EFT

Unit - 5

Uniform Plane Waves

5.1 Maxwell’s equations by using phasor notations

The static electric field   exist without a magnetic field   demonstrated by a

capacitor with static charge Q.

Similarly, a conductor with constant current I has magnetic field   in absence of an
electric field .

But in time varying fields   cannot exist without each other.

Maxwell’s equations are nothing but set of four expressions derived from
Ampere’s circuit law, Farady’s law, Gauss’s law for electric field and Gauss’s law
for magnetic field.

 Maxwell’s equation derived from Faradays law:

According to the concept from electrostatic field the work done over a closed path
or closed contour that is starting point same as terminating point is always zero.

Mathematically it can be represented as

-----------------------(1)

The above equation is called integral form of Maxwell’s equation derived from
Faradays law of static field.

Using Stroke’s theorem converting close line integral into surface integral we get
But  cannot be zero which means   = 0.

Point form of Maxwell’s equation derived from differential form.

 Maxwell’s equation derived from Ampere’s Circuital Law:

According to the basic concept of magnetostatics an Amper’s circuital law states

that the line integral of magnetic field intensity   around closed path is exactly
equal to direct current enclosed by that path.

Mathematically 

Now the current enclosed is equal to the product of current density normal to the
closed path and area of closed path. Hence, we get

where

Hence evaluating the above equations, we get

The above expression is integral form of Maxwell’s equation from Ampere

circuital law for static field.

Now by applying Stoke’s theorem LHS of the equation can be converted into
surface integral

Hence, we get
 

 Maxwell’s equation derived from Gauss Law:

According to Gauss law of electrostatic fields the electric flux through any closed
surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that surface. Mathematically we can
write

           1

The most common form to represent Gauss law mathematically is volume charge
density Pv hence, we can write

    ----2

The above equation is called integral form of Maxwell’s equation derived from
Gauss Law.

To establish the relationship between   and Pv converting closed surface integral

into volume integral using divergence theorem as

      ----3

Comparing 2 and 3 we get

 Maxwell’s equation derived from Gauss Law for Magnetostatic field.

According to Gauss law for magneto static field the magnetic flux cannot reside in
closed surface due to non-existence of single magnetic pole.

Mathematically we can write

The above equation is called Integral form of Maxwell’s equation derived from
Gauss law for static magnetic field.

Now using divergence theorem, we can write

Now dV cannot be zero that means  .

5.2 Electromagnetic wave equations (Helmholtz equation)

From Faradays Law we have specifications µ, 0.

---------(1)

Applying µ, 0

------------------(2)

Because µ is constant we can take it out of the curl and multiply the whole
equation

----------------------(3)

We can rewrite the curl in the following form

--------------------------------(4)

Furthermore, we also know that

This relation brings us nearly to the Helmholtz equation in vector form

 

5.3 Relation between E and H, depth of penetration

Maxwell’s equation in free space is given by

------------------------(1)

This gives a relation between the amplitude vector E~ 0 and the wave vector ~k as

 -------------------------(2)

Since E~ 0 gives the direction of the electric field at all points in space, and ~k gives the
direction of propagation of the wave, equation (2) tells us that plane electric waves in free
space are transverse waves.

We can also derive a wave equation for the magnetic field, starting from Maxwell’s equation
(in free space):

---------------------------(3)

Taking the curl, as before, and using a vector identity gives:

-------------------------(4)

Using ∇· B~ = 0, and substituting for ∇× E~ from Maxwell’s equation gives:

--------------------------------(5)

Which has the solution:

------------------------------------------(6)

To check that our solution for the magnetic wave equation satisfies Maxwell’s equations.
In this case, we find from ∇· B~ = 0 that the wave is once again a transverse wave

-----------------------------------------(7)

The solutions for the electric and magnetic fields simultaneously satisfy Maxwell’s equations.
We find

These results tell us that the electric and magnetic fields and the wave vector must be
mutually perpendicular.

We also find the relationship between

the amplitudes of the electric and
magnetic fields

Where c is

The ratio between the amplitudes of E~ and H~ in a plane wave in free space defines the
impedance of free space, Z0:

The penetration of a wave in a material is about its wavelength.

o The penetration is expressed in cm or dm.

o The penetration of waves of low frequency (HF, MF and BF) is expressed in m.
o The penetration of light waves and infrared is expressed in microns.
  

Penetration of different mediums

From Maxwell’s equation in electric

field E and magnetic field H the
following equations of the
propagation of the wave is:

Let us pass in the field of Fourier then

The last equation is known as Helmholtz where:

Ist case:

Here k is real. Hence, EM waves are sensitive to the dielectric permittivity  For temporal
field we have

It is the term of propagation.

 
2nd case: 

The physical property is the electrical conductivity σ . In the temperal field

The amplitude decreases with distance characteristics.

An EM wave will see its amplitude

decreasing by a factor 1/e to a depth   =
1/β  m.

5.4 Concept of polarization

The electromagnetic wave consists of

electric and magnetic fields vibrating at
right angles to each other therefore it is
necessary to adopt a convention to
determine the polarisation of the signal. For this purpose, an electric field is used.

Vertical and horizontal polarisation fall into the category known as linear polarisation. The
wave can be thought of as vibrating in one plane which is up and down or side to side.

Circular polarisation
can be visualised by
imagining a signal
propagating from an
antenna that is
rotating. The tip of the
electric field vector can be seen to trace out a helix or corkscrew as it travels away from the
antenna.

Circular polarisation can be either right or left- handed dependent upon the direction of
rotation as seen from the transmitting antenna.

Elliptical polarisation. This occurs when there is a combination of both linear and circular
polarisation. This can be visualised by imagining the tip of the electric field tracing out an
elliptically shaped corkscrew.

Problem:

Determine the polarization of a plane wave with

a) 

Solution

(a) From the given E,

In the z=0 plane, we have

Squaring and adding gives

Which describes an ellipse. Hence the wave is elliptically polarized.

(b) The two components of H are in phase; hence, the polarization is linear. For proper
characterization, it is expedient to find the electric field component. This can be done in
many ways. Using Maxwell’s equation,

Dividing both sides by j and setting =bl yields

In the time domain,

If we set z=0

At t=0, E has components 2

In the x-direction and   in the -direction. The ration   remains the same as t
changes. Hence E is linearly polarized.

5.5 Reflection by perfect conductor-normal incidence

A uniform plane wave with x-directed electric field is normally incident upon a perfectly
conducting plane at z =0, as shown in Figure. The presence of the boundary gives rise to a
reflected wave that propagates in the -z direction. There are no fields within the perfect
conductor. The known incident fields traveling in the +z direction can be written as
While the reflected fields propagating in the -z direction are similarly

Where in the lossless free space

The minus sign difference in the spatial exponential phase factors of (1) and (2) as the waves
are traveling in opposite directions. The amplitude of incident and reflected magnetic fields
are given by the ratio of electric field amplitude to the wave impedance.

The negative sign in front of the reflected magnetic field for the wave in the -z direction
arises because the power flow S, = E, x H, in the reflected wave must also be in the -z
direction. The total electric and magnetic fields are just the sum of the incident and reflected
fields. The only unknown parameter E, can be evaluated from the boundary condition at z =0
where the tangential component of E must be continuous and thus zero along the perfect
conductor:

The total fields are the sum of incident and reflected fields

=  
                                                                                                                                                       
                  The electric and magnetic fields are 90* out of phase with each other both in time
and space.

5.6 Reflection by perfect dielectric- normal incidence

The perfect
conductor
with a
lossless
dielectric of
permittivity   and permeability  , as in Figure with a uniform plane wave normally
incident from a medium  with permittivity and permeability  . In addition to the incident
and reflected fields for z 0.

The unknown quantities   and  can be found from the boundary conditions of continuity
tangential E and H at z=0,

From which we find reflection R and transmission field T field coefficients as

Where 1 + R = T

5.7 Snell’s Law:

Consider reflection and refraction of uniform linearly polarized homogenous plane at

horizontal interface. The incident wave is confined to xy-plane. The interface is denoted by S
which has normal vector n and separates two homogeneous media with physical
properties σ1, µ1,  and σ2, µ2,  .

The incident wave ki arrives at angle  . Once it reaches the interface it breaks into reflected
wave (kr) and transmitted wave (kt).  The transmitted wave experiences change in
propagation direction thus it is a refracted wave.

The reflected and refracted travel in directions characterized by angles θr and θt.

 The reflection and refraction
angles θr and θt can be derived by
considering either the electric field or the
magnetic field carried by the incident
EM wave.

Here, we will derive these angles by

considering an electric field. The
respective incident, reflected and
refracted waves are given by:

Where kis the wave vector (Poynting vector) for each wave and:

They state that components of the electric field parallel to surface SS must be equal across the
interface. As a result:

Also, 

And 

Where

Are the refractive indices of the media.

Problem:

A uniform plane wave in air with 

Is incident on a dielectric slab (  with   find

(a) The polarization the wave

(b) The angle of incidence

(c) The reflected E field

(d) The transmitted H field

Solution:

(a) From the incident E field, it is evident that the propagation vector is

Hence

A unit vector normal to the interface (z=0) is a. The plane containing k and   is y=costant,
which is the xz-plane, theplane of incidence. Since   is normal to this plane. We have
perpendicular (similar to figure 10.18)

(b) The propagation vectors are illustrated in figure 10.19 where it is clear that

=4/3 

Alternatively, without fig 10.19, we can obtain   from the fact htat   is the angle between k
and  that is,

(c) An easy way to find   is use because we have that this problem is similar to that
considered in section. Suppose we are not aware of this. Let
 Which is similar
to form to the
given   The
unit vector   is
chosen in view
of the fact that
the tangential
component of E
must be
continuous at
the interface.
From figure,

   and   because both   and   are in the same medium. Hence,

To find  , we need  Snell’s law

Where 

Hence,
(d) Similarly let the transmitted electric field be

Where 

From figure,

=6.819

Notice that  expected

The same result could be obtained from the relation   Hence

From   is easily obtained as

5.8 Application Case Study: Comparison of Circuit Theory at low

frequency and Field theory at High frequencies, Antenna Radiation
Mechanism, Propagation of EM energy
Circuit Theory

Circuit theory deals with electrical circuit.  The main variables are voltage and current which
are scalar quantities. This theory uses basic laws like Ohm’s law, Kirchhoff’s laws. The
limitation of this theory is that it cannot be applied in free space and it is applicable at low
frequencies. Also, this theory is unsuccessful in explaining the radiation of electromagnetic
waves into space in radio communications.

It cannot be used to analyse or design a complete communication system. Example: Radio

Communication System.

Field Theory

It involves the usage of vector quantities E and H. The main equations involved here are
Maxwell’s equation, Helmholtz equation, Poisson’s equation. This theory has following
advantages in comparison to circuit theory:

     It is also applicable in free space.

     It is useful at all frequencies, particularly at high frequencies

     The radiation effect can be considered.

     This theory can be used to analyze or design a complete communication system.

Example: Wireless Communication, Radio Communication.

Antenna

The IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas (IEEE Std 145–1983) defines the
antenna or aerial as ―a means for radiating or receiving radio waves. In other words, the
antenna is the transitional structure between free-space and a guiding device.  The guiding
device or transmission line may take the form of a coaxial line or a hollow pipe (waveguide),
and it is used to transport electromagnetic energy from the transmitting source to the antenna
or from the antenna to the receiver.

 
Radiation Mechanism

The radiation from the antenna takes place when the Electromagnetic field generated by the
source is transmitted to the antenna system through the Transmission line and separated from
the Antenna into free space.

Radiation from a Single Wire

From the principle of radiation, there must be some time varying current. For a single wire
antenna,

1. If a charge is not moving, there is no current and there is no radiation.

2.  If charge is moving with a uniform velocity:

     There is no radiation if the wire is straight and infinite in extent.

     There is radiation if the wire is curved, bent, discontinuous, terminated, or truncated, as

shown in Figure.    

3.   If charge is oscillating in a time-motion, it radiates even if the wire is straight

Figure: Wire Configurations for Radiation

Radiation from a Two Wire

Let us consider a voltage source connected to a two-conductor transmission line which

is connected to an antenna.  This is shown in Figure (a).  Applying a voltage across the two-
conductor transmission line creates an electric field between the conductors.  The electric
field has associated with it electric lines of force which are tangent to the electric field at each
point and their strength is proportional to the electric field intensity.  The electric lines of
force have a tendency to act on the free electrons (easily detachable from the atoms)
associated with each conductor and force them to be displaced.  The movement of the charges
creates a current that in turn creates magnetic field intensity.  Associated with the magnetic
field intensity are magnetic lines of force which are tangent to the magnetic field.  We have
accepted that electric field lines start on positive charges and end on negative charges.  They
also can start on a positive charge and end at infinity, start at infinity and end on a negative
charge, or form closed loops neither starting or ending on any charge.  Magnetic field lines
always form closed loops encircling current-carrying conductors because physically there are
no magnetic charges.  In some mathematical formulations, it is often convenient to introduce
equivalent magnetic charges and magnetic currents to draw a parallel between
solutions involving electric and magnetic sources.
The electric field lines drawn between the two conductors help to exhibit the Distribution of
charge.  If we assume that the voltage source is sinusoidal, we expect the electric field
between the conductors to also be sinusoidal with a period equal to that of the applied
source.  The relative magnitude of the electric field intensity is indicated by the density
(bunching) of the lines of force with the arrows showing the relative direction (positive or
negative).  The creation of time varying electric and magnetic fields between the conductors
forms electromagnetic waves which travel along the transmission line, as shown in Figure
(a).  The electromagnetic waves enter the antenna and have associated with them electric
charges and corresponding currents.  If we remove part of b the antenna structure, as shown
in Figure (b), free-space waves can be formed by ―connecting‖ the open ends of the electric
lines (shown dashed).  The free-space waves are also periodic but a constant phase point P0
moves outwardly with the speed of light and travels a distance of λ/2 (to P1) in the time of
one-half of a period.  It has been shown that close to the antenna the constant phase point P0
moves faster than the speed of light but approaches the speed of light at points far away from
the antenna (analogous to phase velocity inside a rectangular waveguide).

Propagation of EM Energy:

Electromagnetic waves are waves, which

can travel through the vacuum of outer
space. Mechanical waves, unlike
electromagnetic waves, require the presence
of a material medium in order to transport
their energy from one location to another.
Sound waves are examples of mechanical
waves while light waves are examples of
electromagnetic waves.

Electromagnetic waves are created by the

vibration of an electric charge. This
vibration creates a wave, which has both an electric and a magnetic component. An
electromagnetic wave transports its energy through a vacuum at a speed of 3.00 x 108 m/s (a
speed value commonly represented by the symbol c). The propagation of an electromagnetic
wave through a material medium occurs at a net speed, which is less than 3.00 x 108 m/s.

The mechanism of energy transport through a medium involves the absorption and
reemission of the wave energy by the atoms of the material. When an electromagnetic wave
impinges upon the atoms of a material, the energy of that wave is absorbed. The absorption of
energy causes the electrons within the atoms to undergo vibrations. After a short period of
vibrational motion, the vibrating electrons create a new electromagnetic wave with the same
frequency as the first electromagnetic wave. While these vibrations occur for only a very
short time, they delay the motion of the wave through the medium. Once the energy of the
electromagnetic wave is reemitted by an atom, it travels through a small region of space
between atoms. Once it reaches the next atom, the electromagnetic wave is absorbed,
transformed into electron vibrations and then reemitted as an electromagnetic wave. While
the electromagnetic wave will travel at a speed of c (3 x 108 m/s) through the vacuum of
interatomic space, the absorption and reemission process cause the net speed of the
electromagnetic wave to be less than c.

The actual speed of an electromagnetic wave through a material medium is dependent upon
the optical density of that medium. Different materials cause a different amount of delay due
to the absorption and reemission process. Furthermore, different materials have their atoms
more closely packed and thus the amount of distance between atoms is less. These two
factors are dependent upon the nature of the material through which the electromagnetic
wave is traveling. As a result, the speed of an electromagnetic wave is dependent upon the
material through which it is traveling.

Summary:

      Maxwell’s Equations:

      Helmholtz’s Equation: In vector form

      Relationship between E and H: Both vectors are mutually perpendicular.

 

      

      Polarization may be regarded as the locus of the tip of the electric field (in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation) at a given point as a function of time.

      Reflection by perfect conductor-normal incidence

,   are incident waves

,   are reflected waves

The total fields are the sum of incident and reflected fields

      Reflection by perfect dielectric- normal incidence

R: Reflection Coefficient, 

T:  Transmission Coefficient,  

Where 1 + R = T

      Snell’s Law:
Where 

Are the refractive indices of the media.

      Circuit Theory involves voltages and currents, which are scalar quantities. Ohm’s Law
and Kirchhoff’s laws are applied here.  It is applicable at low frequencies and it cannot
explain radiations.

      Field Theory involves E and H vectors. Maxwell’s equations, Helmholtz equation are a
part of this theory. It is applicable at High frequencies and can be applied in free space.

      Antenna is defined as a means for radiating or receiving radio waves. The radiation from
the antenna takes place when the Electromagnetic field generated by the source is transmitted
to the antenna system through the Transmission line and separated from the Antenna into free
space. Radiations can take place from a single wire or a two-wire antenna.

      Electromagnetic waves are created by the vibration of an electric charge. Unlike

mechanical waves, EM waves do not require the presence of a material medium in order to
transport their energy from one location to another.

      The mechanism of energy transport in EM waves through a medium involves the

absorption and reemission of the wave energy by the atoms of the material. Also, the speed of
EM wave is dependent on the the material through which it is traveling.

References:

1. Kraus and Flemish, “Electromagnetics with Applications”, McGraw Hill International

Editions, 5th Edition.

2. Jordan and Balmain, “Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating Systems”, PHI, 1964.

3. Faraday, Maxwell, and the Electromagnetic Field: by Basil Mahon and Nancy Forbes.

4. Electromagnetism: Theory and Applications Book by Ashutosh Pramanik

5. Field and wave electromagnetics Textbook by David K. Cheng