Module 2

Ecosystems

Introduction

This unit of the course, Ecosystems will give you a broader picture of the
concept of ecosystem. Topic 1 will introduce you to the goods and services that
benefits humans arising from the ecological functions of ecosystem. Topic 2 will
cover the major attributes of an ecosystem. Topic 3 will focus on the structure and
functions of ecosystem. Here you will explore the components of ecosystem
particularly the forest ecosystem.

Learning Objectives

At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to:

1. Appreciate the goods and services that benefits humans arising from the
ecological functions of ecosystem
2. Enumerate the different types of ecosystem
3. Identify the different components of the ecosystem
4. Understand and appreciate the structure and function of the ecosystem

Topic 1 - Ecosystem Goods and Services

Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people

depend (Christensen et al. 1996). Ecosystem services are the many and varied
benefits to humans gifted by the natural environment and from healthy ecosystems.
Such ecosystems include, for example, forest ecosystems, agroecosystems,
grassland ecosystems and aquatic ecosystems. Ecosystem goods include the
"tangible, material products" of ecosystem processes such as food, construction
material, medicinal plants (Brown et al 2007), natural pollination of crops, clean air,
extreme weather mitigation, human mental and physical well-being. They also
include less tangible items like tourism and recreation, and genes from wild plants
and animals that can be used to improve domestic species (Christensen et al. 1996).

Module 2 (Ecosystems) in Forest Ecology (FBS 212) compiled by Ma. Visitacion D. Guingab.
2020 ISU/CFEM Page 1
These services are often integral to the provisioning of clean drinking water,
the decomposition of wastes, and resilience and productivity of food ecosystems.

Ecosystem services are grouped into four broad categories: provisioning,

such as the production of food and water; regulating, such as the control of climate
and disease; supporting, such as nutrient cycles and oxygen production;
and cultural, such as spiritual and recreational benefits.

1. Provisioning services

Provisioning services consist of all the products obtained from ecosystems.

For example, marine ecosystems provide people with: wild & cultured seafood,
fresh water, fiber & fuel and biochemical & genetic resources
The following are examples of provisioning services provided by ecosystems:

 raw materials (including lumber, fiber, skins, fuel wood, organic matter,
fodder, and fertilizer)
 food (including seafood and game, crops, wild foods, and spices)
 genetic resources (including crop improvement genes, and health care)
 water (fresh water)
 biogenic minerals (substance that has undergone transformation through
the action of geological processes like limestone derived from marine
organisms)
 medicinal resources (including pharmaceuticals, chemical models, and test
and assay organisms)
 energy (hydropower, biomass fuels)
 ornamental resources (including fashion, handicraft, jewelry, pets, worship,
decoration and souvenirs like furs, feathers, ivory, orchids, butterflies,
aquarium fish, shells, etc.)

2. Regulating services

Regulating services are the benefits obtained from the regulation of

ecosystem processes.  In the case of coastal and estuarine ecosystems,
these services include climate regulation, waste treatment and disease control
and natural hazard regulation.

Module 2 (Ecosystems) in Forest Ecology (FBS 212) compiled by Ma. Visitacion D. Guingab.
2020 ISU/CFEM Page 2
  Climate regulation. Plants use CO2 for photosynthesis and help in
reducing the atmospheric CO2; the oceans and seas absorb the heat from
the atmosphere and redistribute it through the means of water currents,
and atmospheric processes, such as evaporation and the reflection of light
allow for the cooling and warming of the overlying atmosphere)

 Waste treatment and disease regulation. For example an important

service offered by marine ecosystem is the treatment of wastes, thus
helping in the regulation of diseases. Wastes can be diluted and detoxified
through transport across marine ecosystems; pollutants are removed from
the environment and stored, buried or recycled in marine ecosystems:
"Marine ecosystems break down organic waste through microbial
communities that filter water, reduce/limit the effects of eutrophication, and
break down toxic hydrocarbons into their basic components such as
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, phosphorus, and water". The fact that waste is
diluted with large volumes of water and moves with water currents leads to
the regulation of diseases and the reduction of toxics in seafood.

 Buffer zones. Coastal and estuarine ecosystems act as buffer zones

against natural hazards and environmental disturbances, such as floods,
cyclones, tidal surges and storms. The role they play is to "[absorb] a
portion of the impact and thus [lessen] its effect on the land".  Mangrove
forests protect coastal shorelines from tidal erosion or erosion by currents;
a process that was studied after the 1999 cyclone that hit India. Villages
that were surrounded with mangrove forests encountered less damage
than other villages that weren't protected by mangroves.

 Other examples of regulating services provided by ecosystems:

Carbon sequestration and climate regulation

Predation regulates prey populations

Waste decomposition and detoxification

Purification of water and air

Pest and disease control

Module 2 (Ecosystems) in Forest Ecology (FBS 212) compiled by Ma. Visitacion D. Guingab.
2020 ISU/CFEM Page 3
 Flood protection

3. Supporting services
Supporting services are the services that allow for the other ecosystem
services to be present. They have indirect impacts on humans that last over a
long period of time. Several services can be considered as being both
supporting services and regulating/cultural/provisioning services.

 These include services such as nutrient cycling, primary production, soil

formation, habitat provision and pollination. These services make it
possible for the ecosystems to continue providing services such as food
supply, flood regulation, and water purification.

4. Cultural services
Cultural services relate to the non-material world, as they benefit recreational,
aesthetic, cognitive and spiritual activities, which are not easily quantifiable in
monetary terms.
 Cultural (including use of nature as motif in books, film, painting, folklore,
national symbols, advertising, etc.)
 Spiritual and historical (including use of nature for religious or heritage
value or natural)
 Recreational experiences (including ecotourism, outdoor sports, and
recreation)
 Science and education (including use of natural systems for school
excursions, and scientific discovery)
 Therapeutic (including Ecotherapy, social forestry and animal assisted
therapy)

Topic 2 – Types of Ecosystem

An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean,

spanning thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:

 Terrestrial Ecosystem

 Aquatic Ecosystem

Module 2 (Ecosystems) in Forest Ecology (FBS 212) compiled by Ma. Visitacion D. Guingab.
2020 ISU/CFEM Page 4
Terrestrial Ecosystems

Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different

types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are
as follows:

1. Forest Ecosystems. A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and

microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the
environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are the
major carbon sink.
2. Grassland Ecosystems. In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated
by grasses and herbs. Temperate grasslands, savanna grasslands are some of
the examples of grassland ecosystems.
3. Tundra Ecosystems. Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in
cold climates or where rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow for most of
the year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops is tundra type.
4. Desert Ecosystem. Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions
with very little rainfall. The days are hot and the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystems

Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be

further divided into two types, namely:

1. Freshwater Ecosystem. The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that

includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content
in contrast with the marine ecosystem.

2. Marine Ecosystem. The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These
have a more substantial salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the
freshwater ecosystem.

Module 2 (Ecosystems) in Forest Ecology (FBS 212) compiled by Ma. Visitacion D. Guingab.
2020 ISU/CFEM Page 5
 Topic 3 - Characteristics of an Ecosystem

Introduction

The ecosystem is an interaction of the living organisms (biotic) and the non-living
(abiotic) environment. It is the portion of the biosphere in which physical factors such
as rocks and soil function together along with interdependent organisms, such as
plants and animals, under the same habitat to form a stable system.

In this unit, we will look at the distinguishing characteristics of the ecosystem.

1. A web of interactions and interdependencies among the parts

Animals and microbes require the energy supplied by plants, and plants cannot
persist without animals and microbes to cycle nutrients and regulate ecosystem
processes. The interdependencies within ecosystems relate to function: there
must be species that photosynthesize, species whose feeding results in nutrients
being cycled, predators that keep populations of plant-eaters from growing too
large, and so forth. Some system functions can be performed by more than one
species (a property called redundancy); in other cases a single species plays a
unique functional role (such species are called keystones).
2. Synergy is cooperation among components to produce a combined effect
greater than the sum of their separate effects; it is the "behavior of who1e
systems unpredicted by the behavior or integral characteristics of any of the parts
of the system when the parts are considered only separately" (Fuller 1981).
Synergy characterizes any system whose components are tied together through
interaction and interdependence (the human home is an example of a synergistic
system; in fact the word ecology is derived from the Greek word for "home").
3. Stability is the property of short-term homeostasis or the consistency of
productivity in the face of small, disturbing forces arising from the normal
fluctuations and cycles in the surrounding environment; it does not mean “no
change” but changes are protected and maintained within certain bounds
4. Diffuse boundaries – Unlike an organism, an ecosystem does not have a skin
that clearly separates it from the external world. Ecosystems are defined by
connectance, and connections extend through space and time, integrating every

Module 2 (Ecosystems) in Forest Ecology (FBS 212) compiled by Ma. Visitacion D. Guingab.
2020 ISU/CFEM Page 6
 local ecosystem (one that is localized in time and space) within a network of
larger and larger ecosystems that composes landscapes, regions, and eventually
the entire earth. Any given forest both influences and is influenced by cities,
oceans, deserts, the atmosphere, and forests elsewhere on the globe. Moreover,
every local ecosystem produces patterns that propagate through time,
communicating with and shaping the nature of future ecosystems. The
interconnections among ecosystems that exist at many different spatial and
temporal scales result in what is termed hierarchical structure, which simply
means that each ecosystem that we can define in space comprise numerous
smaller systems and at the same time is part of and in interaction with a hierarchy
of larger systems.
5. Productivity is the desired output of a system or output of valued product per
unit resource input. It is measured in terms of crop yield or net income
6. Sustainability is the ability of the system to persist in the face of repeated stress
or major perturbation or it is the ability of the agrosystem to maintain productivity
when subjected to major disturbing forces.
7. Equitability is the evenness of distribution of the productivity of the ecosystem
(e.g agroecosystem: among the human beneficiaries, that is the level of equity
that is generated)

Topic 4- Structure and Functions of Ecosystem

Introduction

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with

the nonliving components of their environment, interacting as a system.
These biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and
energy flows (Odum 1971). Energy enters the system through photosynthesis and is
incorporated into plant tissue. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play
an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system. They
also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down
dead organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and

Module 2 (Ecosystems) in Forest Ecology (FBS 212) compiled by Ma. Visitacion D. Guingab.
2020 ISU/CFEM Page 7
facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a
form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes.

Ecosystems are controlled by external and internal factors. External factors

such as climate, parent material which forms the soil and topography, control the
overall structure of an ecosystem but are not themselves influenced by the
ecosystem (Chapin et al 2002) Unlike external factors, internal factors are controlled,
for example, decomposition, root competition, shading, disturbance, succession, and
the types of species present.

Ecosystems are dynamic entities—they are subject to periodic disturbances

and are in the process of recovering from some past disturbance (Chapin et al
2002). Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the
world can end up doing things very differently simply because they have different
pools of species present (Chapin et al 2002).

The Structure of Ecosystem

The structure of ecosystem is characterized by the organization of both biotic

and abiotic components. It is basically a description of the organisms and physical
features of environment including the amount and distribution of nutrients or energy
in a particular habitat. It also includes the climatic conditions prevailing in that
particular environment. The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main
components, namely: biotic and abiotic components. These two are interrelated in an
ecosystem. It is an open system where the energy and components can flow
throughout the boundaries (Figure --)

Module 2 (Ecosystems) in Forest Ecology (FBS 212) compiled by Ma. Visitacion D. Guingab.
2020 ISU/CFEM Page 8
The Functions of Ecosystem

The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems
and renders stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and
abiotic components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the
ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components
that involves the exchange of energy.

Topic 5 - Components of an Ecosystem

Introduction
Every ecosystem has two types of components. In this unit you will learn to
categorized the different things found in the ecosystem specifically in a forest
ecosystem

A. Biotic component – the living part of the ecosystem which include plants,
animals and microorganisms
a. Autotrophs (plants: trees, shrubs, herbs, and vines/lianas) - these are
organisms that produce their own food through photosynthesis. They fix light
energy and use simple inorganic substances to build up complex substances.
They are the main starting point of nutrition in an ecosystem.
b. Heterotrophs (animals and microorganisms) – these are organisms that
cannot make their own food but they utilize, rearrange and decompose the
complex materials from plants, particularly the animals, bacteria and fungi

Energy Relationships:
The biotic components exist at four levels. These levels are called trophic
levels The three basic ways in which organisms get food are as producers,
consumers and decomposers.

Trophic Level 1

Module 2 (Ecosystems) in Forest Ecology (FBS 212) compiled by Ma. Visitacion D. Guingab.
2020 ISU/CFEM Page 9
 Producers (autotrophs) are typically plants or algae. Plants and algae do not
usually eat other organisms, but pull nutrients from the soil or the ocean and
manufacture their own food using photosynthesis. For this reason, they are called
primary producers. In this way, it is energy from the sun that usually powers the
base of the food chain. An exception occurs in deep-sea hydrothermal
ecosystems, where there is no sunlight. Here primary producers manufacture
food through a process called chemosynthesis.

Trophic Level 2

Consumers (herbivores) are species which cannot manufacture their own food
and need to consume other organisms. Animals that eat primary producers (like
plants) are called herbivores (e.g deer, pig, horse, etc)

Trophic Level 3

Consumers (carnivores) These are animals that eat other animals (flesh-eating)
are called carnivores (e.g lion, tiger, wolves) and animals that eat both plant and
other animals are called omnivores.

Trophic Level 4
Decomposers (bacteria, fungi protists), detritivores (earthworms, millipedes,
slugs), scavengers (crow, vulture, kite). These are dead animal-eaters; they
break down dead plant and animal material and wastes and release it again as
energy and nutrients into the ecosystem for recycling. Decomposers, such as
bacteria and fungi (mushrooms), feed on waste and dead matter, converting it
into inorganic chemicals that can be recycled as mineral nutrients for plants to
use again.

B. Abiotic component – the non-living part of the ecosystem (environment: rocks,

soil, air, water)
a. Atmosphere − the protective blanket of gases, surrounding the earth. It
sustains life on the earth. It saves the Earth from the hostile environment of
the outer space. It is the site of weather and different gases which are needed
by living organisms The atmosphere composed of nitrogen and oxygen in

Module 2 (Ecosystems) in Forest Ecology (FBS 212) compiled by Ma. Visitacion D. Guingab.
2020 ISU/CFEM Page 10
 large quantity along with small percentage of other gases such as argon,
carbon dioxide, and trace gases
b. Lithosphere − the solid outer potion of the earth consisting of the soil, rocks
and sediments.
 The role of soil in the ecosystem is that they are the source of all nutrients
and water for living organisms in terrestrial ecosystem.
 The rocks facilitate the storage and movement of groundwater; they are
the source of mineral constituents of sediments and soils; and they as
serve medium of storage and transportation of ground water
 Sediments serve as the habitat for aquatic organisms and the source of
nutrients for aquatic organisms
c. Hydrosphere − one of the most unusual natural compounds found on earth
and one of the most important. Covers 71% of the earth’s surface and a
medium of transport of several ecosystems; comprises all water resources
such as ocean, seas, lakes, rivers, reservoirs, icecaps, glaciers, and ground
water.
Important Process which involves water:
 Dissolving of minerals and nutrients for use in natural processes in the
body
 Hydrolysis
 Support of aquatic organisms
 Fertilization of gametes
 Dispersal and germination of seeds, gametes and larval stages of
aquatic organisms
 Photosynthesis
 Osmosis and turgidity
 Transpiration
 Translocation of microorganisms and organic compounds
 As habitat for aquatic organisms
d. Stratosphere - it is where the ozone layer is found, absorbs ultraviolet
radiation (UV) from the sun, thus preventing excessive amounts of UV rays to
reach the surface of the earth.

Module 2 (Ecosystems) in Forest Ecology (FBS 212) compiled by Ma. Visitacion D. Guingab.
2020 ISU/CFEM Page 11
Student Activities: Ecosystem Study
Student Activity #1
Read an article in the web about the Ecosystem. After reading, your task is to visit an
ecosystem near you (a pond, a creek, agricultural land or a grassland area). List all
the things you see both living and non-living things. Create a flow diagram about the
interaction of all the component of the ecosystem you observed. Your diagram
should meet the following requirements below. Make a poster and email it to your
instructor.
1. Features all biotic and abiotic components
2. Minimum of two photographs for each kingdom component.
3. Has descriptions for each component, describing key characteristics

Student Activity #2
Again, take a walk around your community and identify one ecosystem for your study
on ecosystem services. You may study the same ecosystem in Activity 1. This
activity will help you to appreciate the goods and services that benefit the society
arising from the ecological functions of ecosystem.

Make a listing of the following:

1. Type of ecosystem under study (e.g. forest, grassland, agricultural, creek, river,
pond)
Name of ecosystem:
Location (place):
Size of ecosystem (area in square cm; hectare):
2. Enumerate the benefits derived from the ecosystem under study
 Provisioning services
 Regulating services
 Supporting services
 Cultural services
3. How will the information gained from this study benefit you and your community?
Discuss.
4. Post your findings in the group chat online and let one student react on your
findings

Module 2 (Ecosystems) in Forest Ecology (FBS 212) compiled by Ma. Visitacion D. Guingab.
2020 ISU/CFEM Page 12
Assessment:

Student grades on Module 2, will essentially be credited for:

1. Creating a flow diagram about the structure of the ecosystem.

2. Enumerating the services of the ecosystem under study
3. Discussing the importance of services offered by the ecosystem in the locality
4. Responding to another student's posting on the discussion.

Module 2 (Ecosystems) in Forest Ecology (FBS 212) compiled by Ma. Visitacion D. Guingab.
2020 ISU/CFEM Page 13