/walkable streets and good connections
3.6.2 Urban form and urban climate 76 through the city centre, rather than around it?
3.5 Are there easily accessible and easy to care for communal open
3.7 USING SUNSHINE IN URBAN AREAS 77 spaces (within 300–400 m)?
3.6, 3.7 Has the impact of new development on existing community and
3.7.1 Urban ‘breaks’ 79 buildings – traffic/noise/overshadowing, etc. – been minimised?
3.7.2 Rethinking single-aspect dwellings 80
3.7.3 Spacing for good daylighting: the Vertical Sky Component 81 3.7 Have local solar access and average seasonal temperatures been
checked and responded to, and is winter solar gain maximised?
3.8 FUTURE-PROOFING THE SITE 82 3.7.1 Have ‘urban breaks’ (variety of building heights, providing better
solar access and ventilation) been provided?
3.8.1 Planning for infrastructure 82 4.2 Has vegetation been used to reduce air pollution, moderate the
3.8.2 Planning for low and zero carbon technologies 82 urban heat island effect and increase thermal comfort?
Flood protection (See detailed checklist Section 5.1.4.)
3.9 APPLICABLE LEGISLATION AND GUIDANCE 83
5 Has a minimum of 5% of the site area been set aside for
3.10 FURTHER READING 84 sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS)?
Future-proofing
3.8 Is there enough space for urban infrastructure, including
renewables? Is there enough space for community energy schemes?
3.8 Who will be responsible for maintenance? Has robust future
maintenance and care of buildings, spaces between buildings and
infrastructure been considered?

60 61
Chapter 4
Urban greenery and biodiversity

Biodiversity is an important facet of sustainable building, bringing

social, economic and environmental benefits to any development.
Not only can energy consumption in buildings be reduced by
thoughtful planting, but urban greenery can also improve residents’
well-being and provide a crucial habitat for local wildlife.

Provisions for biodiversity need to be carefully thought through,

if the benefits are to be maximised. The positioning of vegetation
in relation to buildings and green corridors needs to be closely
considered, as does the type of vegetation and future maintenance
requirements. Native plants are essential for supporting indigenous
wildlife habitats, while on the other hand some native plant species
will not survive or thrive in a changing climate.

Urban vegetation also contributes to CO2 sequestration. In addition,

the principle of ‘food miles’ illustrates the carbon reductions that can
be achieved by growing food locally.

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The Environmental Design Pocketbook Urban greenery and biodiversity

4.1 URBAN NATURE AND BIODIVERSITY BENEFITS 87 4.1 URBAN NATURE AND BIODIVERSITY BENEFITS

4.1.1 Checklist: maintenance of greenery and spaces between buildings 88 There are many benefits to introducing nature into urban areas:

4.2 EFFECT OF VEGETATION ON ENERGY CONSUMPTION 90 Social sustainability

• improved quality of life and a more attractive environment
4.2.1 Impact of vegetation in urban heat islands 90 • provides relief from built-up areas and gives human scale
4.2.2 Benefits of green roofs and green walls 91 • educational value
4.2.3 Impact of vegetation on wind speeds 92 • marks the changing seasons with leaf changes and floral displays.
4.2.4 Vegetation as solar shading 93
4.2.5 Vegetation and noise buffering 95 Economic sustainability
• areas that are more desirable and can increase property prices1
4.3 OTHER CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE POSITIONING OF 96 • reduced energy cost, if strategically located/placed.
TREES CLOSE TO BUILDINGS
Environmental sustainability (see Section 4.2)
4.4 NATURE AND BIODIVERSITY IN URBAN AREAS: 97 • creates local microclimate by buffering extreme seasonal temperatures
GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE (GI) • absorbs CO2 – and generates O2
• traps pollution from car exhausts
4.4.1 Continuous green corridors 97 • can act as solar shading, reducing cooling energy needs
4.4.2 Amphibians – detailed design recommendations 100 • buffers noise and wind, thereby reducing winter heating energy needs
4.4.3 Birds – detailed design recommendations 100 • absorbs rainwater Jump to Chapter 5
4.4.4 Mammals – detailed design recommendations 102 • supports wildlife habitats to provide a thriving ecosystem (see Section 4.4).
4.4.5 Insects – detailed design recommendations 103
Credits under Code for Sustainable Homes and EcoHomes (Eco 3),
4.5 LIST OF PLANT SPECIES TO ATTRACT BIODIVERSITY 104 BREEAM NC (LE02), LEED NC (SSc2,GIBc7), LEED Ex. (SSc1)

4.6 CO2 ABSORPTION OF URBAN/SUBURBAN TREES 106

4.7 CO2 ABSORPTION OF SHRUBS AND OTHER PLANTS 109

4.8 CO2 REDUCTIONS FROM URBAN AGRICULTURE/ 109

FOOD GROWING

4.9 CO2 REDUCTIONS FROM ‘FOOD MILES’ 110

4.9.1 Which vegetables can be grown in urban gardens? 111

4.9.2 Typical urban food-growing yields and carbon reductions 111
4.9.3 Composting bins: size guide 112

4.10 APPLICABLE LEGISLATION AND GUIDANCE 113

4.11 FURTHER READING 114

86 87
Chapter 5

Environmental design must work with water rather than against

it. This is a primary consideration which will become even more
important in a changing climate:
• Increased flooding due to extreme rainfall events is anticipated.
• At the same time, increased periods of drought and water shortages
are expected.

Careful consideration is no longer a luxury; where to build, which

building typology, how much land to set aside for water storage
and which surface finishes are more resilient are now vital decisions
for design. Allowing water runoff to soak-away on site instead of
connection to sewers is nearly always the preferred option.

Water efficiency inside buildings is also starting to be regulated.

Water-efficient appliances, rainwater harvesting systems and grey
water recycling will eventually become embedded in building design.
However, not all such systems are sustainable: it is energy intensive
to treat and pump water around, and the embodied energy of the
system can be significant.

Hence, careful building-specific design specification is required to

avoid increasing carbon emissions in the quest to save precious
water. Usually, connection to mains water supply and sewers is the
most suitable option.

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The Environmental Design Pocketbook

5.1 FLOOD RISK AND LIVING WITH WATER 117 5.1 FLOOD RISK AND LIVING WITH WATER

5.1.1 Sources of flooding 117 There are around 5.2 million, or 1 in 6 properties in the UK at risk of flooding.
5.1.2 Land use planning based on flood zones 118 Particularly at risk of floods are South Wales, Northwest Scotland, East Anglia, the
5.1.3 Flood mitigation: building typologies that work with water 119 Thames Estuary, Yorkshire and Humberside.1 The factors contributing to increased
5.1.4 Flood design response: checklist for site development 120 flood risk are:
• pressure to build on new land, which decreases permeable surfaces
5.2 FLOOD-RESILIENT BUILDING DESIGN 122 • runoff from an increased amount of hard surfaces
• increased intense rainfall events due to climate change.
5.3 RAIN GARDENS AND SUSTAINABLE URBAN 124
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS (SUDS) Flood risk is expressed as the likelihood that a flood will occur in a given year. There
are four flood zones, ranging from zone 1, the lowest risk, to zone 3b, the highest.
5.3.1 How much water needs to be collected to prevent flooding? 127 Zone 1 is at risk of flood less than once every 1000 years and all development is
suitable, while in zone 3, or zones with a risk of flooding more than once every 75
5.4 HOUSEHOLD WATER USAGE: HOW MUCH DO WE USE, 128 years, it may not be possible to insure property.2
AND WHAT IS ITS CO2 IMPACT?
Flooding is likely to affect more people in a changing climate,3 particularly near
5.4.1 How is water used in a household? 129 coastal areas and rivers and in the south of the UK, where the landmass is slowly
5.4.2 Toilets and water consumption 130 sinking.4 The threat inland is changing too: climate change will alter the intensity
5.4.3 Shower or bath? How much water and CO2 do they use? 130 and duration of rainfall, resulting in more urban and flash flooding. In response, we
5.4.4 Appliances and tap types: water usage and CO2 emissions 131 need to work with water rather than against it:
• Each site needs a flood risk assessment.
5.5 DEALING WITH WASTEWATER AND FOUL WATER: 133 • At least 5% space on site needs to be made for water storage and provision of
GREY WATER AND BLACK WATER water flow channels (see Section 5.3).
• At building scale, building adaptations and different typologies need to be
5.5.1 On-site wastewater treatment systems: grey water and 133 considered (see Section 5.2).
black water
5.5.2 On-site grey water recycling 136 5.1.1 Sources of flooding
5.5.3 Not all grey water recycling systems are energy-efficient 138
5.5.4 Biomechanical grey water harvesting with heat recovery and 139
wastewater heat recovery systems (WWHR)

5.6 COLLECTING AND USING RAINWATER 140

5.6.1 Rainwater harvesting systems and CO2 implications 141

5.6.2 Step 1: How much rainwater can be collected per year? 144
5.6.3 Step 2: Determine appropriate storage tank size 144
5.6.4 Rainwater pipes – location and sizing recommendations 146

5.7 APPLICABLE LEGISLATION AND GUIDANCE 147

5.8 FURTHER READING 148

116 117
Chapter 6
The internal environment: space, warmth,
light and air

Two key drivers are making consideration of a building’s internal

environment ever more vital: the changing climate and the increased
thermal performance of the fabric from which the building is built.

The fact that we are operating in a changing climate can no longer

be ignored. If buildings are not designed to cope, temperature-
related health issues will become a significant problem and it
is therefore critical that issues such as thermal comfort, purge
ventilation, daylighting, winter solar gain and summer solar shading
are considered early on by the designer.

Equally, increased airtightness standards, controlled background

ventilation and even the impact of building fabric on space standards
all mean that a careful approach is required to avoid compromising
the quality of the internal environment.

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The Environmental Design Pocketbook

6.1 INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT CHECKLIST 152 6.7 NATURAL VENTILATION, MEV AND 176
VENTILATION WITH HEAT RECOVERY (VHR)
6.2 DWELLING SPACE STANDARDS: MINIMUM DWELLING 153
AND ROOM SIZES 6.7.1 Natural ventilation (background and ‘purge’ ventilation) 176
6.7.2 Realistic ventilation rates 179
6.2.1 Space standards for waste, recycling and composting 154 6.7.3 Ventilation building management systems (BMS) 179
6.2.2 Space for drying laundry and outdoor space requirements 155 6.7.4 Window design for purge ventilation 180
6.2.3 Solar spaces and conservatories 155 6.7.5 MEV and mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (MVHR) for 182
6.2.4 Sufficient space for wall thicknesses 156 background ventilation
6.2.5 Space for utilities: ‘the technical room’ 156
6.2.6 Bicycle spaces 156 6.8 POLLUTANTS AND THE INDOOR ENVIRONMENT 187

6.3 IDEAL ROOM ORIENTATIONS: RECOMMENDED ZONING 157 6.9 FUTURE-PROOFING: NOW AND IN THE FUTURE 190

6.4 THE CONCEPT OF THERMAL COMFORT 158 6.10 APPLICABLE LEGISLATION AND GUIDANCE 191

6.4.1 A changing climate increases summer thermal stress 159 6.11 FURTHER READING 192

6.5 DAYLIGHT, SOLAR SHADING AND DESIGNING FOR 160

HOTTER SUMMERS

6.5.1 Prevention of summer overheating 160

6.5.2 Summer solar shading without compromising good daylighting 163
6.5.3 Solar shading from trees 166
6.5.4 Daylight 167
6.5.5 Privacy, daylighting and solar shading in housing 171

6.6 THERMAL MASS AND NIGHT-COOLING 172

6.6.1 What is thermal mass and what are its benefits? 172
6.6.2 Thermal mass and embodied carbon 174
6.6.3 Phase change materials (PCM) 175
6.6.4 Trombe wall 175

150 151
Chapter 7
The building fabric

Taking steps to reduce a building’s operational carbon footprint

usually requires an increase in its embodied carbon footprint, owing
to the increased amount of insulation and other material required.
This ‘investment’ in a higher carbon footprint will soon pay off if the
building is carefully designed and constructed for long life, ease of
maintenance, deconstruction and reuse.

Materials and construction methods may be chosen according to:

• aesthetics
• costs
• availability
• robustness
• material performance, e.g. acoustics and structural strength.

When specifying the fabric of a sustainable building, the designer

should also prioritise:
• life-cycle assessment and embodied carbon of materials,
including designing for deconstruction and reuse
• thermal performance
• air, vapour and water permeability
• impact on internal air quality.

This chapter explores the latter points in more detail. The focus is on
mainstream UK building techniques and materials.

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7.1 THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF BUILDING MATERIALS 168 7.4 AIRTIGHTNESS 210

7.1.1 Material specification overview – checklist 168 7.4.1 Which airtightness level and how to achieve it 211
7.1.2 Embodied energy, embodied energy/carbon and cradle to cradle 169 7.4.2 Definitions 212
7.1.3 How to calculate the embodied carbon of a material 170 7.4.3 Don’t we need gaps and cracks for good indoor air quality (IAQ)? 213
7.1.4 Whole life carbon footprint 171 7.4.4 The reality of achieving increased airtightness standards 213
7.1.5 Life-cycle assessment and life-cycle costing 172 7.4.5 How can good airtightness be achieved? 213
7.1.6 BRE Green Guide to Specification 173 7.4.6 Airtightness is good, but what happens to water vapour? 216
7.1.7 Recommended specification distances 174 7.4.7 Hygroscopic material qualities 218
7.1.8 Reclaimed/recycled materials 175
7.1.9 Designing for deconstruction and reuse 178 7.5 WHICH FABRIC PERFORMANCE STANDARDS? 219
7.1.10 Materials – care and maintenance checklist XXX
7.1.11 Applicable legislation and guidance 180 7.5.1 Building Regulations standards, domestic and non-domestic:
7.1.12 Further reading and guidance 180 Scotland, England, Wales and Northern Ireland 220
7.5.2 Zero carbon fabric energy efficiency standards for housing 221
7.2 TYPICAL MAINSTREAM MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 181 7.5.3 Passivhaus and EnerPHit standards for all buildings 222
METHODS 7.5.4 Yes, you can open windows in a Passivhaus! 223
7.5.5 Future-proofing: super-insulation makes sense in a 224
7.2.1 Modern methods of construction (MMC) 181 warming climate
7.2.2 Timber 182 7.5.6 Super-insulation: how much to use 224
7.2.3 Use of structural timber 184 7.5.7 Typical wall construction thickness and embodied carbon 226
• A. Timber-framed construction to achieve high fabric energy efficiency
• B. Structurally insulated panels (SIP) (Passivhaus or equivalent)
• C. Glued cross-laminated timber panel systems
• D. Timber-frame with hemp-lime surround (hempcrete) 7.6 APPLICABLE LEGISLATION AND GUIDANCE 227
7.2.4 Solid mass structural systems 190
• A. Rammed earth
• B. Concrete 7.7 FURTHER READING 228
7.2.5 Brick and brick slips 194
7.2.6 Lime and cement mortar, render and screeds 196
7.2.7 Typical material properties: technical data 197

7.3 THERMAL PERFORMANCE: KEEPING THE HEAT 203

IN (AND OUT)

7.3.1 Compact building form and form factor XXX

7.3.2 Super-insulation: k-values, R-values and U-values 203
7.3.3 Windows, g-values and BFRC ratings 203
7.3.4 Insulation materials 205
7.3.5 Summary of different insulation materials 205
7.3.6 Thermal bridging, thermal bypasses and the f-factor 208
7.3.7 Thermal lag or decrement delay 209
7.3.8 Performance gap

194 195
Chapter 8

There are around 26 million dwellings in the UK,1 80% of which will
still exist in 2050.2 At present, these dwellings represent around 27%
of the UK’s CO2 emissions.3

Around 7.6 million dwellings are solid walled properties.4 One entirely
uninsulated solid walled property needs about the same amount
of space heating as four to eight dwellings of the same size built to
current Building Regulations. This illustrates both the necessity and
the potential impact of retrofitting the existing housing stock.

Yet, so far, less than 1%5 of solid walled dwellings have been insulated,
and no UK regulations deal with the refurbishment of existing
housing stock. However, the 2008 Climate Change Act aims to make
the entire UK housing stock zero or low carbon by 2050.6

By simply refurbishing to much higher insulation and airtightness

standards, carbon reductions of at least 40% can be achieved. This
would reduce the operational energy required just to heat our
buildings by at least 80%.

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8.1 DEMOLISH OR REFURBISH? 271 8.1 DEMOLISH OR REFURBISH?

8.1.1 Phased step-by-step retrofits 271 Almost 40% of housing in England pre-dates 1945 7 and about 13% of the UK’s CO2
emissions is attributed to the burning of fossil fuels to provide space heating in
8.2 RECOMMENDED RETROFIT MEASURES CHECKLIST 273 housing. All existing buildings should be upgraded to be ‘zero carbon’ by 2050 to
meet the UK’s 80% CO2 reduction target. This means that around 2,000 buildings
8.3 WHICH STANDARDS FOR RETROFITTING THE EXISTING 275 per day, every day until 2050, need to be upgraded to a high standard to meet this
HOUSING STOCK? 2050 target. ‘Deep’ retrofits are more robust in reducing energy use regardless of
occupant behaviour.
8.4 UNINTENDED CONSEQUENCES 276
Existing buildings will need to be either demolished and re-built to higher standards,
8.5 ACTUAL VERSUS PREDICTED PERFORMANCE 277 or significantly upgraded to reduce their operational energy needs. Only when the
building is in a very poor state with poor energy performance should demolition
8.6 WILL IT STILL BE NECESSARY TO REFURBISH 280 be considered. Building reuse and refurbishment are generally the preferred
EXISTING PROPERTIES IN A WARMING CLIMATE? option, owing to reduced community impact, reduced embodied energy/carbon,
reduced landfill and transportation of material off-site and retaining/improving
8.7 THE REAL COST OF RETROFITTING THE EXISTING 281 social, cultural and architectural heritage.
HOUSING STOCK
Whole life costing should be considered; see Section 7.1.5.
8.8 THE GREEN DEAL AND ECO 281
General cost-effective priorities have been provided in a refurbishment checklist,
8.9 REDUCED STANDARDS FOR A REDUCED COST 285 see Section 8.2.

8.10 RETROFITTING INFRASTRUCTURE 286 8.1.1 Phased step-by-step retrofits

8.11 EXISTING DWELLINGS AND APPLICABLE REGULATIONS 287 Main building upgrades occur only every 20–30 years, with smaller upgrades and
component replacements, such as boiler replacement and re-roofing, in between.
8.12 APPLICABLE LEGISLATION AND GUIDANCE 288 Most buildings are not fully upgraded but partially refurbished at different stages
over their lifetime, i.e. ‘step-by-step’. Hence, when the opportunity arises, always:
8.13 FURTHER READING 289 • Upgrade components or the whole building to the highest standard that can
be afforded, e.g. to EnerPHit standard; see Section 7.5.3. Well insulated houses,
i.e. ‘deep retrofits’, are more robust to occupant behaviour and impact on
energy use than a ‘shallow’ retrofit dwelling. 8
• Even when partially refurbishing, upgrade with a whole building ‘masterplan’
of future improvements in mind. This will minimise unnecessary costs and
avoid un-doing previous upgrades to enable future ones.
• Upgrade with appropriate building fabric standards and solutions to avoid
unintended consequences; see Section 8.4.
• When components need to be replaced, this may be an opportunity
to consider other upgrades. Such opportunities are listed in the key
recommendations.
• Reducing carbon emissions from the existing building stock is urgent. To
avoid further expense and disruption arising from additional future upgrades,
‘deep’ retrofits are a necessity.
270 271
Chapter 9
Key details

This chapter contains key details to illustrate good practice

concerning insulation placement, airtightness zones and minimising
thermal bridging. The details for new build are based on cavity
wall brick/block construction with concrete super-structure and
include green walls. Typical retrofit junctions are based on solid
brick walls. The airtightness recommendations and principles in
Section 7.4 need to be applied to all of the details at both design
and construction stage. For the environmental impact of different
construction materials and for details of timber-framed construction,
SIP, hempcrete and structural engineered timber pre-fab panels,
see Section 7.2.

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299
The Environmental Design Pocketbook Key details

9.1 FOUNDATIONS, FLOORS AND WALL JUNCTIONS 293

Detail 1: Super-insulated brick-blockwork wall and concrete floor and 293

foundation
Detail 2: Retrofit of a typical Victorian solid brick wall with external 296
wall insulation and floor insulation between joists
Detail 3: Retrofit of a typical Victorian solid brick wall with internal 299
wall insulation and floor insulation above joists
Detail 4: Reduced thermal bridging at concrete pile foundations 302
Detail 5: Exposed solid concrete separating floor/ceiling 304

9.2 WALL AND WINDOW JUNCTIONS 307

Detail 6: Typical window head/sill 307

Detail 7: Horizontal solar shading 310

9.3 ROOFS 312

Detail 8a: Green roofs, including brown and biodiverse roofs 312
Detail 8b: Types of green roofs, including brown and biodiverse roofs 315
Detail 9: Typical green roof parapet and water drainage 316
Detail 10: Flush threshold with roof garden/terrace 318
Detail 11: Roof junction between roof terrace and green roof 320
Detail 12: Pitched green roof with bird/bat habitat 322
Detail 13: Pitched roof with bird/bat habitat 324
Detail 14: Retrofitting a pitched roof with bird/bat habitat 326

9.4 APPLICABLE LEGISLATION 328

9.5 FURTHER READING 328

Fig. 9.1 The locations of key details 1–14 on both new and existing buildings

300 301
Chapter 10
Energy supply and demand

Energy supply is often wrongly considered to be the most important

issue in delivering low carbon buildings.

In fact, the priority is to reduce energy demand.

When considering energy supply and demand, a clear hierarchy

exists:

1. Fabric energy efficiency is always the first ‘renewable’ to consider as

opposed to trying to meet a building’s large energy demand.
2. Once reduced, it is easier to meet any remaining energy demand,
which should be met using efficient methods. This avoids wasting
energy in transmission, even if it is energy from ‘low carbon’ sources.
3. Low carbon energy supply should only be considered once the
above strategies have been maximised.

The preceding chapters have focused on the first point and set out
strategies to reduce energy demand in buildings.

This chapter relates to operational energy and operational carbon

from buildings. It summarises the energy demands of different
building typologies. It investigates efficient methods of delivering
energy, such as underfloor heating, use of A-rated appliances and
local energy generation from district heating schemes.

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335
The Environmental Design Pocketbook Energy supply and demand

10.1 TYPICAL ENERGY DEMANDS 275 10.1 TYPICAL ENERGY DEMANDS

10.1.1 What are regulated and unregulated emissions? 275 We must understand and realistically estimate a building’s energy demand before
10.1.2 Energy demand benchmarks for different building typologies 276 we consider energy supply.

10.2 CARBON IMPACT OF THE ENERGY USED: 278 Energy demand can generally be broken down into ‘regulated’ and ‘unregulated’
CO2 FUEL INTENSITIES energy and emissions.

10.2.1 Grid electricity is the most polluting energy source 279

Different building typologies and carbon impact 279

10.3 EFFICIENT SUPPLY OF ENERGY 281

10.3.1 Traditional energy supply 281

10.3.2 Delivering energy efficiently: on-site energy generation 282
10.3.3 District/community heating 283
10.3.4 On-site energy supply and management (ESCOs) 284
10.3.5 Services and energy production: the importance of care and 285
maintenance

10.4 ENERGY-EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES AND PRODUCTS 285

10.4.1 Energy-efficient space heating 285

10.4.2 What is COP (coefficient of performance) and
SPF (seasonal performance factor)? 286
10.4.3 Energy efficiency of electrical appliances 286
10.4.4 Typical unregulated appliances and energy use 287

10.5 FUTURE-PROOFING 288 Fig. 10.1.1 Regulated vs unregulated emissions

10.6 ON-SITE CO2 REDUCTION TARGETS 289 10.1.1 What are regulated and unregulated emissions?

10.6.1 How to calculate a building’s carbon footprint and carbon 289 regulated emissions Building Regulations ‘regulate’ the use of energy and its
reduction from on-site renewables? (the Merton Rule) emissions in a building. This includes energy for space heating,
hot water, ventilation, cooling and fixed lighting.
10.7 FINANCIAL INCENTIVES TO SUPPLY ENERGY FROM 292
unregulated emissions This includes energy for cooking, all plug-in devices and
LOW AND ZERO CARBON TECHNOLOGIES (FIT/RHI)
appliances such as TVs and computers. Unregulated energy
use is difficult to estimate as it depends on individual user
10.8 FURTHER READING 294 behaviour. Generally around 75% of all electricity use in a
dwelling is for unregulated energy use.

336 337
Chapter 11
Zero carbon buildings

Despite zero carbon buildings becoming a reality in just a few years,

development of the zero carbon framework is still being developed at
the time of writing. England has made the most progress with its zero
carbon definition for housing and so it is this standard which is used in
this chapter.

By 2020, all new UK buildings must meet the zero carbon standard.
At present this means that 100% of a building’s regulated carbon
emissions are to be reduced to ‘zero’ over a 30-year life span. This is
achieved through:
1. increased fabric energy efficiency standards (FEES)
Jump to Section 7.5.2
2. on-site energy supply (low and zero carbon technologies)
Jump to Chapter 12
3. ‘allowable solutions’, which could be a combination of the
above, or other off-site measures, and this may include payment
per tonne of remaining CO2 emissions (see Section 11.1.3).

Steps 1 and 2 are called ‘carbon compliance’.

A simple zero carbon calculator is provided so that the reader may
roughly estimate a development’s zero carbon feasibility.

The zero carbon standard is continuously evolving, so the reader

should always check for the latest updates:
Scotland: www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Built-Environment/
England: www.zerocarbonhub.org
Wales: www.sustainablebuildingportal.co.uk
Northern Ireland: www.theccc.org.uk/topics/uk-and-regions/northern-ireland

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363
The Environmental Design Pocketbook Zero carbon buildings

11.1 THE ZERO CARBON DEFINITION 357 11.1 THE ZERO CARBON DEFINITION

11.1.1 What does building to zero carbon standards mean? 357 In accordance with EU EPBD legislation, all new public buildings need to be
11.1.2 Carbon compliance 358 ‘nearly zero energy buildings’ (nZEB) from 2018 and all other new buildings
11.1.3 Allowable solutions 359 from 2020. Each EU member state can define what nZEB is; the UK refers to ‘zero
11.1.4 Zero carbon summary 361 carbon’ buildings and intends to meet the nZEB requirement before 2020. From
2016, all new dwellings in England are to be built to zero carbon standards. Non-
11.2 ZERO CARBON CHALLENGES 362 domestic buildings will follow suit from 2019. Wales (2014),1 Scotland (2016/17)2
and Northern Ireland are also setting their own goals and zero carbon frameworks.
11.3 THE ZERO CARBON CALCULATOR 362 From 2030, Scotland intends to include unregulated emissions from appliances in
its framework. Some smaller and special developments may be exempt from the
11.4 ZERO CARBON: WHAT WILL IT COST? 365 zero carbon standard, but no detail was confirmed at the time of writing.

11.4.1 Some incentives to support zero carbon 365 11.1.1 What does building to zero carbon standards mean?

11.5 FURTHER READING 367 The zero carbon definition has been controversial: initially it counted all energy
from a dwelling, including occupants’ unregulated energy use. This has since been
revised and currently the UK zero carbon definition excludes occupants’ lifestyles but
requires every dwelling (or development of dwellings) to generate or offset all of its
own regulated energy use. This is closely aligned to other EU countries. In addition:
• required for only 30 years after building handover, not for its entire designed
lifespan
• definition applies to building as built, not just as designed (to be regulated by
Building Control)
• 100% reduction from regulated energy is included: space heat demand, hot
water demand and electricity demand for ventilation, cooling, fans and pumps
• no required reduction in unregulated energy, such as appliances and plug-in
devices
• unclear whether building only approach is allowed, or whether site approach
will be permitted, which will determine suitable strategies and technologies
• embodied energy is not included, but may be considered as part of ‘allowable
solutions’; see Section 11.1.3.

Fig. 11.1.1 Zero carbon principles3

Check www.zerocarbonhub.org for latest updates.
364 365
 Low and zero carbon technologies and renewables

Chapter 12
Low and zero carbon technologies and
renewables

Renewable energy is energy that comes from inexhaustible sources. It

usually originates directly or indirectly from the sun’s radiation.

Not all technologies which offer significant environmental benefits

over the use of conventional fossil fuels fall into this category. This is
why the term ‘low and zero carbon technologies’ (LZC) is often used
instead of ‘renewable energy technologies’.

Low and zero carbon technologies are often incorrectly seen as

fundamental to ‘green buildings’. In fact, reducing energy demand is
the priority when delivering low energy buildings.

Suitable ‘clean’ energy sources should be discussed early on as part of

a holistic strategy, but only utilised after maximising energy savings
from passive measures and fabric efficiencies.

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377
The Environmental Design Pocketbook Low and zero carbon technologies and renewables

12.1 CO2/ENERGY REDUCTION TARGETS 372 12.6.3 Is it feasible? 406

12.6.4 General CHP design considerations 407
12.2 LOW AND ZERO CARBON TECHNOLOGIES OVERVIEW 372 12.6.5 Key characteristics and key recommendations – micro CHP 409
12.6.6 Key characteristics and key recommendations – macro CHP 411
12.2.1 Renewable energy decision-making matrix – heating 373 12.6.7 A snapshot: combined cooling heat and power 414
12.2.2 Renewable energy decision-making matrix – cooling 374
12.2.3 Renewable energy decision-making matrix – electricity 376 12.7 ENERGY-EFFICIENT DELIVERY METHODS WITH BIOFUELS 414
12.2.4 Low and zero carbon energy technology summary 377
12.2.5 Myth: ‘If the energy is “clean”, it does not matter how much I use.’ 378 12.7.1 Biomass – what is it? 414
12.2.6 How much low and zero carbon technology is required 379 12.7.2 Biomass: is it feasible? 415
(for housing)? 12.7.3 Key characteristics and key recommendations – biomass 416
Clarification note (relevant throughout book) 383 12.7.4 Applicable legislation, guidance and further reading 417
12.2.7 Applicable legislation and guidance 383 12.7.5 From how far should biomass be imported? 421
12.2.8 Further reading 384 12.7.6 Anaerobic digestion/biogas – what is it? 423
12.7.7 Biogas: is it feasible? 425
12.3 MICRO HYDRO POWER – ELECTRICITY 384 12.7.8 Key characteristics and key recommendations – biogas 426
12.7.9 Applicable legislation, guidance and further reading 427
12.3.1 What is it? 384
12.3.2 Is it feasible? 385 12.8 ENERGY-EFFICIENT DELIVERY METHODS – 428
12.3.3 Key characteristics and key recommendations 386 HEATING AND COOLING
12.3.4 Applicable legislation, guidance and further reading 387
12.8.1 Gas-condensing boiler 428
12.4 MICRO WIND – ELECTRICAL ENERGY 387 12.8.2 Heat pumps – what are they? 428
12.8.3 Heat pumps: are they feasible? 430
12.4.1 What is it? 387 12.8.4 General design considerations – heat pumps 431
12.4.2 Is it feasible? 388 12.8.5 Key characteristics and key recommendations – air source 433
12.4.3 Key characteristics and key recommendations 391 heat pumps (ASHP)
12.4.4 Applicable legislation, guidance and further reading 391 12.8.6 Key characteristics and key recommendations – ground 435
source heat pumps (GSHP)
12.5 SOLAR ENERGY – HEATING AND ELECTRICAL ENERGY 391 12.8.7 A snapshot: reverse cycle air source heat pump 435
12.8.8 MVHR 435
12.5.1 What is it? 391
12.8.9 Water source heat pumps and solar ponds 438
12.5.2 General solar panel design implications 393
12.8.10 Geothermal piling – what is it? 439
12.5.3 Solar panel electrical energy calculator 394
12.8.11 Key characteristics and key recommendations – geothermal 439
12.5.4 Solar energy: is it feasible? 395
piling
12.5.5 Tilt factor: effect of tilt and orientation on energy output 396
12.8.12 A snapshot: earth cooling 440
12.5.6 Applicable legislation, guidance and further readings 397
12.8.13 A snapshot: evaporative cooling 440
12.5.7 Key characteristics and key recommendations – PV 400
12.8.14 Applicable legislation, guidance and further reading 440
12.5.8 Key characteristics and key recommendations – PV-T 402
12.5.9 Key characteristics and key recommendations – solar thermal 405
12.9 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES 441
12.6 ENERGY-EFFICIENT DELIVERY METHODS – 405 12.9.1 Fuel cells and hydrogen (electricity and heat) – what is it? 441
HEATING AND ELECTRICITY 12.9.2 Is it feasible? 441
12.9.3 Key characteristics and key recommendations 442
12.6.1 Combined heat and power (CHP): what is it? 405
12.9.4 Applicable legislation, guidance and further reading 442
12.6.2 Applicable legislation, guidance and further reading 405

378 379

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